Measurement of acceleration

1- Spring and mass accelerometer

a, x1

The equation of movement is given by (Newton's second law)

dx1 d2x dx
ma kx1 m 2 kx
dt dt dt
The input signal is
x1=xo cos 1t

Rearrange and substitute

d 2 x dx k k
x xo cos 1t 1 sin 1t
dt 2 m dt m m m
Solve with for relative displacement (x-x1)
mxo12 cos 1t
x x1 e 2 m t A cos t B sin t

k m12 2 212
12

Frequency and phase angle are given by:

1 2
k 2

m 2 m
1
tan 1
k m12

Where
k: stiffness of spring
: damping coefficient
a: acceleration

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 x1: input displacement
x: displacement of the mass m
t: time
m: mass

The damping coefficient of the moving element is due to the mechanical

losses in the spring and viscosity of the ambient medium. In a stable rate, the
relation between the output x and the input a is:
x m

a k

The resonance frequency of the system is given by:

1

1 m 2
fr
2 k

The critical damping coefficient is:

2 km

The condition to obtain optimum frequency resonance and avoid

deterioration of the accelerometer when resonance occurs is given by:
2 km

Resonance frequency
Sensitivity (x/a)

<2(km)1/2

m/k =2(km)1/2

>2(km)1/2

2- Piezoelectric accelerometer
Frequency
It consist housing, mass seismic mass and a piezoelectric sensing element.
An initial force between the mass and the sensor is obtained with a

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preloading spring. As the housing of the accelerometer is altered, this
generates a charge on the crystal which can be sensed with a charge
amplifier.
o It ranges 1000g (g=9.8 m/s2)
o Quartz crystal accelerometers can have very high values of natural
frequency, 125 kHz
o The modulus of elasticity of quartz is 85 GPa, where for concrete is
35 GPa and for steel 200 GPa
o The piezoelectric crystal cannot measure completely static force since
the generated charge will decay with time. This decay is often
accelerated by the signal conditioner.
o It behaves as the spring-mass system or second order system.

Piezoelectric accelerometers are available with very high

natural frequencies and are therefore suitable for high-
frequency applications and shock measurements.

Piezoelectric accelerometer

3- Strain gage accelerometer

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As the base is accelerated, the force accelerating the mass is transmitted
through the cantilever beam. The bending of this beam is sensed with strain
gage(s) which are normally of the semiconductor type, to maximize
sensitivity. A damping fluid may fill the housing to damp oscillations.
o They are available in the ranges up to 1000g
o They are less expensive than piezoelectric accelerometers

In choosing between the different types of accelerometer for

a particular application, the mass of the instrument is
particularly important. This should be very much less than
that of the body whose motion is being measured, in order to
avoid loading effects that affect the accuracy of the readings
obtained. In this respect, instruments based on strain gauges
are best.

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VIBRATION MEASUREMENT
Vibration is oscillation motion of a particle or body about a fixed reference
point.

The importance of vibration measurements:

Seismology: Vibrations caused by earthquakes and other natural

phenomena can have a profound effect on the world.

Machinery: Vibrations caused by badly balanced rotating equipment

or friction is a waste of energy and potentially destructive.

Sound: Large sound pressures can be damaging and sound is often

produced by machinery vibration so can represent a simpler means of
measuring vibration of an object.

Vibration can be indicative of

Excessive wear of bearings or shafts of rotating equipment.

Imbalance of rotating equipment.
Excessive friction.
Machine not working at rated speeds/overworking.
Earthquake..

Principles of the seismic instrument

A typical seismic instrument consists of a mass connected through

parallel spring and damper arrangement to housing frame.

The frame is attached to the vibration source to be measured

Vibrational motion is measured as the relative displacement between

the mass and the housing frame.

This displacement is measured by an appropriate transducer, some

examples include linear variable differential transformers (LVDT),
strain gauges and Piezoelectric crystal

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 A seismic instrument can be used for
measuring either displacement or
acceleration.

In general, large mass and soft

spring are desired when measuring
displacement.

When measuring acceleration,

small mass and stiff spring are most
desirable.

History of seismic measurement

A device that measures seismic activity is

known as a seismometer.

One of the earliest known examples of a

seismometer is Zhang Heng's Seismoscope

It consisted of a large bronze vessel, with 8

dragon's heads holding bronze balls. An
earthquake causes one of the mouths to open
and drop its ball into a bronze toad at the
base showing the direction of the earthquake

Vibration parameters

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Displacement x=A sin t
Velocity v=dx/dt = A cos t
Acceleration a= dv/dt=-A2 sin t

Displacement amplitude = A
Velocity amplitude = A
Acceleration amplitude = A2

Stroboscope

Seismic mass measuring device

Piezoelectric accelerometer
Commercial Piezoelectric Transducers
Usually called accelerometers
IC packages
Multi-axis reading
Bolt on transducers

Transducers
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Choice depends on frequency; for seismic

1- Low frequency
Measure Displacement

1.1 Voltage divider: Potentiometer (Natural frequency:

<100 Hz, heavy ~500 grams, some motion resistance in
potentiometer)

1.2 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (Natural

frequencies: 270 300 Hz, Lower motion resistance than
potentiometer, may be lighter construction, and needs AC
supply)

1.3 Strain Gauge (Comparable natural frequencies,

cantilever must be large enough to mount strain gauge )

2- High frequency
Usually measures acceleration
Piezoelectric transducer (High natural frequency: <100
kHz, very light: ~ 50 g)