Pamphlet RK 85-201E Edition 1 Auto-reclosingASEA Auto-reclosing Roland Nylén, Relay Division eprint rom ASEA our 18786 pp. 27-182 given of the factors influencing the choice ‘of single-phase or threesphaze ‘auto-eclosing, dead time, mumber of reclosing shots, tc. ‘The auto-teclosing of power lines has become a generally accepted practice. Reports from different pars of the world show that in certain networks in regions subject co a high lightning inten- sity only about 5 per cent of the faults fare permanent, Auto-reclosing therefore provides significant advantages. Outage ‘times will be shore compared with systems where station personnel have to turn out and re-energize the lines after a fault Such emergency visits often ental long trips at inconvenient hours and in bad ‘weather, which will have as consequence 2 long ‘outage time, Personnel can be saved if several substations can be un- manned. It is also possible to reduce the ‘number of emergency ysts to unmanned substations provided merely with alarm ‘ransmiters, if they ate equipped with fan auto-recosing system, In other words, auto-relosing reduces ‘operating, costs and improves. the re- liability of service of the network. In the ‘ase of transmission lines beeween net- ‘work sections with their own generating faciliies auto-eclosing is generally just fied with respect to the network stability. ‘The choice of one or more reclosing shots, high-speed or delayed (low-speed) auto-ecosing, singlephase or three- 2 phase auto-reclosing depends on many factors, Some of these will be discussed in the following. Fault types ‘Transient faults ‘A characteristic feature of transient faults is thae they either disappear after ashore dead time or that they disappear quickly without any action being taken, Lightning is the most usual cause of this tppe of fault. The overvoltages duced in the lines generally cause flash- overs across the intulator strings. The aie seldom extinguishes on its own, ‘This means chat the line must be tipped for deionisation of the fault path and can then be re-energised, without the fault recurting Tn thit context it can be mentioned that double circuit lines on common towers are sensitive 10 lightning faults, since roughly every other lightning stroke affects both lines, ‘Other transient faults may be caused by swinging conductors contacting 2 ‘other due to high winds or the shedding ‘of ice. Unfortunately, conductor swing- ing due to ice shedding has the charac teristic that the conductors of different phases may contact each other several times in succession and the fault can then be interpreted as a permanent fault. ds, tempotary contact with foreign objects such as tees, etc, can also cause transient faults Differences in climate, lightning inten- siry, ground conditions, voltage level, Tine design, etc, hare the consequence thac che number of transient faults varies considerably, Onan average it is exc rated that about 80 to 85 per cent of all line faults are transient and that succesful reclosure is obtained with the first shot Semi-permanent faults A semi-permanent fault requites more than one de-energised interval, in the following called dead time, before it disappears. ‘Aifaul of this type may be caused by, for example, a tree branch falling on the line. eis burnt up by the are when the line ie re-energised, ‘A further 10 per cent or so of all reclosures are consequently successful with the second shot. If third shor is made, only a further 1 to 2 per cent of the reclosures are successfel. More than wo shots are therefore generally rather meaningless and only subject the breaker to unnecessary wear, Permanent faults Permanent faults, such at a broken conductor, the collapse of a line rower, 2 tree leaning against the line, a fauly in any cable included in the transmission, ‘must first be traced, before the cause of the faule can be removed and the damage repaired. This often entails time-consum- ing work and therefore impores great demands on the ability of the network to cope with the load on the healthy section during this period. aul statistics Single-phase earth faults are the predominating faule type for all lines, ‘This predominance is most pronounced for high-voltage lines, because the large conductor spacings prevent some ‘wor phase and three-phase faults The following statistics reported by Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) for faults on theic 500 kV network dur- ing the period 9th December, 1967 todork Jan, 1973 and_by the Swedish Sere Pome Board for fas on he 400 EV"an"300 EV ds dig 1851 BPs cai th Sndth Sate wea Power Baad S0OkV «a0 LV 200kV Singlephae 53% 70% 56% ed fade Twophase 49% ‘oe fan am Tropes 2 ‘ne carting Tiegh 1% 7% 17% ‘nae ‘The number of successful reclosuees Board's 400 kV and 1g 1970 to 1974 can be seen from the following statistics, whieh do nor differ for the two volages: Total number of 238 Tine faults Successful reclosures 179 Definitive tippings 32. Equipment out of 27 service or defective De-ionising The time required for the de-ionising fof the faule path depends on several factors including. the arcing time (fault dluraton), fale cureent, wind conditions, aie humidity, air pressure, circuit voltage, apacitive coupling to adjacent condac Tors, etc. The circuit voltage isthe factor having the predominating. influence on the de-ionising time. Dead time Auto-edoring. requires 4 dead time (sce Fig 1), which exceeds the deonising time, In Sweden dead tne of 04's has heen succes we for voltages up t0 400 kV, when Both ends of te line are tepped” vimulsnsouly Shorr dead times may be employed for lower vole Sees fa suitable Breaker ied. theres communication fink avaible berwcen the protective relay, ie may Be neceary to wit for she second step of the distance protection, which means hat 2 dead tine of 8 to'12 sis Requenly uel ong tranmission Lines wih singh phase tipping and. singlephar ato fecosing require slighty longer dead time than for threphaxe topping, be Cause the capacitive coupling rom the Healy phases ress ina longer de- “Three levels ofthe dead cme normaly 1. Highspeed auro-resosing, dead time 08 5 This ese for singlephase ASEA and three:phase auto-reclosing, Ie re- in certain cases, also the frequency ‘quires a communication ink between difference. the procective telays for the simul- fanetus tipping of the wo ende of the line, Inetead of 4 communication Tink between the relays, the instar taneous steps of the dance prvee. Fault duration tions may be sein cers ees for tnereach, When ‘one resosute hat taken place, the reach is automaticaly Changed over to 80 to 90 per cent of the line Tength and. then sclectve tsnping is abrined for 2 permanent faut. There is wo checking of the Sto tipying tom for_promsine rea and higkapecdcreutorsken feet a oie ieee on he Probe Ilo” Se succes ecu. Wt foes ceced move rai tere wll Sm ioe oe fl pth The urs onthe nent Thase ange ndings cence ftlepath, The ace onthe erro 2 Highspeed autoredosing, deal ime Suy'pet Sec ay Gap an tere ofete Te weed orange yee phase and nee pase nteeconee, Ue tee Was erin tratle bewiaa he pease is who he oe he iniustnceg cmp chiefs gl protections is not applied. It may aise Elvi mesuay wat for The een dine js she sine dag sont tne nop he anus pret whch dt sno ti auch oto, Pike Une ated hom Goch Ugulpment he eckeh we Fg al Sais The plus angle and vokage feta htt have"bern id out eee cory eee Vand ei were al cle ee ela ees er Rte ee cee ea Sere ceeeatcet wasttuapeee ga cient cee ie tddinaion of bicep iment tant Docklands snl ft debake Carian selys when at pok' coping f he beskrwobuined: Air bey tetas ci kenusped Silk 3. Delayed (low-speed) auto-reclosing, reclosing equipment returns to the Good tine 2) 3 nin Tht b noe sarang polls and new tloeg tal sacl ony for thcepave ato: squeieetn occur, The ren tne Telling, maliyta lonbetion nee mut not beer ote low vale at wri Wher the Ie ean be ‘ei te imended pening jefe ou bon cody ks cosy. ts. toeder b eeetteg Shc bee alk ¢hck the ps’ anglt role Zod, nce “ocr cnc tpebe” he Fig. 1. Definitions of times. The reclaim time may also start when the closing impulse is obtained, In the case of a line fed trom both ends the communication time between the protective relays ie included in the relay operating time. It no ‘such communication is available, the second time step of the distance schemes ‘must be taken into account.Fig. 2. ASEA olt-minimum circult-breakers type HLR 300/2504 8 with a rating of 300 KV, 25 KA. breaker is closed manually, the auto- reclosing equipment is blocked and can- ‘or stare again until the reclaim time has lapsed. ‘Another form of blocking also occurs 1f, for example, the breaker is not pre: pared for reclosing or if, for example, a high-frequency link for co-ordinating the line protections is inoperative, the auto reclosing is blocked, hers Braking capacity ad operating time Circuit. If a breaker is 9 be used for auto- teclosing, ie is above all essenial that i hhas the operating mechanism and breaking capacity necessary for it to be able to perform the auto-eclosing se ‘quences required. The breaker should be able to close alter a dead time of about 03 s, if itis to be suitable for high-speed auto reclosing. If multi-shot reclosing is used, the time between the shots must be long. enough to ensure thatthe breaker operat. ing mechanism always has time to store the necessary energy for a subsequent tripping. “The breaker must be able to withstand seclosing on to permanent faults, with- four its breaking capacity deteriorating land without ie Being, damaged The operating (break) time of breaker should be short to ensure as Title ionisation as possible in the fault path and thus improve the probability of 2 successful relosure Modern oil-minimium and SFs breakers retain theie fll rated breaking capacity fon closing after a dead time of about 0.3 5. This applies in general aso to air- Biase breakers. TE more than one reclosing shot is made, due regard must be paid to the influence of the operating cycle on the breaking capacity. According to IEC Publication 56-2, a breaker must be ‘capable of withStanding. the following ‘operating cycle with fll rated breaking 0403 +CO+3 min + CO If the breaker is not intended for high speed auo-eclosing, the firse delay” is 3 min. This means that a breaker must not be operated at shorter intervals, un less approved by the manufactures, In the United States ANSI C37.04-1964 specifies the rated breaking capacity for another operating cycle: co +158+C0 If the circui-breaker has to operate more frequently or at shorer intervals than 15-3, the standards state that the rated breaking current of the breaker may be ceduced, if the breaker does not cope Wich the new operating cycle, When the reclaim time for the te closing is being selected, ic iv therefore necessary to take into account the oper ating cycle which would occur if a new fault incident is experienced immediately after the reclaim ime has elapsed Maintenance requirements When selecting the type of breaker, fone has to take into account its main: tenance Fequirements. The maintenance intervals depend on the ratio between the breaking capacity of the breaker and. the system fault level, Depending on the type, 2 modem breaker (see Fig. 2) can cope with $ to 20 interruptions atfall MVA breaking capacity of 30 10 100 interruptions. at 30 per cent of its full breaking capaciey. "The wend is therefore towards a fewer number of reclosing. shots in order to limit the ‘Auto-teclosing and other equipment Different types of auto-eclosing equip: ment have been developed to meet the varying requirements on the dead time and number of reclosing shots: 1. One high-speed reclosing shor. 2 One high-speed reclosing shot fol- lowed by one or more delayed re- closing shots. 3. One delayed reclosing shor. 4 Several delayed reclosing shots, The equipment is supplied as separate units or incorporated in the line pro rections. It can be easily supplemented and adapted for different breaker schemes, e46) the 1% breaker scheme. Tn addition, other, mote sophisticated types of equipment have been developed for automatic system restoration after a diseurbance, Such equipment may some times work rogether with synchro-check and synchronising equipment to restore the network ‘Automatic equipment has also. been developed for automatic load restoration alter load shedding, System restoration, load shedding and load restoration will not be discussed in this article Distribution networks with radial feeders Problems of sytem sabity oF synchronising requirements do not oscit Sr radial feeders with Toad ony and there thy aly be pried with threephaseautorecloing equip- ment. This gives certain. Benefits sich fs thor outage times and the posiilty to sive personnel, If ineeanrancous tp Ding and highspeed uto-recosing. ae Utilged) damage fo the line in connection ‘with a transient faule can be imited ‘When feeders consist partly of under ground cables, the suitability ‘of aut0- feclosing should be considered, since the ffuls oecring in cable ate generally Permanent. If there is ony small ak Sf the cable being damaged by exca ators, auco-reddosing, may nevertheless be jutified, since cable faults do noe arise to frequently a fauks on overhead lines. reclosing equipment starting cies Distribution lines are normally peo- tected by time-lag overcurrent relays with instantaneous and delayed tripping fanc- tions Ieseldom happens that instantaneous tripping of more than the cireut-breaker located furthest away can be utilised. If instantaneous teipping of breakers in series is introduced, non-selective ping is generally obtained, since the fault level differences in various parts of the ework are too small for current selec tivity to be obtained for a short circuit, Instantaneous tipping of the breakers when short circuits occur improves the possibilities of a successful. reclosure ‘owing to the reduced ionisation of the fault path. At the same time, damage t0, and sess on, the network are reduced: Tes therefore desirable always to be able to trp the breakers instantaneously. Modem time-lag overcurrent relays (sce Fig. 3) are therefore provided with an additional contact function, a starting contac. This closes instantaneously, when the current exceeds the set value. for delayed operation. It is then possible to utilise the starting contact, instead of the Jnstantaneous contact, to trip the breaker instantaneously, also’ for a current not exceeding the instantancous setting, and to start the auto-teclosing equipment. Instancaneous tripping of several breakers in series, irespective of whether this is initiated by the instantancous con- tact oF the starting contact, generally means that all breakers trip for a die- turbance on the line situated. furthest away. More consumers than necessary will then be affected. If high-speed auto: reclosing is introduced, however, the Joss of supply will be limited and the disadvantage ‘of non-selective txipping fan be tolerated in many cases. Tf the high-speed reclosing fails, the breaker is tripped by the delayed operation of the protection. The reclosing is started again, Ff several shots are to be made, Nonvselective tripping of breakers in series combined with highspeed auto- feclosing cannot be tolerted in all net- works, Ths is the case wit, for example, networks feeding certain industries hhaving electronic equipment, which is too sensitive to brief interruptions and ‘would then be unnecessarily. disturbed. Ta such cates instantaneous tripping and starting of the auto-recosing can be ap- plied to the breaker located furthest way: Other breakers are wipped selec tively by the delayed operation of the protective relays, which at the same time start the auto-reclosing equipment. ‘Another philosophy has been devel: ‘oped for certain networks such as those containing a large proportion of cable feeders. If instantancous tripping is ob- tained for a high current, the auto- reclosing is not stated. In such circum: stances it is considered that the faule is fof sucha serious nature that the re- closing will not be successful but would fonly aggravate the damage. Tf, on the ‘other hand, delayed tripping is obtained, this is assumed to be caused by an over: load or a faule that has noe fully devel- ‘oped. The ln is therefore redlosed after svcertain delay ‘As far as earth faults in solidly (efec- ASEA tively) earthed networks are concemed, the auto-reclosing is started by the earth- fault protection according to the same principles as those applying to the short- iecuit protections. Tn the ease of is0- lated networks of resonant-earthed net- works, the reclosing is started by the delayed operation of the earth-faule pro Number of reclosing shots One oF two shots are generally used in distribution networks, sometimes theee shors and very seldom more shots. This depends on the frequency of the different types of fault occurring (see under the heading “Fault types") and on the like lihood. of successful reclosure. with more than two shots being s0 smal. Three or more shots consequently do rot imply any significant improvement but only substantially increase the steesses on the breaker and other net- ‘work apparatus. If one takes into ac- Count the face that yet a further reclosing tempt is often made, via remote con- trol of manually, when personnel reach the substation, iv can easily be seen that the breaker may be overstressed in con- junction with permanent faults. The fnumber of reclosing shots should there- fore be limited. Auto-reclosing with respect to the load ete. When delayed auto-reclosing. is 3 plied, it is importane thar the dead time Should be sufficiently long to ensure that alll motor drives have time to be discon nected from the supply by thei under- voltage protections. The voltage fed out by the motors to the network during theie retardation must also have time t0 disappear. A delay of 10 s normally suf- fices. There is otherwise a risk thae the voltage from the motors will be com- pletely out of phase with the network voltage when the reclosing takes place. If street lighting is influenced in con fection wi tsa of «ng = special attention in ateas with ‘dee and fas traffic. The shortest ose. ible dead time is deszable from the traf. fic safery viewpoint ‘A. brief out ‘does not cause 100 To avoid telephone calls from consumers, it is im the interest of the utility to keep the outages as short as possible to ensure thar the consumers will not have time to get to the telephone in order eo complain, Tn areas subject t0 icing risks, over- hhead lines may contact each other several times when the ice is suddenly shed. They 5ASEA Stee woe yes 1 Fig. 8 Throe-phase overcurrent protection with time-lag overcurrent relays type KIDF 2H. ‘must be given time to stabilise so that available, In a nos-solidly earthed net~ they do not contact exch other again work a substation, for ceample, with after a reclosure. The reclosing is there- radial feeders may. be equipped with fore delayed 1 minute or longer to en- only one neutrl-voltage relay as earth, sue thae no contacting of the conductors faule protection will occur after the reclosure and be The substation may then be equipped interpreted as a permanent fault With automatic. equipment for cycle When selecting the auto-teclosing tripping of the feeders, If an earth fault method, one must take into account occurs, the neuteal-voltage protection hove all the network configuration, the starts the automatic equipment, which nature of the load and the suitability of tips one feeder after another until the the breaker. Ie is noe therefore possible neutral voltage disappeats, The auto: to give any general recommendations. matic. equipment. then returns to. the Starting position. ‘The feeders are re energised. by the auto-rclosing. equip ment of their associated breaker, When Cyclic auto-reclosing can be used to short circuits occur, the auto-recosing trace a defective pare of a network, equipment of each breaker operates in when there is no selective protection the normal manner. Cyclic autoectosing Fig. 4. Synchro-check relay type RASC with voltage check unit. Cyclic auto-relosing leads to lose of supply on several feeders and increased breaker wear. In addition, there is an increased isk of double’ earth faults lowing 0 repeated voltage rises on the healthy phases. This method is therefore not used so ftequenty. Preference is ven to selective auforeclosing and selective earth-fault protections Distribution networks with power source at each end Meshed distribution networks oF net works with a small power station con nected at one end and with a power source at the other end require voltage phase angle difference checking, Which blocks the auto-eclosing equip ment until the conditions are fullled. If there is, for example, 2 counter volt age during the checking before the frst shot, the reclosing is Blocked by the voltage checking. If the counter voltage disappears before the next reclosing shot, the reclosing can be carried out, In other respects roughly the same conditions apply here as those mentioned in the Previous section, Single-phase auto-reclosing in weak high-voleage networks ‘A network: with inadequate transmis: sion eapacty ean be defined a8 4 weak network. In such a weak, meshed high- voleage network it is necessary to. use highspeed auto-eclosing. so. a= not to jzopardise the network stability. The loss fof a line in a weak network may lead to the collapse of the network. To ensure thac the high-speed reclosing of 2 te-line will be successful, i i importane to have 25 short a dead time as possible, This pre supposes the use of high-speed protective relays and_ approximately” simultaneous tripping of both ends of the line to en sure that the de-ionising time will be as shore as possible. TE the line in question constitutes the coy link between different sections of the network having their own power production, of if those sections Of the network operating in parallel are very weak, it may be necessary to use single phase cripping for earth faults and Single-phase high-speed —auto-relosing. There is otherwise the risk that the net work sections may drift apart, thus jeopardising the stability and’ synchron- fam. If @ two- or three phase fault oc- curs, itis preferable in many cases to trip the line definitively and block the reclosing. Knowledge of the load angle changeltime relationship, when a dis turbance arises, makes it easier ro assess the possibilities of using ehree-phase high- speed auto-reclosing. The risk of stabilitydisturbances increases, when high-speed ‘auro-reclosing on toa permanent fault takes. place, This must be weighed againse the possibilities of a successful reclosure for a transient fault, Delayed three-phase auto-reclosing requires a strong network, see the next section. “The advantages of single-phase high: speed auto-reclosing ean be summarised as a negligible influence on the line transfer capability, which means that synchronism and stability can be main- tained. The high-speed auto-recosing equipment may be of relatively simple design. No. checking of the voltage, phase angle oF frequency difference is recestary "Among the disadvantages can be men- tioned the longer deionising time owing to the capacitive coupling between the healthy phates, which may lead to. die- turbances on telecommunication lines and earth-fault- schemes for double Circuit lines. Single-phase high-speed auto-reclosing may fail on long. shunt compensated EHV lines owing co the ‘capacitive coupling. A neutralpoint reactor can then substantially improve the conditions [1}. The protective relays must be able to determine in. which phase the fault occurs, Further, each phase of the breakers must be regregated and provided with its own operating mechanism, which may encail extra costs at voltages below 220 kV. ‘Auto-reclosing in strong high-voltage networks ‘The same need for fast, simukancous tripping of the breakers at both ends of 4 faulty line applies to strong networks as co other networks, if there are to be a good chances as possible of a suc- ‘cessful reclosure of the line and limiting of the damage, ‘An ultrachigh-speed relaying (UHSR) system is now available for lines requit- ing fast tripping. The operating principle is based on the detection ofthe direction ‘of the travelling wave generated at the Tecation of the faule, The UHSR system ‘operates within times down to 1 to ms Its operation is not influenced by the presence of series capacitors in the net- work [2]. "The advantages and disadvantages applying to single-phase high-speed ‘auto-reclosing in weak networks (see the previous section) are valid also for strong networks. TE the network is sufficiently strong, three-phase highspeed auto-relosing can be utilised without the synchronism fot stability being disturbed. Simple ‘equipment without faciliies for check- ing the voltage, phase angle and fre- quency difference can then be used. Pro- tective relays, breakers, ete, will be sim- pler than for single-phase auto-reclosing and no. zeto-sequence and negative fequence currents are obtained during the dead time. Tn networks with series compensation the series capacitors are protected by spark gape Thee geeraly spark over line, The reduction in the power tans- fer capability of the network then ob- tained’ in many cases can exceed that occurring when a line is tipped. It is therefore important to provide the ca- pacitors with equipment, which as Quickly as possible extinguishes the spark exp in oder to bring back the capacitors into operation again ferore the power ander apabity B). Auto-reclosing can generally be ap- plied also. in’ series-compensated net ‘works. In exceptional cases there may be a. risk of subsynchronous resonance (GSR). Under unfavourable conditions SSR may give rise to severe stresses in the shafts of large steam turbine gener- ators (4) ‘The possibilities of utilising chree- phase delayed auto-reclosing depend on the load angle change/time relationship, when a disturbance occurs, No stability problems should arise in a strong net work, but it is impossible to guarantee that synchronism can always be maine tained between different sections of network when a major disturbance occurs, Under unfortunate circumstances incorrect synchronising may therefore take place with delayed reclosing. If this happens in section of the network where there is a large line impedance between the systems, no. damage as a rule occurs. If, on the other hand, ine correct synchronising takes place in the vicinity of large thermal power plant, this may lead to a generator breakdown with disastrous consequences, Tt is possible to provide protection against “incorrect synchronising by adding equipment for phase angle dif feence checking, voltage ceding, ee (sce Fig. 4). However, this still does not provide’ protection against the severe feeesses ‘which under unfavourable CGrcumstances may develop in the large turbine-generators, when a reclosing attempt is made’ on to 2. permanent fault It is therefore doubtéal whether highspeed auto-recloring. should even be ured in certain networks where ther: ‘mal power predominates, When only three-phase delayed auto- reclosing is utilised, no problems are experienced with the desonising time and breaker “operating. time. If oscil: lations occur in the network, they gener ally have time to become stabilised be- fore 2 reclosure. There are somewhat sreatee chances of a successful reclosure ASEA with threesphase: delayed auto-reclosing than with only high-speed auto-rclosing. ‘When a line has been tripped, the voleage in the network increases or de- ‘creases owing to the change in the load. ‘Transformer tap changers may then start to operate with the risk of being damaged, if reclosing on to a short cir ‘cuit occurs during the switching process. ‘The delay of the voltage regulation equipmene should therefore be checked. ‘This delay should be longer than the system disturbance time, see Fig. 1. Several reclosing. shots may Be justi- fied in the case of, for example, radial Tines. However, the advantages of the increased probability of a successful re- closure must be weighed against the advantages in the form of greater dam- lage at the site of the fault and higher breaker maintenance costs, Conclusion ‘The network configueation and type of load vary from case to case, Many of the fequitements and factors discussed hhere must therefore be assessed on the basis of their importance in each indi- vidual case. Ie is therefore impossible to sive any general rules for the application fof auto-recosing. However, « trend to- wards a wider acceptance of single-phase reclosing due to its advantages in many applications has been noticed. The intention of this article has been to throw light on the parameters influ- encing the choice of a suitable auto- reclosing system. References 1. Carlsson, Ls ‘The use of a neutrale point reactor for singl-pole reclosing fon EHV lines. ASEA Journal 49 (1976):4, pp. 91-94 2 Chamia, BM. & Liberman, $2 Ulta high” speed relay for EHV/UHV transmission lines—Development, de- sign and. application, IEEE. Trans. PAS 97(1978):6, pp. 2104-2116. 3. Ableren, L., Fahlén, N, & Johansson, KE: EHV series capacitors with dual gaps and nonlinear resistors provide technical and economic ad- vantages. IEEE Conference Paper ‘A-79089.8, 1979. 4. Ablgren, L., Johansson, KE. & Gad- ammar, A. Estimated life expendi- ture of’ turbine-generator shafts at network faults and tk for sub: synchronous resonance jn the Swedish 400 KV system, TEE Trans, PAS 97 (1978), pp. 200-2018,