Capacitance and Dissipation
Factor Measurements
Rene Seeberger
Get Started with the Right
Idea
Generally, electrical insulation materials convert
some electrical energy into heat while being stressed
by an electrical AC field. This causes the electrical
energy to dissipate- hence the term dissipation
factor (DF).
Practical measurements often involve measuring
the capacitance and the DF of insulation con-
currently. (A historical term but used incorrectly is
power factor.) The value of the DF is expressed as
tan delta; the angle delta is established by using
reactive and capacitative current vectors.
Where and Why is the
Dissipation Factor
Measured?
Applications for DF measurements are numer-
ous, ranging from measurements on raw materials
to testing of electrical installations in the field.
These applications include measurements on solid
and' liquid insulation materials, and even on gas-
insulated apparatus. The reasons for determining
dissipation factors are manifold, too-for basic
research while developing insulation materials, for
use in the lab, for quality control while producing
cables, transformers, and other equipment, for in-
the-shop and preventative maintenance, and for
testing in the field.
The DF together with insulation resistance,
dielectric strength, and partial discharge levels,
constitutes one of the key parameters for describing
the state of any insulation.
Application of Dissipation
Factor Measurements
The DF of high-voltage insulation is an impor-
tant measure -of the quality of the insulation. The
vanation of this loss with the applied voltage
provides useful information about the source of any
imperfections in the insulation. A high dielectric
loss will result in the thermal breakdown of the
material at a relatively low voltage. If the dielectric
loss starts to increase at a certain applied voltage,
the inception of partial discharges at this voltage is
indicated.
DF measurements can detect the presence of poor
insulation even though there may be layers of
0883-7554/86/0100-0027$1.00 1986 IEEE
The history and applications
of capacitance and
dissipation factor
measurements are
thoroughly explained in this
tutorial article.
perfect insulation in series with a poor one-a
condition that a plain DC test can normally not
detect. The DF also provides a measure of the overall
operating condition of the insulation; it increases
with insulation deterioration, and serves as an
early indicator of failure hazards.
DF measurements performed during the produc-
tion process are an indispensable quality co'ntrol
measure. They might be applied to determine the
quality of insulation materials used or to monitor
processes like impregnation; and when applied to
completed structures, the DF may also detect poor
workmanship. Finally, the capacitance and DF
values provide a measure for the watts loss in the
insulation under nominal voltage operating
conditions.
Basic Insulation Material
Measurements
Solid and liquid insulation materials are mea-
sured for tan delta [8] during their research and
development process. The aim of material re-
searchers is to develop materials with even lower
DF bridges; because of the low voltages involved,
high accuracy and good sensitivity, as well as
closely controlled ambient conditions, are some of
the most important requirements for this test.
Specially developed test cells (guard ring capaci-
tors) are mostly used for such laboratory mea-
surements.
January 1 986-Vol. 2, No. I
27 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
 :Understandingsthe Term tan6 - wCsRs
and for the parallel equivalent circuit:
ansulating m aterialwi dielectric losses can
bae represented 0by either da series or a parallel tan 6- CpRp
cVombination ofd resistanceV and capacitance, pro-
vided: ithev voltage applied to thematerial is
s00inusoidal.000 The resistance simulates the in-phase
los.s in the material, andthe capacitance:simulates
thie quadrature or reactiveout-of-phase loss in the
ideal dielectric. These equivalent circuits are slightly
inaccurate ibecause they assue a linear behavior 16 /1
for t;he material, and real insulating materials
behave in: a non-linearway. Nevertheless, these
ceircuits(shownX in Fig.1) are most helpful as W v

theoretical0models our:purpose.
0 0 0 0 0 ;Iw00 Iw
tan- IC and cos4 =I

Fig. 2. The loss angle 6.

Most bridge types yield values for tan 6 and series

capacitae. Parallel circiuit element values are:
~~~~~~IW
: 1 + tan26,:
and
; S erties 0equivalent circu:
loss
ts of a

;0000:Rp=R
-RR1++tan22
: 0 Rp
T passing t hr, ough the insulation is For a parallel equivalent circuit, it follows:
cl and a
tan 6- 1 * .-Reactance
sm0 ;all
dep
active 0 :current Ic
c,wh ereas th e
w1aqCp Rp =Resistance =- ZimZre
;latterrepresents:all capacitor losses depending on The electrical energy converted into heat inside the
thetvoltage. The lossesocceur on the surface and in dielectricum is P =- V X Iw; iand after some
0the intei:or ofthedieletic.The resistance :and the calculations:
minductanceVof the lead (dotteddline in Fig. 1) are

Thelossnthe materialis normally measured in

termis of thie loasstangle (Fig. 2). wis the in-phase For small tan 6,tan200400<<:tl:5
6 < 6
1: 0 t #2
(Closs) component of; tthecurrent,0 and Ic is the P = V2 cuCs X tan a
00quadrature component te :current: ; ;
itFor 00small :values of 6, 00I tk;and tantd COS 4. While measuring lagecapacitance specimens, the
itTherfre, the terni DF Tan anld
Power factor cos 4> lead resistance can effet the:result. Using the
c:;an be intecanged. A relatively :high DF of tan 6 - relation tan 6 = wCs Rs, we find that a 100 ,uF
ti0.10 0(6 =; 057.07) corresponds i00a
to tosQ4 Xof 00.0995t, capacitor with a tan 6 of0.01 percent at 60 Hz has a
resulting iin lestha eretrelatv error. For series resistance of only 265 iQ. Therefore, proper
s ,i Xways fof connectinigithe 0specimenl are crucial.
w
OF Measurements on Partial small amount of insulation material will be reduced
Assemblies ("diluted") by the remaining, much larger area of
perfect insulation in a complete assembly, and
Whenever possible, partial sections are measured might therefore now show up during the measure-
for tan 6, rather than complete assemblies. This ment. Typical representatives of such partial as-
greatly facilitates pinpointing defective insulation semblies would be: bushings, shunt capacitor sec-
areas; and, in addition, a high tan 6 caused by a tions, cable splices, arrestors, cable samples, and

January 1 986-Vol. 2, No. I

IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine 28
generator bars and coils. Sometimes, partial as-
semblies are built for easier testing, though the
measurement is actually only related to the basic
insulation materials, e.g. generator bar samples,
insulated wire samples during water absorption
test, insulating sleeves mounted on conductor and
impregnated, to name a few. Nevertheless, they are
measured in the same manner.
Most of these measurements are performed inside
the plant, where favorable environmental condi-
tions can be created. Since the samples might have
low capacitance values, as well as the relatively low
DF characteristics ofnew insulation materials, it is
essential to not only properly prepare the sample,
but also to keep the testing area free of electro-
magnetic fields from large transformers, inductance
heaters, heavy current carrying busses, and other
potential sources. The high voltage carrying part of
the sample is also used as a high voltage electrode
for the low voltage electrode, the shield (as with
cables), or the frame (as with motors), or a special
electrode (as with certain bushings) is used. In the
absence of a natural electrode, a temporary one is
created. This applies to: generator bars and coils
where the outer, semiconductor paint is contacted
by aluminum strips; wire samples where the water-
bath serves as low voltage electrode, and insulating
sleeves where conductive silver paint is applied to
the outside. It is important to use guard electrodes
wherever possible in order to eliminate false results
due to surface currents, or due to currents flowing
through non-measured sections of the insulation
into the low voltage measuring electrode. Similarly,
as with low voltage electrodes, temporary aluminum
foils or conductive rubber strips are used to create a
guard electrode.
Below is a list of typical DF values as encountered
for new, unused samples:
Bushings 0.5-2 percent
Shunt capacitor sections 0.01-0.1 percent
Cable splices 0.2-0.5 percent
Cable samples 0.01-0.2 percent
Generator coils 0.05-0.5 percent
Wires in waterbath 0.01-1.5 percent
Sleeves 2-6 percent
OF Measurements of Entire
Apparatus
Once an electrical apparatus, together with its
various insulation materials, has been assembled,
overall capacitance and DF measurements are
performed to demonstrate proper installation and
treatment of the various insulation materials used.
The results, together with results for insulation
resistance, partial discharge value, high voltage
withstand test, and impulse test, establish a test
protocol confirming the integrity of the insulation
structure. In addition, the DF measured serves as a
basis for comparing field measurements taken later
during the life of the apparatus.
Typically, measurements are performed on power
transformers, instrument transformers, high volt-
!9
2 IEEE Electrical In-ulation Magazine
age breakers, generators, motors, power factor
correction capacitors, cables, and similar equip-
ment. As with subassemblies, the high voltage
carrying structures serve as high voltage elec-
trodes, and often the tank or base serves as the low
voltage or measuring electrode. Though guarding is
still important, application is often restricted by the
nature of the unit under test.
While using a ratio arm bridge, many normally
grounded objects can be turned into ungrounded
samples by merely resting them on wooden blocks,
eliminating the need for ungrounded power sup-
plies. For higher voltage equipment, testing at a
standardized lower voltage of 10 kV might be
necessary if high voltage facilities are not readily
available.
Field Testing
Insulating oils, used on transformers, switch-
gear, busbars, and cables, change their physical
and chemical specifications after a certain time.
This happens because the oils are exposed to
various conditions during operations such as:
* Increases in temperature.
* Absorption of gases (mainly oxygen).
* Absorption of water from the atmosphere.
* Aging through contacts with metal parts like
copper, iron and lead.
These changes result in decreased insulation ability;
the dielectric strength (breakdown condition) and
the specific resistance drop, whereas the DF tan 6
rises. These changes may be sufficient to'render an
insulating oil useless, and to lead to costly break-
downs of oil-insulated devices. Mostly, however, the
aging is not limited to physical changes, but also to
chemical ones that may destroy tr'ansformers or
cables. Aging quite often produces oxides, which
change rapidly into acid products, and which
destroy paper insulations and metallic parts.
Through this process, further reaction products
appears, which are deposited as sludge as soon as
the solution is super saturated. This deposition of
sludge leads to decreased cooling and insulation
distances, which in turn result in breakdowns.
Solid insulation materials also are subject to
many adverse conditions that contribute to their
aging and lead to breakdowns. Such effects are:
* Increases in temperature.
* Mechanical stresses, which cause breaks and
cracks.
* Absorption of water from the atmosphere.
* Chemical reactions leading to decomposition.
* Carbon deposits on the surface.
Periodic measurements of capacitance and DF of
electrical power apparatus provide information on
the overall status of the insulation, and deterior-
ations are recognized at an early stage before a
breakdown occurs. The equipment can then be
serviced on a preventive maintenance basis, rather
than pieced back together after a breakdown.
January 1 986-Vol. 2 No. I
 DF insulation tests on electrical power apparatus * The temperature of the windings and of the oil
are made with the apparatus out of service. Often it should be close to 200.
is only necessary to open the disconnect switches to * The test voltage should not exceed more than
prepare the apparatus for the initial tests. The tests half the low frequency test voltage or 10 kV.
consist of applying the test voltages to the high
voltage conductors and measuring tan 8. If ab- In case the measurements cannot be carried out at
normal conditions are indicated, additional mea- 200C, the DF must be corrected. By way of il-
surements using selective guards to localize the lustration,
deterioration are performed. From oil insulated
transformers, a minute amount of liquid is drawn, Tan 620= K
and the DF of the oil is determined using a guarded
oil test cell. Higher voltage bushings that feature a where tan 620 = corrected D.F., tan 8T =measured
capacitance or DF tap can be measured for their D.F., K - correction factor, and T = temperature of
main insulation, exclusive of connected windings, test. The values of 'the correction factors are as
interrupters, and other additional apparatus. follows:
The test equipment used is called a Dissipation T (C) K T (C) K
Factor Test Set (known also as a Power Factor Test
Set), which consists of a bridge, a shielded power 10 0,80 35 1,40
supply with an integral standard capacitor, and a 15 0,90 40 1,55
double shielded cable set. The power supply of 20 1,00 45 1,75
portable systems is usually rated 10 to 12 kV/0.1 25 1,12 50 1,95
A/60 Hz, permitting testing of the specimen up to 26 30 1,25 55 2,18
-t F. Slightly higher capacitance values are tested at 60 2,42
a reduced voltage. Booster power supplies rated 15 65 2,70
kVA are available'for cable measurements. 70 3,00
Tests in switchyards are normally performed Below are shown the basic measuring arrange-
while neighboring equipment is still energized, ments for a single phase transformer. For simplic-
which generates electromagnetic fields interfacing ity, cable and measuring instrument shields are
with the measuring process. To eliminate these omitted. The specimen is connected initially, a built-
effects, additional interference suppression cir- in multiposition switch allows selection ofthe three
cuitry is built into the measuring equipment. different tests.
Basically, the equipment works as follows: All The measurement of capacitance above is be-
connections between instruments and test objects tween high-voltage winding (H) and low-voltage
are established as if a measurement were to be winding (L), insulated from ground. The tank and
made, except the output of the test voltage power power supply neutral point v is connected to ground.
supply is set to 0. Because of the surroundings, The measurement of capacitance here is between
electromagnetic field currents are induced, and high-voltage winding (H) and low-voltage winding
their effect is visible on the null indicator, which (L), and between high-voltage winding and ground
will not be at 0. A small, corrective signal, adjustable (G). Low voltage winding and tank are connected to
in phase and amplitude, is injected into the circuit ground.
until the indicator shows 0. Then the test voltage is The measurement of capacitance above is between
applied, and the measurements are carried out in high voltag'e winding (H) and ground (G). Low
the usual manner. However, it should be noted that voltage winding is connected to v; tank is connected
this approach is basically only applicable for to ground.
steady-state interference signals. In practice, some
variations are always present, and more sophisti-
cated noise reduction systems are presently under System for Customized
development. It should be noted that for easier Applications
operation, accuracy Qf field instruments is reduced Generator Bar and Coil
for tan delta to typically 1 percent of reading 5 X Measuring System
10V.
Modern field test equipment uses a bridge circuit Measurement of the DF, the high potential test,
allowing digital display of capacitance, DF power and other tests are performed to evaluate the
factor, power, power loss, voltage, and test current. insulation system of high voltage generators. Nor-
Nulling of the bridge- is observed using a bar mally these tests are carried out before shipment of
indicator; a single knob is used for balancing. the bars or coils to the power plant construction site
Standard specifications for field testing are well (for large units), or before smaller coils are installed
established by ANSI/IEEE C 57.12.90. For power into the machine frame in a shop. These non-
transformers, the' following test requirements exist: destructive tests are described by the IEEE Stan-
dard 286-1975, "Recommended Practice for Mea-
* All winding groups must be immersed in the oil. surement of Power Factor Tip-Up of Rotating
* Each winding group must be shortcircuited. Machinery Stater Coil Insulation," or' the latest
* All bushing insulators must be fitted. revisions thereof.

January 1986-Vol. 2, No. I

IEEE Elsotr'Iou Inaulatlon Magazine 30
 Basically, the DF of the insulation is measured at
test voltage levels ranging from approximately 20
to 100 percent, 150 percent, or even 200 percent of
the nominal phase-to-ground voltage. The test
procedures vary slightly; in Europe, for example,
the test voltage is continuously increasing in ramp
form, whereas in the U.S., the voltage is increased
in steps and kept steady during the actual mea-
surements. Once all readings are taken, the tip-up is
calculated; it is defined as the increase in DF
measured at a low (usually 25 percent) and a high
(usually 100 percent or greater) voltage level. For
even finer evaluation, the capacitance and DF
charges are plotted against voltage. (See Fig. 13.)
The basic measuring unit used is the automatic
bridge, Type 2876, which provides information on
tan 6, capacitance, and test voltage. The system is
completed by integrating a 30 kV AC power supply,
HP-85 processor, and a printer. All modules except
the HV power supply transformer and the standard
capacitor are installed in a dual floor-standing
cabinet. The operation is fully automatic, controlled
by the software resident in the HP-85 processor.
Two main software programs control testing of
generator bar samples and complete bars or coils.
Auxiliary program modules provide graphic repre-
sentation of measured results, calibration, hard-
ware tests, and other information.
Bar Sample Measurements
For these measurements, the operator first enters
sample related identification data. Bare bar and
insulated bar dimensions are also entered either
manually or with a caliper interfaced to the
processor. The software calculates average insula-
tion thickness, and determines the measuring test
voltage levels in order to generate the proper
voltage stress while measuring capacitance and
DF.
The sample bar is then measured at ten voltage
stress levels, from 10 percent to 100 percent of
maximum level. The software controls the power
supply to automatically adjust for each test voltage
level, initiates the bridge measurement, and feeds
the formatted data to the printer for report genera-
tion. Finally, the tip-up value is calculated and also
printed.
Measurements of Completed Bars
and Coils
Initially, the operator generates a data file
containing up to ten voltage levels to be used while
measuring a certain type of bar. For each bar
identification, data is entered, and automatic test-
ing starts. The specimen is measured at prede-
termined voltage levels. The power supply is ad-
justed automatically, readings are taken, and the
results are printed. At the end, the tip-up value is
calculated, and capacitance and tan 6 can be
plotted as a function of the test voltage.
While generator bars are being measured, they
are electrically connected in such a way as to form a
31
capacitor. The conductor proper serves as the high
voltage electrode, while the surface ofthe insulation
is temporarily fitted with electrodes to establish the
low voltage electrode. The generator bar clamping
system was designed to facilitate the process of
properly contacting the specimen bar while per-
forming capacitance and dissipation factor mea-
surements.
The system consists of a base unit, on which are
mounted individual clamping sections correspond-
ing to the total length of the bar to be tested. Each
section is U-shaped, 200 mm long, with one leg of
the U being movable. The bar is placed inside the
lined-up sections, and all the sections are closed
simultaneously with pneumatic actuators to tightly
contact the insulation surface. The inner surfaces of
the individual sections are lined with conductive
rubber to insure intimate contact with the uneven
insulation surface of the bar. The two end sec-
tions are fitted with an additional, isolated con-
tact section, and serve as guard electrodes. There-
fore, an inserted bar is guarded at both ends
and shielded on three sides during measurements,
insuring minimal disturbance by the surrounding
electromagnetic fields commonly found in most
production environments. Accurate and consistent
results can therefore be achieved. Preparation of the
bar is eliminated, resulting in time savings and
minimizing the possibility of damaging the in-
sulation.
Insulation Measurements on Wire
and Cable Samples
As part of the development process, insulation
materials for wires and cables are observed while
subject to unfavorable environmental conditions.
Insulated wire and cable samples are kept in water-
filled containers at elevated temperatures of 75 or
90C for extended periods. The samples are then
tested at periodic intervals for changes or failure
due to water absorption, and statistical data is
compiled. A complete series of measurements is
performed, consisting of capacitance and DF evalu-
ations, temperature and insulation resistance mea-
surements, and a high voltage withstand test.
Because of the large number of samples involved
on a daily basis, additional functions are imple-
mented, such as:
* Data exchange with an on-line host computer
* Reading bar coded sample identification tags
* Print sample assignment list with sample
location
* Operator guidance
The basic system hardware consists of a Type 2876
automatic capacitance and DF measuring bridge
controlled by a HP-85 processor. In addition, a
megommeter and a printer are directly interfaced to
the processor. A 30 kV power supply and high
voltage switching circuit is interfaced using an
IEEE-488 interface. The high voltage switching
circuit eliminates changing the specimen connec-
January 1 986-Vol. 2, No. I
IEEE Eleotrical Insulation Magazine
tions, and therefore facilitates the insulation resis-
tance test, tan 6 measurements, and the high
voltage withstand test. It also protects the more
delicate instruments in case of a sample breakdown.
Each individual wire sample is identified with a tag
containing the identification number in bar code
format and human readable form.
Daily the host computer transmits a list of
samples to be tested, along with their respective
locations. After the list is printed, it serves as a work
assignment for the operator, who connects the
sample and scans the bar code using a handheld
wand. The HP-85 processor acknowledges the
correct sample by an acoustic signal, and after the
operator has cleared the high voltage area and
closed the interlock loop, the different measure-
ments are performed automatically. The informa-
tion defining the test to be carried out, together with
maximum test voltage levels and expected readings,
is associated with the sample identification pro-
vided by the host computer. The measured results
are immediately printed out, including operator
instructions concerning values that may fall outside
set limits. The operator might then check for proper
hook-up and repeat the test. After completion of all
tests, the gathered data is sent to the host computer
for log-keeping and evaluation.
It is evident that the strict separation of data
acquisition and data processing allows the measur-
ing system to operate at its most efficient level
without upsetting the established test procedures; it
acts as an operator and process-friendly tool. On the
other hand, the host computer not only ensures data
safety, but also allows nonelectrical, trained per-
sonnel-like the chemists or programmers-to work
with the results of the measuring process.
most important, limiting factor in low frequency
applications. In the case of high frequencies, the
sensitivity is limited by the frequency error of the
resistance elements, and by the impact of stray
capacitances. The resistance arms of the Schering
Bridge, for example, consists of resistance elements
with extremely small time constants of 1 to 2.5 X
10-8 s; therefore, the frequency errors are very small.
The time constants of the resistance arm are,
however, not only determined by individual resis-
tance elements, but also by their mutual influence.
For accurate capacitance measurements, the maxi-
mum frequency is therefore approximately 10,000
Hz. Since the influence ofhigher frequencies is more
substantial on tan delta measurements, the maxi-
mum usable frequency is reduced to between 1,000
and 2,000 Hz.
The Schering Bridge
Of the various forms of AC bridges, the most
widely used is the classical Schering Bridge. A large
variety of different bridge circuits and accessories
have been developed to cover almost all high-
voltage measuring applications in laboratories and
production. Balancing the Schering Bridge is ac-
complished by successive variation of the resistive
dials for capacitance read-out and a decade capaci-
tor for DF.
The advantage ofthe Schering Bridge is that both
the capacitance and the dissipation factor of a

Bridges Measure
Capacitance and Dissipation
Factor
General Considerations
Electric measuring bridges usually have two
fixed bridge arms containing the test object and
standard, as well as two adjustable bridge arms for
amplitude and phase balancing.
There are also measuring bridges for the com-
parison of inductances with capacitances or resis-
tances. Due to their frequency-dependence, their
application is somewhat limited.
In general, measuring bridges do not lend them-
selves to the comparison of impedances with large
phase angle differences; use of a vector voltmeter is
recommended in these cases. The read-out of the
measuring bridge depends on an adequate measur-
ing voltage. The maximum permissible measuring
voltage is determined by thermal load and electric
stress ofthe bridge components. If the measurement
sensitivity is insufficient, it can normally be im-
proved by stepping up the frequency.
The sensitivity of the measuring bridge is the

January 1986-Vol. 2, No. 1

IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine 32
specimen may be measured safely at full operating
voltage. In the typical design, up to approximately
50 V can occur across the measuring dials. Ifthere is
a high voltage breakdown or flashover of the
standard gas-filled capacitor or the component
under test, the operator is protected by parallel over-
voltage safety devices, such as neon filled tubes and
small air gaps.
A drawback of the Schering Bridge is its limited
current-carrying capability. The test current deter-
mined by test voltage and specimen capacitance
must flow through S and R3, and is therefore
typically limited to fractional amps. To overcome
this limitation, a shunt resistor N is inserted into
the circuit for medium currents; for currents larger
than 20 A, a current transformer and shunt resistor
are used.
Four-Capacitor Bridge
Measurements of small test objects, such as oils or
films measured with guard-ring capacitors, require
high measurement sensitivity. For this purpose, a
measuring bridge consisting of four capacitances
and one resistance in the main arms is most
suitable. This type of measuring bridge is intended
primarily for tan delta measurements, since other
circuits lend themselves better to capacitance mea-
surements.
This bridge has a measuring arrangement with
four capacitors; in other words, the lower bridge
arms consist not of resistors, but of capacitors. This
design provides a larger bridge impedance of the
lower arms, and consequently a higher measuring
sensitivity; detrimental, small shunt capacities
have little influence on measurement results, as
compared to results with bridge-arms consisting of
resistors.
Ratio Arm Bridge
Because ofits straightforward design and ease of
operation, this type of bridge today accounts for
well over 90 percent of all bridges sold for laboratory
and shop use, where only capacitance and DF
measurements are required.
This bridge is often referred to as a differential
transformer bridge, a name that quite accurately
describes- the working principle of the bridge.
Unlike the Schering and Four-Capacitor designs,
which are basically voltage bridges, the Ratio Arm
Bridge is a current bridge, because it compares low
currents resulting from specimen and standard
capacitor.
The main element of the Ratio Arm Bridge is a
toroidal differential transformer (T1), made of
highly permeable material with three windings-
Wi, W2, and W3. The null indicator is fed by
winding W3. The test object Cx and the standard
capacitance Cn are connected to the windings Wi
and W2.
The Ratio Arm Bridge has one key advantage
over the Schering Bridge and its derivatives-that
33
it does not require guard potential regulator circuit.
This becomes immediately evident when the bal-
anced bridge conditions are considered. By defini-
tion, the null indicator voltage generated by wind-
ing W3 is 0; therefore, no voltage exists across either
ofthe windings Wi and W2, and terminal points Cx
and, to a lesser degree, Cn are virtually at ground
potential. Point Cx is only elevated by the resistance
drop of Wi (less than 0.5 V), and point Cn by the
combined resistive voltage drop of W2 and resis-
tance decade combined (typically less than 2 V). As
a result, a shield to eliminate the effect of stray
capacitances is not required, and any guard circuit
used on the specimen side is simply connected to
ground.
Another advantage of this type bridge is its
current capability, which is typically as much as 50
A without the need of an external transformer.
Automatic Ratio Arm Bridge
In the past, several attempts have been made to
automatize capacitance and DF measurements.
Early systems were based on the technology avail-
able then, which leads to designs of servo-motors
driving slide wires. The recent proliferation of
digital microprocessors has made it logical to use a
ratio arm bridge as a model, since controlling the
many taps of a differential transformer is a natural
task for a digital controller. The Automatic Ratio
Arm Bridge is a typical product of this concept. This
automatic bridge is most suitable for production
line testing, where speed is essential, or for mea-
surement applications where large amounts ofdata
must be analyzed.
As with manual balancing bridges, the key
element of the Automatic Ratio Arm Bridge is a
multiwinding differential transformer. The sensi-
tivity of the null indicator is also controlled by the
firmware.
The automatic bridge displays capacitance Cx
and DF tan delta values within approximately five
seconds with an accuracy of 2 X 10- for tan 6 and
0.1 percent for capacitance. These are realistic
values achievable under conditions encountered in
shop and laboratory environments. Special protec-
tive elements are necessary to eliminate danger in
case of sample failures. This includes galvanic
separation of AC measuring section and digital
micro processor circuit; in addition, interfaces to
host computers are implemented by optocouplers
and fiber optics.
Such an automated bridge lends itself very well to
automated testing. Systems have been built and are
in operation in which the test voltage power supply
is interfaced to a processor, and tip-up measure-
ments on generator bars are performed fully auto-
matically. Additional functions could include
temperature measurements, insulation resistance
measurements, voltage withstand tests, and others.
January I 986-Vol. 2, No. I
IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
Automatic OF Measuring Bystem
For repetitive measurements of samples (e.g.
motor capacitors or shunt capacitors) a deviation-
type bridge is often used, because of its ease of
operation and digital indication ofmeasured values.
This instrument utilizes a standard capacitor, but
no null indicator.
Before repetitive measurements are taken, the
nominal capacitance is adjusted at the bridge; the
results displayed consist of capacitance deviation
from the nominal value, actual DF, and test voltage.
The actual test current and a reference current
generated by the standard capacitor and the dial
setting are compared, and the difference signal,
which is proportional to the deviation from the set
capacitance, is processed by phase-sensitive rec-
tifiers controlled by a phase lock loop.
Among the advantages of this instrument type
are the fast measuring speed of 400m sec for reduced
accuracy, and 2.5 for maximum accuracy. Espe-
cially while measuring electrolytic motor start ca-
pacitors, the test voltage on time must be less than a
few seconds, otherwise the capacitance and DF
values will change considerably because of tem-
perature increase. Due to the deviation measuring
process, the accuracy of the DF value depends
slightly on the measured capacitance deviation. In
practice, however, the absolute capacitance value is
measured within 0.15 percent, and tan delta within
2 X 10-1 to 1 X 10-4 accuracy.
Due to the digital display and the associated BCD
coded signals, this bridge is a prime contender for
production line operation, because pass/fail signals
are easily derived to control a sorting mechanism.
Unlike conventional bridges, this deviation type
will cover an extremely wide capacitance range-up
to 2000 pF-without resorting to external current
transformers or large-value standard capacitors.
This instrument is limited to test voltages below 25
kV, with low harmonic content usually obtained by
means of a parallel resonance power supply.
Ancillary Devices
A variety of accessory instruments are normally
required to complement the basic bridge circuits for
full functional operation. Though they are often
built-in and not easily discernible by the user, some
of their key properties need to be discussed so that
they can be applied properly. Obviously these
accessories do not fundamentally alter the operation
of the bridge, though they will influence range,
accuracy, and basic application considerably.
Nullindicators
As different as their displays might be, null
indicators all serve the same purpose-namely, to
indicate the balanced condition of the bridge. In a
balanced state, the-voltage at both bridge points a
and b is identical in amplitude and phase for the
basic frequency of the test voltage, but not neces-
January 1 986-Vol. 2, No. I
IEEE Electrical Insulatlon Magazine
sarily for its harmonics. A nullindicator takes the
small voltage difference-typically a few nano-
volts-and amplifies it while rejecting harmonics
by at least a factor of 3000 (70 dB).
The meter-type null indicator uses an analog
meter to display the voltage difference.
The oscilloscopic null indicator uses a small
cathode ray tube to display the difference voltage
separated by phase and amplitude. The signal is
processed the same way as in a meter-type indicator,
and is then made visible by the vertical deflection of
the CRT tube. A reference signal, derived either
from the 115 V line signal or from the test voltage,
controls the horizontal movement of the electron
beam. The resulting ellipse (lissajous figure) is
reduced to a horizontal line once the bridge is
balanced. Since the opening of the ellipse can be
assigned to the capacitance, and the inclination to
the DF, the operator can balance the bridge in a
more controlled-and therefore more efficent-
manner.
Standard Capacitor
Up to approximately 15 kV standard capacitors
can be built into the bridge. For testing at higher
voltages, capacitors are always separate acces-
sories, and therefore a choice among different
types can be made. Regardless of the voltage rating,
the standard capacitor must be higher than the
maximum applicable test voltage.
Since a standard capacitor acts as a reference, its
accuracy and stability are of utmost importance. Its
capacitance value must be exactly known, as well
as its temperature coefficient (typically 30 ppM/!C
or less).
Standard values for capacitors are 100 pF and
1000 pF up to 50 kV, 100 pF up to 200 kV, and 50 pF
up to 1000 kV. Higher capacitance values at a given
voltage will generally result in higher sensitivity of
the bridge, and will also shift the measuring range
upwards.
Current Transformers (CT)
Current transformers are mainly used for two
purposes in connection with capacitance measuring
bridges: range extension and current extension. In
both applications, the primary winding ofthe CT is
normally inserted between the low voltage electrode
of the sample and the return lead of the power
supply. The secondary winding in turn feeds the
bridge through the Cx winding side.
Power Supplies
Usually, ungrounded test samples are preferred,
since they allow any power supply to be used
without difficulty. For such samples, the circuit
should be grounded at the bridge point V, if
possible, and the voltage and current capabilities
must be powerful enough to energize sample and
34
standard capacitor at rated voltage. However, some
means ofcurrent limitation is advisable, because an
internal breakdown ofthe sample could lead to high
currents that, in turn, might damage the bridge
circuits. The resonant-type power supplies are
preferred for ungrounded samples because they
limit short circuit currents effectively and also
produce a test voltage low in harmonics.
A more complex situation arises with grounded
samples, such as buried cables and transformers
with neutral of Y-winding connected to ground. FQr
these, the high voltage power supply winding must
be ungrounded.
For field measurements on grounded samples, a
dedicated, lightweight, shielded power supply with
an output voltage of 2.5 or 10/12 kV is often used. A
completely shielded high voltage winding, a stan-
dard capacitor, and a high voltage interconnection
cable reduce stray capacitance to a minimum, so
that measurements on field equipment, with its
associated higher DF values (typically i-O or
higher), can be carried out without applying cor-
rections.
Future Developments of D.F.
Measuring Instruments
Since the first well-known C and DF measuring
bridge was conceived some 60 years ago by H.
Schering, we have seen slow but continuous de-
velopment of these instruments. Not only has the
basic bridge circuit been refined over the years, but
also a mynad of accessories have been designed to
either improve accuracy or to accommodate difficult
measuring situations. A major step forward was the
introduction of the Ratio Arm Bridge, which,
because of its simplicity, became the most used
bridge for workshop, and even field, applications.
And as it turned out, the ratio arm design has
become the basic circuit upon which the next
generation of C and DF bridges will be based.
Within the next few years, we will see more fully
automatic bridges incorporating microprocessors.
These instruments will be more compact than
present automatic units, since they will be spe-
cialized for a particular application, rather than
being an all-in-one instrument. Units for shop and
quality control applications, which often do not
require higher accuracy will feature microprocessor
firmware for balancing within two to three seconds.
Maximum DF values might be entered to operate
the system in a quick, pass/fail mode with indicator
lights. More sophisticated units will feature a
printer, where specimen identification and mea-
sured results are printed. A control signal from the
bridge might also turn the power supply on and off.
Still, many improvements are left to be made in
portable field instruments. True portability, rather
than mobility, will be achieved only after test
voltage power supplies are reduced in size and
weight. Improved circuits for electrical interference
suppression are also being worked on; conventional
designs can only completely suppress steady-state
35
noise signals. Future circuits will also eliminate the.
influence of electrical disturbances of variable
amplitude and phase by sensing the electromag-
netic field with antennae that generate a correction
signal. Microprocessors will eventually become an
integral part of field bridges, and will correct the.
measured DF for temperature, if a temperature
probe is part of the instrument. Adding a small strip
printer for hard-copy test reports will also be a
logical step, considering that often-sizeable
amounts of data are collected on a three-phase
specimen.
New developments in insulation materials used
for cables and capacitors are yielding DF values of
10 or slightly less. Consequently, the overall ac-
curacy of future systems used for precision mea-
surements in research and development labs will
have to approach 1 X 10- with ease and consistency.
Such accuracy is possible today, but only with
considerable efforts and the aid of experts. Again,
the microprocessor will have to become a major
factor to achieve these improvements. Not only will
well-known technologies derived from other types
of measuring instruments, like self-calibration and
auto-zeroing, be integrated, but also noise compen-
sation, correction for parasitic resistances and
capacitances, and statistical methods such as
averaging. These combined efforts might eventually
contribute to a bridge as easy to use as a digital
voltmeter.
References
[1] A. M. Thompson, "The precise measurement of small
capacitances," IRE Trans. on Instruments, vol. I-7,
pp. 245-253, Dec. 1958.
[2] M. C. McGregor, "New apparatus 'at the National
Bureau of Standards for absolute capacitance mea-
surement," Ibid, pp. 253-261.
[3] A. F. Dunn, "Determination of an absolute scale of
capacitance," Canad. J. Phys., 42, pp. 53-69, 1964.
[4] A. F. Baker, "Recent developments in 50 c/s bridge
networks with inductively coupled ratio arms for
capacitance and loss tangent measurements," Proc.
IEE, 109, pp. 243-247, 1962.
[5] N. L. Kusters, and 0. Petersons, "A transformer
ratio arm bridge for high-voltage capacitance mea-
surements," IEEE Trans. on Communication and
Electronics, pp. 606-611, Nov. 1963.
[61 P. N. Milianic, N. L. Kusters, and W. J. M. Moore,
"The development of the current comparator, a high-
accuracy a-c ratio measuring device," Trans. AIEE
(Communication and Electronics) pt. 1, 81, pp.
359-368, Nov. 1962.
[7] R. Calvert, and J. Mildwater, "Selfbalancing trans-
former ratio arm bridges," Electronic Engnrg., 35,
pp. 782-787, 1963.
[8] C. G. Garton, "The: drying process in paper, as
determined by electrical methods," Journal I.E.E.,
86, p. 369, 1940.
[9] A. C. Lynch, "A bridge network for the precise
measurement of direct capacitance," Proceedings
IEE, Paper no. 2209M (104B, p. 363), Oct. 1956.
[10] A. D. Blumlein, British Patent No. 323037, 1928.
[11] H. A. M. Clark, and P. B. Vabderlyn, "Double ratio
A.C. bridges with inductively-coupled ratio arms,"
January 1 996-Vol. 2, No. 1
IEEE Elctrilcal Insulation Magazine
 Proceedings I.E.E., Paper No. 742 (96, Part II, p. 365),
Jan. 1949.
[12] A. Glynne, "Bridges with inductively-coupled ratio
arms,"Bulletin of Electrical EngineeringEducation,
no. 8, p. 69, 1952.
[13] E. F. Hasler, "An amplifier-detector for Schering
bridge measurements at power frequency," Electrical
Energy, 2, p. 372, 1958.
[14] W. P. Geyger, "Kapazitaets-und Verlustfaktor
Messbruecke mit selbsttaetiger Abgleichung," ATM,
J 924-1, Aug. 1936.
[15] E. Zinn, A. Braun, and H. J. Koehler, "Kapazitaets-
und Verlustfaktormesseinrichtung mit selbsttaetiger
Abgleichung," Technisches Messem. Heft 2, J.924-5,
1977.
[16] P. Osvath and S. Widmer, "High-voltage high-
precision self-balancing capacitance and dissipation
factor bridge for industrial measurements."
[17] IEEE Std 286-1975, "Recommended practice for
Call for Papers 1986 IEEE Conference on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena
The 1986 Conference on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric
Phenomena will take place November 2-6, 1986 at the Hilton Hotel,
Claymont, DE. Copies of the program and registration informa-
tion will be available in August.
The Conference is organized into separate sessions devoted to
a broad range of topics related to electrical insulation and dielec-
tric phenomena. The 1986 Whitehead Memorial Lecturer will be
Prof. M. Ieda who will speak on "In pursuit of better electrically
insulating solid polymers: present status and future trends."
In 1986, the Conference will continue to emphasize studies which
link theoretical and experimental work. Papers on all traditional
topics treated in past conferences are welcome. Recent session topics
include: breakdown phenomena in solid, liquid, gas, and vacuum;
charge storage and transport; prebreakdown, partial discharge, and
treeing; dielectric aging; polarization phenomena; and dielectric
analysis and measurements. Papers on liquid-flow electrification,
and on the formation and properties of plasma-formed dielectric
films, will be particularly welcome.
Following successful experience of past conferences, one or more
topics will be organized into poster sessions where experimental
equipment can be demonstrated. Posters will be displayed for the
duration of the Conference. For presented papers, 20 minutes are
allotted to each paper (15 minutes presentation and 5 minutes
discussion).
You are invited to submit an abstract of not more than 200 words;
the deadline for receipt is April 1, 1986. One copy of the title and
abstract, together with the corresponding author's name, affiliation,
telephone number, telex number, and mailing address should be sent to
Mr. R. E. Wootton, Program Chairman (address below).
Conference policy requires that papers be limited to subject mat-
ter of scientific and technical interest. Contributors are encourag-
ed to report on their latest work, including work in progress. Subse-
January 1986-Vol. 2, No. I
IEEE Elactrical Insulation Magazine
measurement of power factor tip-up of rotating
machinery starter coil insulation."
Rene E. Seeberger, a native of Switzerland, received
his M.S.E.E. from the Swiss Federal Institute of Tech-
nology, Zurich in 1969. He started his career in the
Industrial Electronics Department of Suilzer Broth, de-
veloping processor-based data acquisition systems. He
also served two years as assistant teacher at the technical
college in Winterthur, teaching physics. From 1972 to
1975, his work in South Carolina was related th production
monitoring and pattern processing systems. In 1977 he
joined Tettex AG in Switzerland, and in 1978 he estab-
lished the subsidiary Tettex Instruments Inc. in the
United States, which he is heading as President. He
became an IEEE member in 1982.
quent publication elsewhere of completed work is encouraged. Ac-
ceptance or rejection notices will be mailed out before May 1, 1986,
to authors of submitted abstracts. Detailed guidelines for the
preparation of manuscripts will be sent to authors of accepted
abstracts.
As this is a participatory conference where interaction is
necessary, a paper will not be read or discussed if the author does
not attend the meeting. Authors who submit papers but fail to
register for the meeting will be charged a fee of U.S. $40.00 to
cover publication costs. Moreover, failure to attend the mneeting
after submission of a paper may adversely affect future paper ac-
ceptance. In the event that more high-quality papers are received
than can be accommodated, authors whose names appear on more
than one paper may be limited to presenting only one paper.
Manuscripts of accepted papers are unlikely to be published in the CEIDP
Annual Report (distributed at the meeting) if received after July 11, 1986.
Papers should be restricted to six manuscript pages, includingfigures. A charge
of U.S. $50/page will be incurred for pages in excess of this number.
1986 CEIDP Conference
Location: Hilton Hotel, Clayton, Delaware
Dates: November 2-6, 1986
Abstracts: <200 words due April 1, 1986
Notification of acceptance or rejection of Abstracts
will be mailed out by: May 1, 1986
Send manu'scripts to:
Mr. Roy E. Wooton (501-3W69)
Westinghouse Research and Development Center
1310 Beulah Road
Pittsburgh, PA 15235, USA
TELEX Number: 703669
Telephone Number: (412) 256-2108
36