We learnt-that electricity and magnetism are not independent phenomena. Infact, electric charges in
motion form the basis of magnetism.
In this chapter, we trace the origin of the science of magnetism, and its subsequent growth. A Greek
Philosopher, Thales of Miletus had observed as long back as 600 B.C, that a naturally occuring ore of iron
attracted small pieces of iron towards it. This ore was found in the district of Magnesia in Asia Minor in
Greece. Hence the ore was named magnetite. The phenomenon of attraction of small bits of iron, steel,
cobalt, nickel etc. towards the ore was called magnetism. The iron ore showing this effect was called a
natural magnet. The structural formula of this natural ore was Fe3O4.
The Chinese discovered that a piece of magnetite, when suspended freely, always points out roughly
in the north south direction. Thus a natural magnet has attractive and directive properties. A magnetic
compass based on directive property of magnets was used by navigators to find their way in steering the ships.
That is why magnetite was also called 'lode stone' in the sense of leading stone.
The natural magnets have often irregular shape and they are weak. It is found that a piece of iron or
steel can acquire magnetic properties, on rubbing with a magnet. Such magnets made out of iron and steel
are called artificial magnets. Artificial magnets can have desired shape and desired strength. A bar
magnet, a horse shoe magnet, magnetic needle, compass needle etc. all are artificial magnets.
Today, Magnets and magnetic materials are used in VCRs, audio cassettes, audio head sets, ATM and
credit cards. They are also used in the inks for paper money. Breakfast cereals that are iron fortified also contain
small bits of magnetic materials. Further, the modern electronics industry (including music and information
sectors) would not even exist without the use of magnetic materials.
FIGURE3 ( c ) 2
It should be clearly understood that poles exist always in pairs ; two poles of a magnet are always of
equal strength. Further, poles N and S are situated a little inwards from the geometrical ends A and B
of the magnet. The magnetic length (NS) of magnet is roughly 6/7 of its geometric length (AB).
We represent NS by 2 l(and not l).
The straight line passing through north and south poles of a magnet is called axial line of the
magnet. A line passing through centre of the magnet in a direction perpendicular to the length
of the magnet is called equatorial line of the magnet.
The straight line joining north and south poles of a freely suspended magnet represents magnetic
N S direction. A vertical plane passing through N S line of a freely suspended magnet is called
magnetic meridian.
3. Like poles repel each other and unlike poles attract each other
To show this, we suspend a bar magnet with the help of a thread. When we bring N pole of
another magnet near the N pole of suspended magnet we observe repulsion, Fig.3( c ) 3
Similarly, south pole of one magnet repels south pole of the other, Fig.3 ( c ).4 However, when S pole of
one is brought near N pole of suspended magnet, there is attraction, Fig. 3 ( c ) 5.
4. The force of attraction or repulsion F between two magnetic poles of strengths m1 and m2
separated by a distance r is directly proportional to the product of pole strengths and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between their centre i.e.
m1m2 mm
2
K 12 2
F r or F = r
0
K
In S.I. units, 4
= 10-7 Wb A-1m-1
0 m1m2
F
4 r 2 ( 1)
This is called Coulomb's law of magnetic force. However, in c.g.s. system, the value of K=1.
S.I. Unit of magnetic pole strength
Suppose mi = m2 = in m (say)
r = 1 m and F = 10-7 N
(m)(m)
From eqn. (1), 10-7 = 10-7
12
or m2 = 1 or m = 1 ampere-metre (Am)
Therefore, strength of a magnetic pole is said to be one ampere-metre, if it repels an equal and
similar pole with a force of 10-7 N, when placed in vaccum (or air) at a distance of one metre from it.
5. The magnetic poles always exist in pairs-i.e. magnetic monopoles do not exist. In an attempt to
separate the magnetic poles, if we break a magnet, we find new poles formed at the broken ends. If the
two pieces are broken again, we find the broken ends contain new poles again, Fig. 3(c).6. Thus
each piece, howsoever small, is a complete magnet in itself. Even if a magnet is broken into
molecules, each molecule shall be a complete magnet. Note that pole strength (m) of each
piece broken lengthwise, remains unchanged, although dipole moment M=m x 21 goes on
decreasing, with decreasing length.
FIGURE 3(c) 6
6. Inductive Property. When a piece of a magnetic material like soft iron, cobalt, nickel etc. is
placed near a bar magnet, it acquires magnetism. The magnetim so acquired is called induced
magnetism and this property of magnet is called inductive property:
7. Repulsion is the sure test of magnetism. Suppose we have two identical pieces, one is iron
and other is a magnet. To distinguish which is which, we take another bar magnet. This bar magnet
would attract the iron piece and also one end of this bar magnet would attract the opposite pole of the
given magnet. However, one end of this bar magnet would repel only like pole of the given magnet.
Hence when repulsion occurs between the testing bar magnet and one of the two given pieces,
that piece must be a magnet. That is why we say that repulsion is sure test of magnetism.
The molecular theory of magnetism was given by Weber and modified later by Ewing.
According to this theory :
(i) Every molecule of a magnetic substance (whether magnetised or not) is a complete magnet in
itself, having a north pole and a south pole of equal strength.
(ii) In an unmagnetised substance, the molecular magnets are randomly oriented such that
they form closed chains as shown in Fig. 3(c).7. The north pole of one molecular magnet cancels
the effect of south pole of the other so that the resultant magnetism of the unmagnetised specimen is
zero.
(Un magnetised)
FIGURE 3(c) .7
(iii) On magnetising the substance, the molecular magnets are realigned so that north poles of all
molecular magnets point in one direction and south poles of all molecular magnets point in the opposite
direction, Fig. 3(c).8.
FIGURE3(c) 8
The extent of magnetisation of the specimen is the extent of realignment of the. molecular magnets.
(iv)When all the molecular magnets are fully aligned, the substance is said to be saturated with magnetism.
(v) At all the stages, the strengths of the two poles developed will always be equal.
(vi)On heating the magnetised specimen, molecular magnets acquire some kinetic energy. Some of the
molecules may get back to the closed chain arrangement. That is why magnetism of the specimen would reduce
on heating.
3(c) 4.Uniform and Non Uniform Magnetic Field
Magnetic field is defined as the space around a magnet or the space around a conductor carrying
current, in which the magnetic effect (i.e. force of attraction and repulsion on a magnet) can be
experienced .
The magnetic field strength at a point is the force experienced by an isolated hypothetical unit north
pole placed at that point. It is a vector quantity whose direction is the direction in which unit north pole
would move, if free to do so.
Magnetic field in a region is said to be uniform,if the magnetic field vector B has the same
magnitude and the same direction at all the points in the region. The only example of nearly uniform
magnetic field over a wide area is that due to earth's gnetism i.e. magnetic field due to earth can be taken
as fairly uniform over the surface of earth.
A uniform magnetic field acting in the plane the paper is represented by equidistant parallel lines, Fig.
3(c).9.
FIGURE 3(c) 9
The number of magnetic lines of force per unit area normal to the area at a point, represents the magnitude
of the magnetic field at that point.Obviously, crowded lines will represent a strong field and distant
lines will represent a weak field.
FIGURE3(c) 10
A uniform magnetic field acting perpendicular to the plane of the paper and outwards is represented
by dots spaced equally, as shown in Fig. 3(c).11(a).
A uniform magnetic field acting perpendicular to the plane of the paper and inwards is represented by
crosses spaced equally, as shown in Fig. 3(c ).11(b).
P gives us the direction of magnetic field strength B at that point, Fig, 3(.c)..12.
FIGURE 3(c) 12
Remember that electric lines of force are discontinuous.Whereas magnetic lines of force are
closed continuous curves.
For mapping the magnetic field of a bar magnet, place the bar magnet on a sheet of paper.Take a
small compass needle. Place it close to one of the poles, say North. Mark by pencil dots, the positions n, s
of the ends of the compass needle. Shift the compass needle so that its s pole touches the point marked n.
Mark the new position of n pole of the compass needle. Repeat this process to obtain a series of dots as
shown in Fig. 3(c).13. Join these points by a smooth curve. This is one magnetic line of force Similarly, other
magnetic lines of force can be drawn. Fig. 3(c).14 shows the pattern of fleld lines around a bar magnet.
FIGURE 3(c) 13
FIGURE 3(c) 14
It should be clearly understood that the field lines exist in all the space around the magnet. However, in
Fig. 3(c).14, these lines are confined only in the plane of the paper.
Fig. 3(c). 15(a) shows the pattern of magnetic lines of force due to a straight solenoid carrying
current. Fig. 3(c). 15(b) shows the pattern of magnetic lines of force due to a bar magnet. Comparison
of the two field patterns shows that current carrying solenoid from outside resembles a bar magnet. Inside
the solenoid, there is a strong magnetic field which can magnetise a specimen. Solenoid is hollow from
inside whereas the bar magnet is solid. The bar magnet is thus an equivalent solenoid. If we were to
move a small compass needle in the neighbourhood of a bar magnet and a current carrying solenoid, we
find deflections of the needle are similar in both cases.
Fig 3(c). 15 (c) depicts the electric lines of force due to an electric dipole, for further comparison.
We find that electric lines of force start from the positive charge and end at the negative charge. They are not
closed continuous curves like magnetic lines of force.
FIGURE 3(c)15
The magnetic lines of force due to a U-shaped magnet are shown in Fig. 3(c).16.
FIGURE 3(c) 16
Magnetic Dipole
A magnetic dipole consists of two unlike poles of equal strength and separated by a small distance.
For example, a bar magnet, a compass needle etc; are magnetic dipoles. We shall show that a current
loop behaves. as a magnetic dipole. An atom of. a magnetic material behaves as a. dipole due to electrons
revolving around the nucleus.
The two poles of a magnetic dipole (or a magnet); called north pole and south pole are always of equal
strength, and of opposite nature. Further such two magnetic poles always exist in pair and 'cannot be
separated from each other.
. The distance between the two poles of a bar magnet is called the magnetic length of the magnet. It
Magnetic dipole moment is the product of strength of either pole (m) and the magnetic length 2l of the
magnet. It is represented by M .
Magnetic dipole moment
= strength of either pole x magnetic length
M m(2l )
FIGURE 3(c) 17
Magnetic dipole moment is a vector quantity whose direction is same as that of magnetic length i.e. M is directed
from the South to North pole of the Magnet, as shown in Fig.3(c).17.
FIGURE3(c) 18
0 m m
= 0
4 (d l ) 4 (d l )2
2
0 m 1 1
4 (d l ) (d l ) 2
2
0 m ( d l ) 2 ( d l ) 2
B1
4 (d 2 l 2 ) 2
0 m.4ld (m 2l )2d
0
4 (d l )
2 2 2
4 (d 2 l 2 ) 2
0 2Md
B1 .(3)
4 (d 2 l 2 )2
When the magnet is short, l2 < <d2.
2Md 0 2M
B1 0 ..(4)
4 d 4 4 d 3
The direction of B1 is along SN produced.
(b) When point lies on equatorial line of bar magnet
In Fig. 3 (c).19, the point is shown on equatorial line of the same bar magnet where OP = d. Magnetic
field strength at P due to N pole of magnet
0 M 1 0 m
B ,
4 NP 2
4 (d l 2 )
2
along NP Produced.
FIGURE 3(c) 19
As B = B' in magnitude, their components B sin U along OP produced and B' sin along PO
cancel. However, components along PX parallel to NS add. Therefore.
Magnetic field strength at P due to the bar magnet
B2 =B cos +B' cos = 2B' cos ,
along PX
0 m l
= 2
4 (d l )
2 2
d l2
2
0 m 2l
=
4 (d 2 l 2 )3/2
0 M
B2 .(5)
4 (d l 2 )3/2
2
Hence magnetic field due to a short bar magnet at any point on axial line of magnet is twice the
magnetic field at a point on the equatorial line of the magnet, at the same distance.
The analogy between electric and magnetic dipoles is summarised in the table below:
S No Quantity Electrostatics Magnetism
0
1. Constant 1/40
4
dipole moment M
2. p
2p
3. 4 0 d 3
Axial Field 0 2 M
4 d 3
0 M
4. Equatorial p / 4 0 d 3
4 d 3
Field
5. Torque in p E M B
external field
6. Potential
Energy in
p.E M .B
external field
Note. Magnetic field at large distances due to a bar magnet of magnetic moment M can be obtained from the
equations of electric field due to an electric dipole of moment p by changing
1
E B; p M , 0
4 0 4
0 2 M
On axial line, B1 =
4 d 3
M
On equatorial Line B2, 0 3
4 d
Do you Know?
When point lies on axial line of magnetic dipole, it is known as end-on position or tangent A
position.
When Point lies on equatorial line of magnetic dipole, it is known as broadside on position or tangent B
position.
At any point at axial line of dipole, Magnetic field strength B1 is along M .
At any point of equatorial line of a dipole, Magnetic field strength B2 is in a direction opposite to M .
Sample problem:
A magnet 10 cm long has a pole strength of 12 A.m . Find the magnitude of magnetic field strength B at a
point on its axis at a distance of 20 cm from it. What would be the value of B , if the point were to lie at the
same distance on equatorial line of magnet?
Sol: Here 2l = 10 cm = 0.1 ; m = 12 Am
B = ? d = 20 cm = 0.2 m
2Md 0 4mld
As B1 0 2 2
4 (d l ) 4 (d 2 l 2 )
107 4 12 0.5 0.2
[(0.2)2 (0.5)2 ]2
B1 = 3.4 x 10-5T
At the same distance , on equatorial line ,
In Fig.3(c )20.a uniform magnetic field B is represented by equidistant parallel lines. NS is a bar magnet of a
length 2l and strength of each pole = m. The magnet is held at with the direction of B . These forces
being equal, unlike and parallel form a couple , which tends to rotate the magnet clockwise so as to align it
along B .
FIGURE3(c) 20
= MB sin (8)
In vector form, we can rewrite this equation
M B
.
The direction of is perpendicular to the plane containing M and B , and is given by right-handed
screw rule.
When B= 1 and = 90, then from (8)
= M x 1 sin 90 = M or M =
Hence we may define magnetic dipole moment as the torque acting on a dipole held perpendicular to a
uniform magnetic field of unit strength.
Unit of M is unit of divided by unit of B .
Note that when = 90, U = 0 i.e. potential is zero, when the magnetic dipole is perpendicular to the
field. Equation (11) shows that at = 0, potential energy is minimum. ( = +MB), which is the most
stable position. Further, at = 1800, potential energy is maximum ( + MB),
is the most unstable position.
Sample Problem. A magnet having a magnetic moment of 1.0 X 104 J/T is free to rotate in a
horizontal plane where a magnetic field 4 X 10-5 T exists. Find the work done in rotating the
magnet slowly from a direction parallel to the field to a direction 60 from the field.
Sol. Here, M = 1.0 x 104 J/T ,
B = 4 x 10-5 T
W = ? , 1=0, 2 = 60
W= MB (COS 2 COS 1)
= 1.0 x 104 x 4 x 10-5 (cos 60 cos 0)
= - 0.4 (1/2 1) = 0.2J
3(c ) . 12 Current Loop As A Magnetic Dipole
Consider a plane loop of wire carrying current, Fig. 3(c).21. Looking at the upper face, current is
anticlockwise. Therefore, it has a north polarity .Looking at the lower face of the loop, current is
clockwise.
Therefore it has south polarity. The current carrying loop thus behaves as a system of two equal and
opposite magnetic poles and hence is a magnetic dipole.
The magnetic dipole moment of the current loop (M) is directly proportional to (i) strength of
current (I) through the loop and (ii) area (A) enclosed by the loop.
UPPER FACE (N)
FIGURE3(c) .21
i.e .M I
and M A
M = KIA---(13)
If we define unit magnetic dipole moment as that of a small one turn loop of unit area carrying unit
current, then from (13),
1 =Kx 1 x 1 or K = 1
from (13),
M = IA
For N such turns,
M = NIA ...(14)
The S.1. unit of M is ampere metre2. It is the magnetic moment of one turn loop of area one square
metre carrying a current of one ampere.
M = NIA n
where n is unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the loop in a direction given by right handed
screw rule.
The factor NI is called ampere turns of the circular current loop. Thus magnetic dipole moment of
current loop ampere turns x area of the loop.
Note that eqn. (14) is valid for planar current loop of any shape and size.
13. Bohr Magneton or Magnetic dipole moment of an atom due to revolving electron
In every atom electron revolves around the nucleus. A revolving electron is like a loop of current,
which has a definite magnetic dipole moment. When an electron revolves in anticlockwise direction,
the current is clockwise. Therefore upper face of the electron loop acts as a south pole and lower face
acts as a north pole. Hence an atom behaves as a magnetic dipole.
If e is the charge on an electron revolving in an orbit of radius r with a uniform angular velocity ,
Then equivalent current
i= = where,
Put in (2),
1
M=2e . 2= n 4= n(B) (3)
Where (B) = eh / 4m
From (3), it is clear that the magnetic moment of an atom is quantized and the least value of atomic
dipole moment M is B = 4. This is called Bohr Magneton. It serves as the unit of atomic magnetic
dipole moment,
FIGURE3(c) 22
B = 4.
Whereas electric field can be produced by isolated charge, the magnetic field is produced only
by a magnetic dipole. This is because isolated magnetic poles do not exist. Hence magnetic
analogue of Eqn. (16), is
B.ds 0
s
i.e. surface integral of magnetic field over a surface (closed or open) is always zero. i.e. the net
magnetic flux B through any surface S is always zero.
This is called Gauss's law in magnetism. In terms of magnetic field lines, the law means that there are
as many lines entering S, as are leaving it. This is illustrated in Fig. 3(c).23.
FIGURE3(c) 21
0
( m) 0 ( m) 0
4 4
(a) (b)
FIGURE 3(c) 24
Fig. 3(c).24(b) represents a magnet with two similar poles with three poles. This may be
due to faulty magnetization of a bar. We find identical poles at the two ends with an opposite pole of
double strength at the centre of the bar.
(i) A magnet suspended from a thread and free to rotate in a horizontal plane comes to rest
along the north-south direction. On disturbing, the magnet returns quickly to its north-south direction
again. This is as if a huge bar magnet lies along the diameter of earth. The north pole of this fictitious
magnet must be towards geographic south so as to attract south pole of the suspended magnet and vice-
versa. We must old here that fictitians magnet is just a conceptual device adopted to explain the earth's
magnetic field and its peculiarities. In reality, there is no such bar magnet in the interior of the earth.
(ii) When a soft iron piece is buried under the surface of earth in the north south direction, it is
found to acquire the properties of a magnet after some time.
(iii) When we draw field lines of a magnet, we come across neutral points. At these points,
magnetic field due to the magnet is neutralized or cancelled exactly by the magnetic field of earth. If
earth had no magnetism of its own, we would never observe neutral points.
The branch of Physics which deals with the study of magnetism of earth is called terrestrial
magnetism or geomagnetism.
It has been established that earth's magnetic field is fairly uniform. The strength of this field at
the surface of earth is approximately 10 -4 tesla or 1 gauss. The field is not confined only to
earth's surface. It extends upto a height nearly 5 times the radius of earth.
This hypothesis seems probable as our moon, which has no molten core, also has no magetic field.
Venus, which has a slower rate of rotation, has a weaker magnetic field. Jupiter with a faster rotation
rate has a stronger field.
= 0.35 x 10-4T
FIGURE 3(c) 25
We can imagine a giant fictitious bar magnet located deep inside the earth. The points where the axis
of this fictitious bar magnet cut the earth's surface are called magnetic poles.
As the north pole of a freely suspended magnet points approximately towards N g
therefore, magnetic pole near Ng is called south magnetic poleSm . Similarly, the magnetic pole near
opposite to Sm. i.e. longitude 84 E and latitude 70.50 S. The magnetic poles are approximately 2000
km away from geographic poles.
As is clear from Fig. 3.(c).25, magnetic equator divides the earth's surface into two
(magnetic) hemi spheres. The magnetic field lines enter into the hemisphere containing Ng and come
out of the hemisphere containing Sg.
Magnetic elements of earth at a place are the quantities which describe completely in magnitude as
well as direction, the magnetic field of earth at that place.
Following are the three magnetic elements of earth :
1. Magnetic declination ( ),
2. Magnetic inclination or Magnetic dip (),
3. Horizontal component (H).
1.Magnetic declination: When a magnet is suspended freely by an unspun silk thread, the ends of
the magnet do not point out exactly along geographic north south direction, as shown in Fig.
3(c). 26(a). The line joining the north and south poles of a freely suspended magnet is called
magnetic axis. The axis about which earth rotates is the geographic axis.
FIGURE 3(c) 26(a)
The small angle between magnetic axis and graphic axis at a place is defined as the magnetic lination at
the place. It is represented by .
A vertical plane passing through N S line of a freely suspended magnet is called magnetic
meridian and the vertical plane passing through the geographi c nort h-south direction is called
geographic meridian. We may, therefore, also define magnetic declination at a place as the angle
between magnetic meridian and geographic meridian at that place.
In Fig. 3(c).26(b), CD represents the magnetic axis and C'D represents the geographic axis. The vertical
plane CD AB is the magnetic meridian and the vertical plane C`D AB' is the geographic meridian. By
2. Magnetic dip or Magnetic inclination : At a place is defined as the angle which the
direction of total strength of earth magnetic field makes with a horizontal line in magnetic
meridian. It is the angle by which total intensity of earth's magnetic field dips or comes up
out of the horizontal plane. It is represented by . The value of magnetic dip at a place can be
measured using an instrument called Dip circle'.
The essential parts of a dip circle are shown in Fig. 3 (c).27. A magnetic needle NS is pivoted on a
horizontal axle at the centre of a circular vertical scale V. The ends of magnetic needle are free
to move over this scale graduated is degrees marked 0 0 in the horizontal and 90 90 in the
vertical direction. The needle and the scale are enclosed in a rectangular box B with glass windows.
The box is mounted on a vertical pillar P on horizontal base
FIGURE 3(c) 27
HB provided with leveling screws L & L'. A circular scale C(0 to 3600) is made on the HB.
The box can be rotated over the horizontal base and its position can be read on the circular scale C
with the help of a vernier scale (not shown).
To use the dip circle,
(i) adjust the leveling screws till the base is horizontal and scale V inside the box is vertical.
(ii) rotate the box B till the ends of magnetic needle NS read 90 90' on the vertical scale.
Obviously, the needle in this, position is aligned with the vertical component of earth's
field. The horizontal component of earth field being perpendicular to this plane does not affect
the needle.
hence magnetic needle rests along R . Angle which R makes with the horizontal direction in
magnetic meridian is the angle of dip. Hence the readings of the ends of magnetic needle on the
vertical scale gives us directly the angle of dip.
At different places on the surface of earth, is different. For example, at the two magnetic
poles, the magnetic needle rests vertically. Therefore, angle of dip at the two poles is 90.
Obviously in the northern hemisphere, where south pole of ficitious magnet lies, the north pole
of the mounted magnetic needle will dip down and vice-versa. On the magnetic equator, the
angle of dip is zero as the needle would rest horizontally at the magnetic equator. At other
places, the value of lies between 0 and 90. The dip angle at Delhi is about 42 below the
horizontal.
3.Horizontal Component : It is the component of total intensity of earth's magnetic field in the
horizontal direction in magnetic meridian. It is represented by H.
In Fig. 5(a).26(b), AK represents the total intensity of earth's magnetic field, BAK =. The
resultant intensityR is resolved into two rectangular components :
Horizontal component along AB is
AL = H = R cos ...(18)
Vertical component along AD is
AM = V = R sin ...(19)
Square (18) and (19), and add
H2 +V2 = R2 (cos2 +sin2) = R2.
R= H 2 R2
Dividing (19) by (18), we get
r sin V V
or tan =
r cos H H
H = R cos 90 = zero
At the magnetic equator, = 0
H = R cos 0 = R
Horizontal component (H) can be measured using a vibration magnetometer and a deflection
magnetometer.
The value of H at a place on the surface of earth is of the order of 3.2 x 10-5 tesla.
Note that the direction of horizontal component H of earth's field is from geographic south to
geographic north above the surface of earth. (if we ignore declination).
i.e. earth always has a horizontal component except at poles. A freely suspended magnet at poles
will stand vertical with its north pole pointing towards earth's north pole (which is
magnetic south), and vice-versa.
(ii) at a place on the equator, earth's magnetic field is parallel to the surface of earth i.e.
horizontal
R = H As H = R cos
cos = 1 =0
As V = R sin=Rsin 0 = 0
therefore, at the equator, = 0 and V = 0
i.e. earth always has a vertical component except at equator. A freely suspended magnet at
equator will stand horizontal.
(iii) In a vertical plane at an angle to magnetic meridian.
H' = H cos and V' = V
Therefore, angle of dip ' in a vertical plane making with magnetic meridian is given by
V1 v tan
tan 1
1
H H cos cos
For a vertical plane, other than magnetic meridian, > 0, cos < 1
' >
i.e. angle of dip increases.
tan
When = 90, tan 1 =
cos 90
' = 90 i.e. in a plane perpendicular to magnetic meridian, dip needle will stand
vertical.
(iv) If 1 and 2 are observed angles of dip in t wo arb i t rar y vert i c al pl ane s - whi ch
are perpendicular to eachother, then the true angle of dip is given by the relation :
Cot2 = cot2 i + cot2 2
(v)If , is magentic latitude at a place, then the angle of dip at the place is given by tan = 2tan
Do you know?
A rnagnet suspended freely at equator will set itself parallel to the surface of earth while
one suspended at pole will stand vertical.
Sample Problem.
The horizontal component of earths m a g n e t i c f i e l d a t a p l a c e i s 0 . 4 x 10-4 T. If angle of dip
is 45, what are the values of vertical component and total intensity of the field ?
Here, H = 0.4 x 10-4 T, = 45,
H= ?R =?
V
As = tan
H
V= H tan = 0 . 4 x 10 -4 tan 45
V= 0.4 x 10-4 T
From H = R cos ,
H 0.4 104
R
cos cos 45
=0.4 x 2 x 10-4T
R= 0.5656 x 10-4 T.
At about 30000 km above the surface of earth, the earth's field falls below 10 -6 T. Beyond this
height, solar wind disturbs the dipole pattern. The solar wind consists of streams of charged particles
that emerge continuously from the sun. These particles get trapped near the magnetic poles of
earth. The ionise the atmosphere above these poles causing a spectacular display of light.
Magnetic maps showing the variation of magnetic elements from place to place have been
drawn.
The lines joining places of equal declination are called isogonic lines.
The lines joining places of zero declination are called agonic lines.
T h e l i n e s j o i n i n g p l a c e s O f e q u a l dip/inclination are called isoclinic lines.
The lines joining places of zero dip/inclination are called aclinic lines.
Similarly, the lines joining places of equal values of horizontal component (H) are called
Isodynamic lines.
(b) Temporal Variation (i.e. from time to time)
The magnetic field of earth is found to change with time. These changes may be characterised as
short term and long term changes.
In short term changes, the magnetic poles of earth Smand Nm keep on shifting their position. For
example, magnetic south pole (in northern arctic region of Canada) has been found to move in
north-westerly direction at a rate of 10 km per year. Detailed maps of earth's magnetic field are
maintained and revised from time to time.
The long term changes are an geological time scal e 10 5 t o 10 6 years. It appears that the
direction of earth's magnetic field has reversed itself every million year or so. It is believed that
once in a million years or so, the currents in the earth's core slow down, come to halt and then pick
up in the reverse direction.
Do you know?
Indian Institute of Geomagnetism (Iig) in colaba, Mumbai has set up over a dozen observatories to monitor
The geomagnetic fields and the flucations on land, In space and under the ocean. Its services are used by the
Oil and Natural gas Commission (ONGC) , the National Institute of Oceanology (NIO) and the Indian
Space Research Organisation(ISRO).
Neutral Points
When we trace magnetic lines of force around a magnet using a compass needle, what we
obtain is the resultant of the magnetic field of magnet and that of the earth. As earth's field
is fixed, the resultant field would depend on the direction in which the magnet is placed. In the
plot of the resultant field, we come across points at which field (B) due to the magnet becomes
equal and opposite to the horizontal component (H) of earth's field i.e. B = H. Therefore, the net
magnetic field at these points will be zero. These points where net magnetic field due to the magnet
and magnetic field of the earth is zero are called Neutral points. A small compass needle placed at a
neutral point shall experience no force/torque. Therefore, it can set itself in any direction, which
may be different from the usual N S direction.
We shall trace the lines of force in the following two cases :
1. Magnet placed with its N-pole towards north of earth.
Place a small compass needle on a line drawn on a sheet of paper fixed on a drawing board. Rotate the
board till the compass needle is parallel to the line. Now place a small bar magnet on this line with
north pole of the magnet pointing towards north of earth. Trace the magnetic lines of force using the
magnetic compass as already explained. The lines of force due to combined field of magnet and earth
are shown in Fig. 3(c).28.
FIGURE 3(c) 28
In the plot, P and Q are two neutral points lying on the equatorial line of the magnet.
If d = distance of each neutral point from the centre of the magnet,
21 = magnetic length = NS
M = magnetic dipole moment of the magnet, then magnetic field at each neutral point is
0 M
B2
4 (d l 2 )3/2
2
At the neutral point, field due to the magnet is balanced by horizontal component of earth's field
i.e. B2 = H
0 M
i . e . B2 H ..(21)
4 (d l 2 )3/2
2
4 (d 2 l 2 )3/2 H
M (22)
0
W h e n m a gn e t i s s h or t l 2 < < d 2
4 Hd 3
M ..(23)
0
2. Magnet placed with its south pole towards north of earth.
Place the bar magnet on a sheet of paper in the magnetic meridian (as explained above) with its
south-pole pointing towards north of earth. Plot the lines of force using the compass needle. The lines
of force due to the combined field of magnet and earth are as shown in Fig. 3(c).29.
GEOG, NORTH
GEOG. SOUTH
FIGURE 3(c) 29
In this case, neutral points lie on the axial line of the magnet. At each point, intensity of magnetic field
due to the magnet is
0 2Md
B1 =
4 (d 2 l 2 )2
As it is balanced by horizontal component of earth's magnetic field (H), therefore
0 2Md
B1 = =H (24)
4 (d 2 l 2 )2
4 H (d 2 l 2 )
M ..(25)
2 0 d
Note. 1. In the two cases, the lines of force in the neighbourhood of the magnet are mainly due to
the magnetic field of the bar magnet, which is much stronger compared to the field of the
earth. However, as we move away from the magnet, field due to the magnet becomes weaker and
earth's field dominates. At large distances from the magnet, the lines of force are almost straight
and parallel directed from south to north. These lines represent earth's magnetic field.
2. From the two cases discussed above, that when north pole of a magnet is turned thorugh
1800, the position of neutral points turns through 90 in the same direction. Hence in general, when
north pole of magnet is turned through degrees, the neutral points would turn through /2 in the
same direction.
Sample Problem: A short bar magnet is placed with its north pole pointing south. The neutral
-
point is 10 cm away from the centre of the magnet. If H = 0. 4 gauss, calculate magnetic moment of
the magnet.
F=Htan
In Fig .3(c ).30,NS is a bar magnet of length 2l,strength of each pole = m and dipole moment M =
mx2l . Under the combined action of two mutually perpendicular fields F and H, the magnet comes to rest at an
angle with H.
A couple acts on the magnet due to each field. In equilibrium, the moments of the two couples balance each
other.
Draw NA parallel to H and SA parallel to F. Let them meet at A.
Moment of the couple due to field H
1 = mH X SA
It is in the anticlockwise direction. Moment of the couple due to field F
2 = mF x N A
It is in the clockwise direction. In equilibrium, the moments of two couples must be equal i.e.,
2=1
mF X NA = mH X SA
or
SA
F=Hx =Htan
NA
i.e.F=Htan
which proves the tangent law. ..(26)
Usually, H is horizontal component of earth's field and F is field due to a dipole or current loop. 4
Note : Tangent law is the basis of a deflection magnetometer used in the determination of M and H. 4
FIGURE 3(c) 31
As F = H tan
2M
0 3 H tan
4 d H
(ii) Tangent B Position: In this setting, arms of the magnetometer are along N-S (i.e. along the magnetic
meridian). Magnet is placed with its length perpendicular to the arms, Fig. 3(c).30(b).
As F = H tan.
0 M
H tan
4 d 3 H
In each setting, the experiment can be performed in two different ways :
1. Deflection method. One magnet is used at a time and distance of each magnet from the compass
needle is kept the same i.e. dl = d2. We can show that
M 1 tan 1
M 2 tan 2
where 1 and 2 are the mean values of deflection produced by the two magnets.
2. Null method. Both the magnets are used simultaneously, one at each arm. Their distances d1 and
d2 are adjusted till net deflection is zero. We can show that
3
M 1 d1
M 2 d2
FIGURE 3(c) 32
connected to a common terminal C and their other ends are connected to terminals on the turn
table.
A ci rcul ar m agnetom et er box of non magnetic material is held at the centre of circular frame.
This box has a small magnetic needle ns pivoted at its centre on a vertical axis with a long thin
aluminium pointerp fixed at 900 to the needle. Both are free to move as one body. The ends of the
pointer lie over a horizontal circular scale graduated in degrees and divided into four
quadrants of 00 90 each. A small plane mirror is fixed at the base under the pointer. This
would remove error due to parallax in reading the position of the pointer on the scale.
Setting: (1) Adjust the levelling screws so that the turn table is horizontal and the frame is exactly
vertical.
(ii) Rotate the vertical frame so that the plane of the frame lies exactly over the magnetic needle
in the box. This sets the frame in magnetic meridian.
(iii) Hold the vertical frame firmly with hand and turn the magnetometer box, so that ends of the
aluminium pointer lie on zero zero line, on the scale.
Theory and Working. In Fig. 3(c).33, XY is cross section of the circular frame perpendicular to the
plane of the paper.
FIGURE 3(c) 33
As the frame is set already, in magnetic meridian., therefore, earth's horizontal field H is along
YX, (i.e. along south north direction). When a current I is passed through any one coil* of
tangent galvanometer, a magnetic field F develops along the axis of the circular coil and perpendicular
to the plane of the coili.e. along east west direction. T h e m a g n e t i c n e e d l e m o u n t e d i n t h e
magnetometer box is under the combined action of two mutually perpendicular fields F and H. The
needle gets deflected and comes to rest making an angle 9 with the direction of H.
The pointer also turns through the same angle . As pointer was already set on 0-0 line, therefore
angle is read from the scale under the ends of the pointer.
According to tangent law in magnetism,,
F= Htan .(27)
0 2 nI
But F= 4 r
Where n is number of turns in the coil, r is radius of the coil and 0 is magnetic permeability of
free space.
0 2 nI
from (27 ) F= 4 r =Htan
4 rh tan
Or I = 0 .2 n
2rH H
tan tan
Or I = n 0 n 0 / 2 r .(28)
n0
Now n = 2r = G, the galvanometer constant.
H
I = G tan
H H 2rH
K
Put G = n 0 / 2 r n 0 ,
another constant. K is called reduction factor of tangent galvanometer.
from 28, I = ktan ..(29)
I= 40 mA = 40 x 10-3A.,
= 45 , H= 0.36 x 10-4 T
nI 2rH tan
As 0 H tan n=
2r 0 I
(i) the intensities of earth's horizontal magnetic field at two places, and
FIGURE 3(c) 34
The time period T of vibration of the magnet is given by
I
T=2
MH
where I = moment of inertia of the magnet about the suspension fibre as the axis of rotation
Derivation of formula for Time period. Consider a magnet of moment of inertia I and
magnetic moment M vibrating in a uniform magnetic field of strength H.
At a particular instant, suppose is the angle which the axis of the magnet makes with the
direction of the field, Fig. 3(c).35. In this position, moment of the restoring couple acting on the
magnet is
FIGURE 3(c) 35
= MH sin ...(30)
If is small, sin (radian)
=MH =K .(31)
where K= MH = spring factor.
Eqn. (31) shows that motion of the magnet is simple harmonic.
If I is moment of inertia of the suspended magnet about the suspension fibre as axis, then
as t i m e p e r i o d of vibration
in ertia factor
2
T= springfactor ..(32)
I
2
T= K;
I
2
MH ..(33)
The frequency of vibration of the magnet is
1 1 MH
n= T 2 I (34)
Setting. (i) Place a compass needle on the index line L. Rotate the magnetometer box till the
compass needle is parallel to the index line as observed through the slits S1 and S2. The box is
now set in magnetic meridian. Mark its boundary.
(ii) Move the levelling screws so that the top of box is horizontal as indicated by a spirit level
placed at the top.
To remove the torsion, if any, in the suspension fibre, we take a non magnetic substance, say a
brass bar. Place it in the stirrup. Adjust the torsion head from above so that the brass bar rests parallel
to the index line in its equilibrium position. This ensures that there is no twist in the suspension fibre
when brass bar stands along NS direction. Remove the brass bar and place a bar magnet in the
stirrup so that north pole of the magnet is towards north. The magnet stays parallel to the index
line without torsion in the fibre.
The suspended magnet can be set into vibrations of small amplitude using another magnet
from outside. Time period of vibration is measured using a stop watch.
Uses of Vibration Magnetometer
(a) Determination of magnetic moment of a magnet
Take a bar magnet and measure its time period of vibration T in a vibration magnetometer. From
T=2 I / MH
4 2l
T2 = 42I/MH or M= .(35)
HT 2
If m is mass, is length and b is breadth of the magnet, then
m(l 2 b 2 )
I=
12
If H is known, M can be calculated.
b) Comparison of horizontal component of earth's magnetic field at two places
Let T1 and T2 be the time periods of vibration of the same magnet at two different places, where
horizontal components of earth's field are H1 and H 2 respectively.
T1 2 I / MH1 H2
T2 2 I / MH 2 H1
H 2 T12
2
H 1 T2 . .(36)
c) Comparision of magnetic moments of two magnets of same size and same mass :
When two magnets are of same size and same mass , their moments of inertia are equal. If T1 and T2
are their periods of vibration at a particular place, then
T1 2 I / M 1 H M2
T2 2 I / M 2 H M1
M 2 T12
2
(or) M 1 T2
(M1+M2)
FIGURE 3(c) 37
Moment of inertia of the combination
=I 1 +I 2
Magnetic moment of the combination
=M 1 +M 2
This is called sum position.
If T 1 is time period of vibration of the combination, Then
I1 I 2
T 1 = 2 ..(38)
( M1 M 2 ) H
Difference Position. Reverse the polarity of weaker magnet, say B, as shown in Fig. 3(c).38. As
magnetic moment is a vector quantity, therefore, m a g n e t i c m o m e n t o f t h e c o m b i n a t i o n =
(M1 M2). This is called difference position.
FIGURE 3(c) 38
However, as moment of inertia is a scalar quantity, therefore, moment of inertia of the combination
=( I 1 +I 2 )
T12 M 1 M 2
Or T2
2
M1 M 2
1 60
Sol. Here, T1= min = 10 s= 6 s
10
T2 = 5s
H1 T12 5 2 25
= 2= 2=
H 2 T2 6 36
Sample Problem 2. The time period of vibration of two magnets in sum position is 3 sec. When
polarity of weaker magnet is reversed, the combination makes 12 oscillations per minute. Compare
the magnetic moments of two magnets.
1 60
T2= min = s= 5s
12 12
M1 T2 2 T12
M 2 T2 2 T12
52 32 34 17
52 32 = 16 = 8
THE END