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 Pharmaceutical Biology, 2009; 47(5): 422429

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Medicinal plants of Tamil Nadu (Southern India) are a

rich source of antiviral activities
S. Vimalanathan1, S. Ignacimuthu2, and J.B. Hudson1
Pharmaceutical Biology Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by University of British Columbia on 08/05/12

Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, and
1

Entomology Research Institute, Loyola College, Chennai, India

2

Abstract
In order to evaluate the potential of medicinal plants of Tamil Nadu as sources of antiviral activities, we
used seven different viruses to evaluate the methanol extracts of 30 plants, derived from 22 families
and recognized for their local medical applications. Antiviral activity was the minimum concentration
of extracts required to completely inhibit viral cytopathic effects (CPE), i.e., MIC100 values. Many extracts
showed strong activities against Herpes simplex virus (HSV) and mouse corona virus (MCV, the surrogate
for human SARS virus). Some extracts were also active against influenza virus and Sindbis virus (SINV, sur-
rogate for hepatitis C virus), but fewer were active against the non-membrane viruses feline calicivirus
(FCV, the surrogate for Norovirus), rhinovirus (common cold virus), and poliovirus. The most potent extracts
(low MIC100 and broad spectrum of activity) were obtained from Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae),
For personal use only.

Pergularia daemia (Forsskal) Chiov. (Asclepiadaceae), Sphaeranthus indicus L. (Asteraceae), Cassia alata L.
(Caesalpiniaceae), Evolvulus alsinoides L. (Convolvulaceae), Clitoria ternatea L. (Fabaceae), Indigofera tincto-
ria L. (Euphorbiaceae), Abutilon indicum G. Don. (Malvaceae), Vitex trifolia L. (Verbenaceae), Clerodendrum
inerme (L.) Gaertn (Verbenaceae), and Leucas aspera Spr. (Lamiaceae), which showed anti-MCV and anti-
HSV activities at a concentration as low as 0.4 g/mL. In some cases the activities were enhanced by light,
suggesting the presence of photosensitizers. Some of these antiviral activities could contribute to the
medicinal properties of the plants, and also provide more support for the concept of scientific validation of
traditional plant medicines in the fight against infectious diseases.
Keywords: Antiviral; medicinal plants; Tamil Nadu; Clerodendrum inerme; Evolvulus alsinoides; Gymnema
sylvestre; Leucas aspera; Pergularia daemia; Sphaeranthus indicus

Introduction generally more expensive and less accessible than tradi-

India has a rich and unique collection of flora, with
an estimated 45,000 plant species, among which are
numerous species of medicinal plants spread over
many different geographical and climatic zones. Many
of these species have been used in the traditional
medicine systems of Ayurveda, Unani, and others (Pal &
Jain, 1998).
There is a growing global trend toward the evaluation
of medicinal plants for the presence of potentially useful
bio-active materials, and this trend has been encour-
aged by the limitations in uses of synthetic compounds
as antibiotics and antivirals, partly because the latter are
tional materials, and also because of the emergence of
drug-resistant microbes. The antimicrobial properties
of certain Indian medicinal plants have been reported
(Ramchandra etal., 1993; Valsaraj etal., 1997; Perumal
Samy etal., 1998; Mehmood etal., 1999; Perumal Samy
& Ignacimuthu, 2000; Vaijayanthimala et al., 2000;
Srinivasan et al., 2001; Vonshak et al., 2003; Rajesh
Dabur etal., 2004).
A few Indian medicinal plants have also been exam-
ined for antiviral activities (Subba Rao etal., 1974), but
little work has been reported on the plants of Tamil
Nadu, in spite of their common uses by many tribal
groups throughout the region for the treatment of various

Address for Correspondence: Dr. J.B. Hudson, Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, C-360 Heather Pavilion, 2733 Heather Street, Vancouver, British Columbia,
Canada, V5Z 1M9. Tel./Fax: 1-604-875-4351; E-mail: jbhudson@interchange.ubc.ca
(Received 13 February 2008; revised 22 May 2008; accepted 23 May 2008)

ISSN 1388-0209 print/ISSN 1744-5116 online 2009 Informa UK Ltd

DOI: 10.1080/13880200902800196 http://www.informapharmascience.com/phb

diseases, including possible virus infections (Jain, 1994;
Kamboj, 2000; Vedapathy, 2003).
We therefore decided to examine extracts of 30 dif-
ferent species of medicinal plant known for their uses
in Tamil Nadu in the treatment of diseases. We used
techniques developed in our laboratory and others
over the last 20 years for the evaluation of significant
antiviral activities in crude extracts (Hudson, 1990;
Vlietinck & Vanden Berghe, 1991; Hudson, 1995; Taylor
et al., 1995). These techniques allow for flexibility and
also permit detection of photo-active compounds,
which are common in some families of medicinal plants
Pharmaceutical Biology Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by University of British Columbia on 08/05/12
(Towers etal., 1997; Hudson & Towers, 1999), and which
could conceivably contribute to the efficacy of medici-
nal plant preparations, which are often administered in
the presence of sunlight in tropical countries.
Materials and methods
Plants and extracts
The plants were collected during different seasons in
2002-2003 from the hills in and around Papanasam village,
For personal use only.
Tirunelveli district, following the method of Jain (1964).
The medicinal plants were identified, photographed, and
sample specimens were collected for the preparation of a
herbarium. Authentication of the plants was carried out by
M. Ayyanar, plant taxonomist at the Entomology Research
Institute, Loyola College, Chennai. The specimens were
deposited in the herbarium of Entomology Research
Institute, Loyola College, Chennai (India). The tribal infor-
mation (Ayyanar & Ignacimuthu, 2005; Ignacimuthu etal.,
1998) is also kept in the same institute.
Plant materials were air-dried and ground in a Wiley
grinder with a 2mm wire mesh. A 20g sample of each
powder was soaked in 500mL of methanol (MeOH) for a
minimum of 24h. The sample was then suction filtered
through Whatman No. 1 filter paper, and washed with
another 500mL of methanol. The filtrate was evaporated
to near dryness under reduced pressure. Dried extract
(100mg) was re-dissolved in 1mL of methanol.
Cells and viruses
Cell lines
Vero (monkey kidney cell line), H-1 (a sub-clone of HeLa
cells which is particularly sensitive to rhinovirus replica-
tion), DBT (mouse delayed brain tumor cells) and MDCK
(Madin-Darby canine kidney cells), were obtained
from the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC).
The Crandell feline kidney cell line was obtained from
Martin Petric, BC Centre for Disease Control, Vancouver.
All cells were propagated in Dulbecco MEM with 5-10%
fetal bovine serum, without antibiotics or anti-fungal
Antiviral medicinal plants of Tamil Nadu 423
agents. Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV), and polio
virus were assayed in Vero cells. Influenza virus (FLU)
was propagated and assayed in MDCK cells. Rhinovirus
(RV) type 14 was propagated and assayed in H-1 cells at
34C. Mouse corona virus (MCV) was propagated and
assayed in DBT cells, and feline calicivirus (FCV) was
propagated and assayed in feline kidney cells.
Antiviral assays
The methods were developed on the basis of principles
explained in Vanden Berghe et al. (1986) and Hudson
(1990). Two different protocols were used in the present
study.
In the virucidal protocol, cell monolayers were grown
in 96-well microtest trays (Falcon), 0.2mL per well (Anani
etal., 2000). When the cells formed confluent monolayers,
they were used for the assays. A solution of 1000 g/mL
of each methanol extract was prepared in DMEM and fil-
tered through a sterile syringe filter 0.2 m pore diameter,
from which serial 2-fold dilutions were made in DMEM
(in duplicate) across a row of wells in an empty 96-well
microtest tray. Then, 0.1mL of virus (HSV, SINV, polio, RV,
influenza virus, FCV or MCV), comprising 100pfu (plaque
forming units) in DMEM, was added to each well (except
for the controls, which received medium or medium plus
solvent only). The diluted extracts were transferred to the
aspirated cell monolayers.
The trays containing these virus extract mixtures were
transferred to an environmental chamber (37C) and
exposed to a combination of visible light plus UVA (long-
wave ultraviolet light) for 30min, with continuous gentle
shaking of the tray. The lamps were arranged to give
approximately 2W/m2 incident radiation of both visible
and UVA. Following the incubations, the contents of
each well were transferred by means of multi-pipettors
to aspirated wells containing cells only, and returned
to the incubator to allow development of characteristic
viral cytopathic effects (CPE). MIC (minimal inhibitory
concentration) was recorded as the end-point at which
viral CPE appeared, i.e., virus was not completely inac-
tivated (Hudson, 1990). Controls included cells with no
virus, cells infected with untreated virus, and in some
cases trays were covered with aluminum foil during
incubations to exclude light (dark antiviral activity).
In the pre-exposure protocol, diluted extracts were
prepared in an empty 96-well tray as above. They were
then transferred to aspirated cell monolayers and incu-
bated as above with light exposure. Then the virus, 100pfu
in 0.1mL was added to each well (except the controls), and
the trays were immediately returned to the incubator.
All cultures were examined periodically under the
microscope for viral CPE. The time of incubation was
characteristic for each virus, and the examinations were
terminated when viral CPE in the untreated-virus controls
reached 100% (i.e., all cells showed CPE). The end-point
 424 S. Vimalanathan etal.
was the highest dilution of extract giving complete elimi-
nation of viral CPE, i.e., 100% killing of the virus inoculum.
This allowed us to calculate MIC (minimum inhibitory
concentration) in g/mL. Generally, duplicate samples
gave identical end points. In cases where there were
two-fold differences between duplicates, then simple
arithmetic means were calculated. However, in all cases
experiments were replicated, with identical results.
In additional experiments, virus plaque assays were
used to corroborate the results of the end-point methods.
Antiviral photosensitizers
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To determine the presence of photosensitizers, the
virucidal test protocol was used. The light exposure was
omitted (dark anti-viral activity) in half the test trays by
wrapping them in aluminum foil. These trays were oth-
erwise treated identically.
Cytotoxicity assay
To test for cytotoxicity, cell monolayers were grown in
96-well microtiter plates, and exposed to serial dilutions of
the extracts, starting at 1000 g/mL crude plant extract. The
treated cells were then incubated at 37C for 1h, exposed
to UVA light and visible light for 30min and then re-incu-
For personal use only.
bated for 24h. The cells were examined microscopically
for periodic assessment of changes in cell morphology or
visible toxic effects (obvious cellular damage or lysis).
Results
Table 1 lists the botanical names of the plants from
which extracts were made, the plant parts used, and the
traditional uses of the plant in Tamil Nadu. Evidently
many of the plants were used for treatment of diseases,
including infections, and some of them might therefore
contain antiviral activities.
Antiviral activity: Virucidal protocol
This technique measures direct antiviral (i.e., virus-kill-
ing) activity of the extracts, and has proven in the past
to be very efficient in highlighting plant materials with
significant antiviral activity (Hudson, 1990; Taylor etal.,
1995). The extracts were subjected to two-fold dilutions
and evaluated for their ability to completely inactivate
100 infectious virus particles, as indicated by neutraliza-
tion of the characteristic viral cytopathic effects in cell
culture. Results were expressed as minimum inhibitory
concentration (MIC). In Figures 15 the reciprocals of
the MIC values are plotted, so that the higher the bars
the greater the antiviral activity.
The antiviral activities varied considerably between
extracts, and between different target viruses. The most
active species are shown in Figures 1 and 2, for the mem-
brane-containing viruses Herpes simplex virus (HSV)
and mouse coronavirus (MCV), respectively. Error bars
on the graphs are too small to be visible in most cases.
Twelve of the extracts were still active down to concentra-
tions of less than 0.5 g/mL. The others were moderately
active (MIC ~ 7.8 to 62 g/mL), or had little or no activity
(MIC>62 g/mL). Seven of these highly active extracts,
Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae), Pergularia
daemia (Forsskal) Chiov. (Asclepiadaceae), Sphaeranthus
indicus L. (Asteraceae), Evolvulus alsinoides L.
(Convolvulaceae), Leucas aspera Spr. (Lamiaceae), Vitex
trifolia L. (Verbenaceae), and Clerodendrum inerme (L.)
Gaertn (Verbenaceae) were also the most active against
MCV. In contrast, Cassia alata L. (Caesalpiniaceae) was
active against MCV, but not HSV.
Figure 3 shows the corresponding results for activ-
ity against the non-membrane virus FCV (feline cali-
civirus). In this case, only two extracts had antiviral
activity, P. daemia, and Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb.
(Caesalpiniaceae) and several others showed weak
activity. Antiviral activity against rhinovirus was con-
fined only to G. sylvestre, S. indicus, and V. trifolia and
was relatively moderate to weak (data not shown).
Only two extracts, Rhinacanthus communis Nees.
(Acanthacea) (MIC=15.6 g/mL) and Woodfordia
fructicosa Kurz. (Lythraceae) (MIC=250 g/mL), dis-
played antiviral activity against polio virus (data not
shown).
Antiviral activity: Pre-exposure protocol
In this test system, cells are exposed to the diluted
extracts for one hour before the addition of virus, and
left on during incubation in order for viral cytopathic
effects to develop. Extracts that possess virus replication-
inhibition properties would show up in this protocol, in
addition to virucidal properties.
In all cases, the relative activities against HSV and
MCV were substantially lower than in the virucidal tests,
suggesting that the active extracts in Figures 1 and 2 were
targeting the viruses directly, rather than their replication.
Figure 4 shows activity against two additional mem-
brane-containing viruses, influenza virus and Sindbis
virus. Several of the very active extracts were also active
against these two viruses.
Antiviral photosensitizers
We have reported previously that many antiviral plant
extracts contain photosensitizers, compounds whose
activity is either dependent on, or is enhanced significantly
by, exposure to light, especially those wavelengths found
in sunlight, i.e., UVA (long-wave ultraviolet) and visible
range (Towers etal., 1997; Hudson & Towers, 1999).
 Antiviral medicinal plants of Tamil Nadu 425

Table 1. Relevant characteristics of the species used in this study.

Family/species Plant part Traditional use
Acanthaceae
Rungia repens Nees Aerial parts Juice applied on the skin to treat skin diseases including itching of the skin.
Rhinacanthus communisNees Aerial parts Paste of the leaves is applied externally to treat eczema and herpes.
Apocyanaceae
Wrightia tinctoria R. Br. Aerial parts Leaves are used to treat various skin disorders including herpes, psoriasis and
nonspecific dermatitis.
Aristolochiaceae
Aristolochia indica L. Aerial parts Paste of the aerial part is mixed with neem leaf and burned, the fumes are inhaled
to treat migraine.
Asclepiadaceae
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Pergularia daemia (Forsskal) Aerial parts Decoction from the aerial part is taken internally to get relief from fever.
Chiov.
Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. Aerial parts Powder made from the aerial parts is taken internally to treat diabetes. Traditional
Ayurvedic medicine uses Gymnema to treat a variety of other disorders as well,
including digestion problems, cough, constipation, and malaria.
Asteraceae
Wedelia chinensis (Osbeck) Aerial parts Widely used in India to treat jaundice and other liver and gall bladder ailments.
Merr.
Sphaeranthus indicus L. Aerial parts Paste is applied externally to treat skin disease and leprosy.
Bombacaceae
Durio zibethinus L. Leaves Leaf juice is applied on the head of a patient with fever. The leaves are employed in
medicinal baths to treat jaundice. Decoctions of the leaves and fruits are applied to
swellings and skin disease.
Boraginaceae
For personal use only.

Trichodesma indicum R.Br. Aerial parts The traditional healers use this herb in treatment of diseases related to urinary
system and also to treat patients having the problem of piles specially the bleeding
piles.
Cleomaceae
Cleome pentaphylla L. Aerial parts The juice of the leaves has been used to relieve earache and itching.
Caesalpiniaceae
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.)Roxb. Aerial parts The seeds are bitter and they are useful in treating inflammation, cough, asthma,
leprosy, skin diseases, dysentery, colic and intestinal worms.
Cassia alata L. Leaves Crushed leaves are rubbed on ringworm-affected skin, for immediate relief.
Convolvulaceae
Evolvulus alsinoides L. Aerial parts Decoction made from the aerial part is taken internally to treat dysentery, falling
and graying of hair and to treat fever.
Cucurbitaceae
Mukia maderaspatana (L.) Aerial parts The leaves are used as a poultice in treating skin eruptions. It is used internally in
M. Roemer the treatment of gonorrhea.
Euphorbiaceae
Ricinus communis L. Aerial parts The decoction of the leaf is used as hair tonic/alopecia.
Jatropha curcas L. Aerial parts Paste of young leaf is applied to treat cuts and wounds.
Indigofera tinctoria L. Aerial parts Indigofera tinctoria is heated with Cansjera rheedi Gmel. (Opiliaceae), gingili, castor
and coconut oil and taken internally for 40 days to treat poisonous bites.
Fabaceae
Clitoria ternatea L. Aerial parts Paste made from the aerial part is taken internally to treat pulmonary tuberculosis.
Clusiaceae
Garcinia mangostana L. Rind A portion of the rind is steeped in water overnight and the infusion is given as a
remedy for chronic diarrhea in adults and children.
Lamiaceae
Leucas aspera Spr. Aerial parts Leaves and flowers are used for inhalation through nose to cure migraine. In addi-
tion, two drops of the juice of the flowers is useful as a nasal drop. Juice of the leaves
is used as local application to treat psoriasis, chronic skin eruptions and chronic
rheumatism.
Lythraceae
Woodfordia fructicosa Kurz. Aerial parts The leaves are used in bowel complaints and hemorrhages.
Table 1. Continued on next page
 426 S. Vimalanathan etal.

Table 1. Continued.
Family/species Plant part Traditional use
Malvaceae
Abutilon indicum G. Don. Aerial parts Leaves of Abutilon indicum were traditionally used to treat bronchitis, gonorrhea,
and as mouthwash in toothache.
Papaveraceae
Argemone mexicana L. Aerial parts The fresh yellow, milky, acrid sap contains protein-dissolving substances and has
been used in the treatment of warts, cold sores, cutaneous affections, skin diseases
and itches.
Pedadiaceae
Pedalium murex L. Aerial parts Stem and leaves are soaked and stirred in milk for few minutes until the milk
becomes thick and is taken internally to treat diabetes, urinary irritations, uterine
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and puerperal diseases and local ulcers.

Rubiaceae
Morinda pubescens J. E. Sm. Aerial parts Decoction of this plant is taken internally to treat diarrhea and dysentery
Oldenlandia corymbosa L. Aerial parts Decoction made from the whole plant with Evolvulus alsinoides, Coscinium fenes-
tratum (Gaertn.) Colebr. (Menispermaceae) is used to treat cough. The traditional
healers use it both externally as well as internally in the treatment of Insomnia.
Spermococe hispida L. Aerial parts Decoction of the aerial part is taken to get relief from colic, flatulence and general
debility.
Sapindaceae
Cardiospermumhalic- Aerial parts Paste made from leaves is taken internally to treat chronic rheumatism and
acabum L. arthritis.
Solanaceae
Datura metel L. Aerial parts The decoction of leaf is used to counter ringworm, tooth ache, rheumatism, consti-
pation and asthma.
For personal use only.

Verbenaceae
Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Aerial parts Clerodendrum inerme leaf juice is used to get relief from fever; flower juice is
Gaertn used to treat eye infection. Leaves are pounded with coconut oil, and applied
on the affected area to treat skin rashes. Seed and root powder neutralizes fish
poison.
Vitex trifolia L. Aerial parts Leaf, fruit and root are used to cure rheumatism, contusion and fever; they are also
used as diuretic and counter dermatitis and eczema.

2.5
Antiviral activity (1/MIC)

2.0
2.5
Antiviral activity (1/MIC)

1.5
2.0

1.0 1.5

0.5 1.0

0.5
0.0
0.0
P.daemia

L.aspera

C.inerme
S.hispida
S.indicus

J.curcus

V.trifolia
G. sylvestre

G.mangostana
D.zibethinus

A.indicum
W.chinensis

O.corymbosa

C.halicacabum
E.alsinoides

W.tinctoria
G.sylvestre
P.daemia

G.mangostana
L.aspera
A.indicum
O.corymbosa
S.hispida

C.inerme
W.chinensis
S.indicus
D.zibethinus
C.alata

E.alsinoides
J.curcus
R.communis
C.ternatea
I.tinctoria

C.halicacabum

V.trifolia
C.bonduc

D.metal

Species Species

Figure 1. Anti-HSV plant extracts (virucidal protocol). Results for Figure 2. Anti-coronavirus (MCV) extracts (virucidal protocol).
each of the indicated species are plotted as reciprocals of the MIC Results for each of the indicated species are plotted as reciprocals of
(minimum inhibitory concentration) in g/mL. The higher the bar, the MIC (minimum inhibitory concentration) in g/mL. The higher
the greater the antiviral activity. Thus a value of 2.0 represents an MIC the bar, the greater the antiviral activity. Thus a value of 2.0 represents
of 0.5 g/mL (or less in some cases) other plant species showed little a MIC of 0.5 g/mL (or less in some cases) other plant species showed
or no activity. no activity.
 Antiviral medicinal plants of Tamil Nadu 427

0.3
2.0 Dark-HSV
Antiviral activity (1/MIC)

Light-HSV

Antiviral activity (1/MIC)

0.2 Light-MCV
1.5 Dark-MCV

0.1
1.0

0.0
0.5
Caesalpinia bonduc

E.alsinoides

G.mangostana
D.zibethinus

C.inerme
G. sylvestre

P.daemia

S.indicus

Trichodesma indicum

L.aspera

A.indicum
Pharmaceutical Biology Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by University of British Columbia on 08/05/12

G.sylvestre

P.daemia

E.alsinoides

L.aspera

A.indicum

S.indicus

W.chinensis

O.corymbosa

G.mangostana
Species
Species
Figure 3. Anti-calicivirus (FCV) extracts (virucidal protocol). Results
for each of the indicated species are plotted as reciprocals of the Figure 5. Antiviral photosensitizers (virucidal protocol). MIC val-
MIC (minimum inhibitory concentration) in g/mL. The higher the ues were measured against HSV and MCV (virucidal protocol) both
bar, the greater the antiviral activity. Other plant species showed no in light and in dark (details in Materials and methods section), and
activity. the results plotted as reciprocals as in Figure 1. All extracts except
O. corymbosa and G. mangostana showed marked light-enhanced or
light-dependent activity typical of photosensitizers.
For personal use only.

0.5 Anti SINV

Antiviral activity (1/MIC)

FLU Cytotoxicity
0.4 HSV
All extracts were evaluated for cytotoxic activity against
0.3
all four cell lines used in the study. However, most of the
0.2 permutations showed no microscopically visible cellu-
lar damage, the exceptions being P. daemia, G. mangos-
0.1 tana, and Abutilon indicum G. Don. (Malvaceae), all of
0.0
which showed some effect in Vero cells only, and these
were not sufficient to interfere in the antiviral assays.
G. sylvestre

P.daemia

E.alsinoides

L.aspera

R.communis

C.alata

M.maderaspatana

W.fruticosa
C.ternatea

Discussion

We employed two different methods to test for antiviral

Species activity in the extracts, as well as confirmatory plaque
assays for some samples. In the so-called virucidal proto-
Figure 4. Antiviral activities (pre-exposure protocol). Results for
each of the indicated species are plotted as reciprocals of the MIC
col, the virus was incubated with the extract for one hour
(minimum inhibitory concentration) in g/mL. The higher the bar, before adding the mixture to the cells. In the pre-exposure
the greater the antiviral activity. Other plant species showed no protocol, the cells were exposed to extract for one hour
activity. before the addition of the standard virus inoculum. By
means of this combination of methods, we should be
Figure 5 shows the relative MIC values in light able to detect antiviral compounds that work by a variety
and dark (plotted as reciprocals as before), for the of different mechanisms, including direct inactivation of
most active anti-HSV and anti-MCV activities. The the virus particles, inhibition of attachment of virus to
ratios for Garcinia mangostana L. (Clusiaceae) and cellular receptors, and any intracellular stage involved in
Oldenlandia corymbosa L. (Rubiaceae) were within virus replication and egress from the cell (Vanden Berghe
the normal range for light independent activities (1.9 etal., 1986; Hudson, 1990). In addition, we tested some
to 4.0). But the other extracts showed much higher active extracts for the presence of antiviral photosensitiz-
light/dark ratios, indicative of the presence of antiviral ers, which are often found in certain families of medicinal
photosensitizers. plants (Towers etal., 1997; Hudson & Towers, 1999).
 428 S. Vimalanathan etal.
75
% With antiviral activity
50
25
0 chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. and S. indicus, both members
SINV
MCV
HSV
FCV
RV
FLU
POLIO
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Viruses
Figure 6. Summary of percentage of species with specific antiviral
activities against each virus.
Figure 6 indicates the frequency of active extracts for
each of the target viruses, i.e., the number of potentially
useful hits. Every extract contained antiviral activity to
a certain degree, although some of these activities were
weak and specific for only one or two viruses. However,
the following species contained impressive activity
(less than 1 g/mL) against several viruses: G. sylvestre,
P. daemia, Clitoria ternatea L. (Fabaceae), L. aspera,
For personal use only.
C. alata, E. alsinoides, V. trifolia, and C. inerme. In addi-
tion, Durio zibethinus L. (Bombacaceae), Trichodesma
indicum R. Br. (Boraginaceae), G. mangostana, O. corym-
bosa, Spermacoce hispida L. (Rubiaceae), and C. bonduc
showed moderate activity against more than one virus.
In most of these cases we were able to evaluate the
extracts in both antiviral test protocols, and in all cases,
the virucidal activity was substantially greater, which
implies the active components interacted directly with
the virus. In common with our previous experience,
we found that the membrane-containing viruses, with
either DNA or RNA genomes were more susceptible
than the non-membrane viruses, suggesting that the
primary targets for the active compounds were lipids
or lipoprotein components. The MCV is often used as a
surrogate test virus for the human corona viruses such as
SARS virus. The vulnerability of this virus and influenza
virus suggests that these very active plant species could
be useful in controlling respiratory infections. Herpes
simplex virus (representative of skin herpes viruses) was
also very vulnerable. However, the relative resistance
of the rhinovirus (common colds), FCV (surrogate for
Norovirus) and poliovirus suggests that they might be
less efficacious against gastro-intestinal infections.
The majority, but not all, of the very active species
showed the presence of light-dependent or light-
enhanced components. We have reported previously
that medicinal plants of several families contain
photosensitizers with anti-microbial and antiviral
activities, such as thiophenes and polyacetylenes from
the Asteraceae, complex anthraquinones from the
Guttifereae, furanocoumarins and related compounds
from the Rutaceae and Apiaceae (Towers et al., 1997;
Hudson & Towers, 1999). Some of these compounds
have been used as leads to the development of useful
anticancer compounds, and other useful properties,
based on their selective activation by light. The fact that
these species tested in this study are tropical plants
suggests that some of their applications could incorpo-
rate sunlight. This could apply for example to Wedelia
of the Asteraceae.
In addition, the presence of photoactive compounds
narrows the focus of attention on the nature of the active
compounds. Presumably one can rule out the likelihood
that the active compounds are known plant polysaccha-
rides, proteins and lipids, and consequently we should
focus on the secondary metabolites of these plants.
Cytotoxic activities among these plant extracts were
rare, and consequently they may serve as the source of use-
ful and safe antiviral materials. This study adds more sup-
port to the concept that traditional medicinal plants can be
potentially useful in the fight against infectious diseases.
Declaration of interest: The authors report no conflicts
of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the
content and writing of the paper.
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