Gasoline

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Gasoline (American English), or petrol (British English),

is a transparent, petroleum-derived liquid that is used
primarily as a fuel in internal combustion engines. It
consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the
fractional distillation of petroleum, enhanced with a variety
of additives. On average, a 42-gallon barrel of crude oil
(159 L) yields about 19 US gallons (72 L) of gasoline when
processed in an oil refinery, though this varies based on the
crude oil source's assay.

The characteristic of a particular gasoline blend to resist

igniting too early (which causes knocking and reduces A Shell gasoline station in Hiroshima, Japan
efficiency in reciprocating engines) is measured by its
octane rating. Gasoline is produced in several grades of
octane rating. Tetraethyllead and other lead compounds are no longer used in most areas to regulate and
increase octane-rating, but many other additives are put into gasoline to improve its chemical stability, control
corrosiveness and provide fuel system 'cleaning,' and determine performance characteristics under intended use.
Sometimes, gasoline also contains ethanol as an alternative fuel, for economic, political or environmental
reasons.

Gasoline, as used worldwide in the vast number of internal combustion engines used in transport and industry,
has a significant impact on the environment, both in local effects (e.g., smog) and in global effects (e.g., effect
on the climate). Gasoline may also enter the environment uncombusted, as liquid and as vapors, from leakage
and handling during production, transport and delivery, from storage tanks, from spills, etc. As an example of
efforts to control such leakage, many (underground) storage tanks are required to have extensive measures in
place to detect and prevent such leaks. Gasoline contains benzene and other known carcinogens.[1][2][3]

Contents
1 History
1.1 Etymology and terminology
2 Octane rating
3 Stability
4 Energy content
5 Density
6 Chemical analysis and production
7 Additives
7.1 Antiknock additives
7.1.1 Tetraethyllead
7.1.1.1 Lead Replacement Petrol
7.1.2 MMT
7.2 Fuel stabilizers (antioxidants and metal deactivators)
7.3 Detergents
7.4 Ethanol
7.4.1 European Union
7.4.2 Brazil
7.4.3 Australia
7.4.4 United States
7.4.5 India
7.5 Dye
7.6 Oxygenate blending
 8 Safety
8.1 Environmental considerations
8.2 Toxicity
8.3 Inhalation for intoxication
8.4 Flammability
9 Use and pricing
9.1 Europe
9.2 United States
10 CO2 production
11 Comparison with other fuels
12 See also
13 References
13.1 Notes
13.2 Bibliography
14 External links

History
The first automotive combustion engines, so-called Otto engines, were developed in the last quarter of the 19th
century in Germany. The fuel was a relatively volatile hydrocarbon obtained from coal gas. With a boiling point
near 85 C (octanes boil about 40 C higher), it was well suited for early carburetors (evaporators). The
development of a "spray nozzle" carburetor enabled the use of less volatile fuels. Further improvements in
engine efficiency were attempted at higher compression ratios, but early attempts were blocked by knocking
(premature explosion of fuel). In the 1920s, antiknock compounds were introduced by Thomas Midgley Jr. and
Boyd, specifically tetraethyllead (TEL). This innovation started a cycle of improvements in fuel efficiency that
coincided with the large-scale development of oil refining to provide more products in the boiling range of
gasoline. In the 1950s oil refineries started to focus on high octane fuels, and then detergents were added to
gasoline to clean the jets in carburetors. The 1970s witnessed greater attention to the environmental
consequences of burning gasoline. These considerations led to the phasing out of TEL and its replacement by
other antiknock compounds. Subsequently, low-sulfur gasoline was introduced, in part to preserve the catalysts
in modern exhaust systems.[4]

Etymology and terminology

"Gasoline" is the term that is used in North America to refer to the most popular automobile fuel. The Oxford
English Dictionary dates the first use to 1863, when it was spelled "gasolene". On 27 November 1862,
publisher, coffee merchant, and social campaigner John Cassell placed an advertisement in The Times:

The Patent Cazeline Oil, safe, economical, and brilliant possesses all the requisites which have
so long been desired as a means of powerful artificial light.[5]

This is the earliest occurrence of the word to have been found. Cassell discovered that a shopkeeper in Dublin
named Samuel Boyd was selling counterfeit cazeline and wrote to him to ask him to stop. Boyd did not reply
and changed every C into a G, thus coining the word "gazeline".[5] The word may also derive from older
trademarks. Variant spellings of "gasoline" had been used to refer to raw petroleum since the 16th century.[6]

"Petrol" is the preferred term in most Commonwealth countries. "Petrol" was first used as the name of a refined
petroleum product around 1870 by British wholesaler Carless, Capel & Leonard, who marketed it as a
solvent.[7] When the product later found a new use as a motor fuel, Frederick Simms, an associate of Gottlieb
Daimler, suggested to Carless that they register the trade mark "petrol",[8] but by this time the word was already

in general use, possibly inspired by the French ptrole,[6] and the registration was not allowed. Carless
in general use, possibly inspired by the French ptrole,[6] and the registration was not allowed. Carless
registered a number of alternative names for the product, but "petrol" became the common term for the fuel in
the British Commonwealth.[9][10]

British refiners originally used "motor spirit" as a generic name for the automotive fuel and "aviation spirit" for
aviation gasoline. When Carless was denied a trademark on "petrol" in the 1930s, its competitors switched to
the more popular name "petrol". However, "motor spirit" had already made its way into laws and regulations,
so the term remains in use as a formal name for petrol.[11][12] The term is used most widely in Nigeria, where
the largest petroleum companies call their product "premium motor spirit".[13] Although "petrol" has made
inroads into Nigerian English, "premium motor spirit" remains the formal name that is used in scientific
publications, government reports, and newspapers.[14]

The use of the word gasoline instead of petrol outside North America can often be confusing. Shortening
gasoline to gas, which happens often, causes confusion with various forms of gas used as car fuel (compressed
natural gas (CNG), liquefied natural gas (LNG) and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)). In many countries,
gasoline has a colloquial name derived from that of the chemical benzene (e.g., German Benzin, Czech benzn,
Dutch benzine, Italian benzina, Russian benzin, Polish benzyna, Chilean Spanish bencina, Thai
bensin, Greek venzini, Romanian benzin, Swedish bensin, Arabic binzn). Argentina, Uruguay
and Paraguay use the colloquial name nafta derived from that of the chemical naphtha.[15]

Octane rating
Spark ignition engines are designed to burn gasoline in a controlled process called deflagration. However, the
unburned mixture may autoignite by detonating from pressure and heat alone, rather than ignite from the spark
plug at exactly the right time. This causes a rapid pressure rise which can damage the engine. This is often
referred to as engine knocking or end-gas knock. Knocking can be reduced by increasing the gasoline's
resistance to autoignition, which is expressed by its octane rating.

Octane rating is measured relative to a mixture of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (an isomer of octane) and n-heptane.
There are different conventions for expressing octane ratings, so the same physical fuel may have several
different octane ratings based on the measure used. One of the best known is the research octane number
(RON).

The octane rating of typical commercially available gasoline varies by country. In Finland, Sweden, and
Norway, 95 RON is the standard for regular unleaded gasoline and 98 RON is also available as a more
expensive option. In the UK, ordinary regular unleaded gasoline is 95 RON (commonly available), premium
unleaded gasoline is always 97 RON, and super unleaded is usually 9798 RON. However, both Shell and BP
produce fuel at 102 RON for cars with high-performance engines and in 2006 the supermarket chain Tesco
began to sell super unleaded gasoline rated at 99 RON. In the US, octane ratings in unleaded fuels can vary
between 85[16] and 87 AKI (9192 RON) for regular, through 8990 AKI (9495 RON) for mid-grade
(equivalent to European regular), up to 9094 AKI (9599 RON) for premium (European premium).

South Africa's largest city, Johannesburg, is located on the Highveld at 1,753 metres (5,751 ft) above sea level.
So the South African AA recommends 95 octane gasoline (petrol) at low altitude and 93 octane for use in
Johannesburg because "The higher the altitude the lower the air pressure, and the lower the need for a high
octane fuel as there is no real performance gain".[17]

The octane rating became important as the military sought higher output for aircraft engines in the late 1930s
and the 1940s. A higher octane rating allows a higher compression ratio or supercharger boost, and thus higher
temperatures and pressures, which translate to higher power output. Some scientists even predicted that a nation
with a good supply of high octane gasoline would have the advantage in air power. In 1943, the Rolls-Royce
Merlin aero engine produced 1,320 horsepower (984 kW) using 100 RON fuel from a modest 27 liter
displacement. By the time of Operation Overlord during World War II both the RAF and USAAF were
conducting some operations in Europe using 150 RON fuel (100/150 avgas), obtained by adding 2.5% aniline
to 100 octane avgas.[18] By this time the Rolls-Royce Merlin 66 was developing 2,000 hp using this fuel.
Stability
Quality gasoline should be stable for six months if stored properly but gasoline will break down slowly over
time due to the separation of the components. Gasoline stored for a year will most likely be able to be burned in
an internal combustion engine without too much trouble but the effects of long term storage will become more
noticeable with each passing month until a time comes when the gasoline should be diluted with ever-
increasing amounts of freshly made fuel so that the older gasoline may be used up. If left undiluted, improper
operation will occur and this may include engine damage from misfiring and/or the lack of proper action of the
fuel within a fuel injection system and from an onboard computer attempting to compensate (if applicable to
the vehicle). Storage should be in an airtight container (to prevent oxidation or water vapors mixing in with the
gas) that can withstand the vapor pressure of the gasoline without venting (to prevent the loss of the more
volatile fractions) at a stable cool temperature (to reduce the excess pressure from liquid expansion, and to
reduce the rate of any decomposition reactions). When gasoline is not stored correctly, gums and solids may be
created, which can corrode system components and accumulate on wetted surfaces, resulting in a condition
called "stale fuel". Gasoline containing ethanol is especially subject to absorbing atmospheric moisture, then
forming gums, solids, or two phases (a hydrocarbon phase floating on top of a water-alcohol phase).

The presence of these degradation products in the fuel tank, fuel lines plus a carburetor or fuel injection
components makes it harder to start the engine or causes reduced engine performance. On resumption of
regular engine use, the buildup may or may not be eventually cleaned out by the flow of fresh gasoline. The
addition of a fuel stabilizer to gasoline can extend the life of fuel that is not or cannot be stored properly though
removal of all fuel from a fuel system is the only real solution to the problem of long term storage of an engine
or a machine or vehicle. Some typical fuel stabilizers are proprietary mixtures containing mineral spirits,
isopropyl alcohol, 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene, or other additives. Fuel stabilizer is commonly used for small
engines, such as lawnmower and tractor engines, especially when their use is seasonal (low to no use for one or
more seasons of the year). Users have been advised to keep gasoline containers more than half full and properly
capped to reduce air exposure, to avoid storage at high temperatures, to run an engine for ten minutes to
circulate the stabilizer through all components prior to storage, and to run the engine at intervals to purge stale
fuel from the carburetor.[4]

Gasoline stability requirements are set in standard ASTM D4814-14b. The standard describes the various
characteristics and requirements of automotive fuels for use over a wide range of operating conditions in
ground vehicles equipped with spark-ignition engines.

Energy content
A gasoline-fueled internal combustion engine obtains energy from combustion of gasoline's various
hydrocarbon species with oxygen from the ambient air, yielding carbon dioxide and water exhaust. The
combustion of octane, a representative species, performs the chemical reaction 2 C8H18 + 25 O2 16 CO2 +
18 H2O.

Gasoline contains about 46.7 MJ/kg (127 MJ/US gal, 35.3 kWh/US gal, 13.0 kWh/kg, 120,405 BTU/US gal),
quoting the lower heating value.[19] Gasoline blends differ, and therefore actual energy content varies according
to the season and producer by up to 1.75% more or less than the average.[20] On average, about 74 L of
gasoline (19.5 US gal, 16.3 imp gal) are available from a barrel of crude oil (about 46% by volume), varying
due to quality of crude and grade of gasoline. The remainder are products ranging from tar to naphtha.[21]

A high-octane-rated fuel, such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) has an overall lower power output at the
typical 10:1 compression ratio of an engine design optimized for gasoline fuel. An engine tuned for LPG fuel
via higher compression ratios (typically 12:1) improves the power output. This is because higher-octane fuels
allow for a higher compression ratio without knocking, resulting in a higher cylinder temperature, which
improves efficiency. Also, increased mechanical efficiency is created by a higher compression ratio through the
concomitant higher expansion ratio on the power stroke, which is by far the greater effect. The higher
expansion ratio extracts more work from the high-pressure gas created by the combustion process. An Atkinson
cycle engine uses the timing of the valve events to produce the benefits of a high expansion ratio without the
disadvantages, chiefly detonation, of a high compression ratio. A high expansion ratio is also one of the two
key reasons for the efficiency of diesel engines, along with the elimination of pumping losses due to throttling
of the intake air flow.

The lower energy content of LPG by liquid volume in comparison to gasoline is due mainly to its lower
density. This lower density is a property of the lower molecular weight of propane (LPG's chief component)
compared to gasoline's blend of various hydrocarbon compounds with heavier molecular weights than propane.
Conversely, LPG energy content by weight is higher than gasoline due to a higher hydrogen to carbon ratio.

Molecular weights of the representative octane combustion are C8H18 114, O2 32, CO2 44, H2O 18; therefore
1 kg of fuel reacts with 3.51 kg of oxygen to produce 3.09 kg of carbon dioxide and 1.42 kg of water.

Density
The density of gasoline ranges from 0.710.77 kg/L (719.7 kg/m3 ; 0.026 lb/in3; 6.073 lb/US gal; 7.29 lb/imp
gal), higher densities having a greater volume of aromatics.[22] Since gasoline floats on water, water cannot
generally be used to extinguish a gasoline fire unless used in a fine mist. Finished marketable gasoline is traded
with a standard reference of 0.755 kg/L, and its price is escalated/de-escalated according to its actual density.

Chemical analysis and production

Gasoline is produced in oil refineries. Roughly 19 US
gallons (72 L) of gasoline is derived from a 42-gallon (159
L) barrel of crude oil.[23] Material separated from crude oil
via distillation, called virgin or straight-run gasoline, does
not meet specifications for modern engines (particularly the
octane rating, see below), but can be pooled to the gasoline Some of the main components of gasoline:isooctane,
blend. butane, 3-ethyltoluene, and the octane enhancerMTBE.

The bulk of a typical gasoline consists of hydrocarbons

with between 4 and 12 carbon atoms per molecule (commonly referred
to as C4-C12).[4] It is a mixture of paraffins (alkanes), cycloalkanes
(naphthenes), and olefins (alkenes), where the usage of the terms
paraffin and olefin is particular to the oil industry. The actual ratio
depends on:

the oil refinery that makes the gasoline, as not all refineries have
the same set of processing units;
the crude oil feed used by the refinery;
the grade of gasoline, in particular, the octane rating.

The various refinery streams blended to make gasoline have different

characteristics. Some important streams are:
A pumpjack in the United States
straight-run gasoline, usually also called naphtha is distilled
directly from crude oil. Once the leading source of fuel, its low
octane rating required lead additives. It is low in aromatics (depending on the grade of crude oil),
containing some cycloalkanes (naphthenes) and no olefins (alkenes). Between 0 and 20% of this stream
is pooled into the finished gasoline, because the supply of this fraction is insufficient and its RON is too
low. The chemical properties (namely octane and RVP) of the straight-run gasoline can be improved
through reforming and isomerisation. However, before feeding those units, the naphtha needs to be split
in light and heavy naphtha. Straight-run gasoline can be also used as a feedstock into steam-crackers to
produce olefins.
 reformate, produced in a catalytic reformer has a high octane
rating with high aromatic content, and relatively low olefins
(alkenes). Most of the benzene, toluene, and xylene (the so-called
BTX) are more valuable as chemical feedstocks and are thus
removed to some extent.
catalytic cracked gasoline or catalytic cracked naphtha,
produced from a catalytic cracker, with a moderate octane rating,
high olefins (alkene) content, and moderate aromatics level.
hydrocrackate (heavy, mid, and light) produced from a
hydrocracker, with medium to low octane rating and moderate
aromatic levels.
alkylate is produced in an alkylation unit, using as feedstocks
isobutane and alkenes. Alkylate contains no aromatics and
alkenes and has high MON.
isomerate is obtained by isomerizing low octane straight run
gasoline to iso-paraffins (non-chain alkanes, like isooctane).
Isomerate has medium RON and MON, but nil aromatics and
olefins. An oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico
butane is usually blended in the gasoline pool, although the
quantity of this stream is limited by the RVP specification.

The terms above are the jargon used in the oil industry and terminology varies.

Currently, many countries set limits on gasoline aromatics in general, benzene in particular, and olefin (alkene)
content. Such regulations led to increasing preference for high octane pure paraffin (alkane) components, such
as alkylate, and is forcing refineries to add processing units to reduce benzene content. In the EU the benzene
limit is set at 1% volume for all grade of automotive gasoline.

Gasoline can also contain other organic compounds, such as organic ethers (deliberately added), plus small
levels of contaminants, in particular organosulfur compounds, but these are usually removed at the refinery.

Additives
Antiknock additives

Almost all countries in the world have phased out automotive

A plastic container for storing gasoline used in
Germany
leaded fuel. In 2011 six countries[24] were still using leaded
gasoline: Afghanistan, Myanmar, North Korea, Algeria, Iraq and
Yemen. It was expected that by the end of 2013 those countries
would ban leaded gasoline,[25] but it has not occurred. Algeria will
replace leaded with unleaded automotive fuel only in 2015.
Different additives have replaced the lead compounds. The most
popular additives include aromatic hydrocarbons, ethers and
alcohol (usually ethanol or methanol). For technical reasons the
use of leaded additives is still permitted worldwide for the
formulation of some grades of aviation gasoline such as 100LL,
because the required octane rating would be technically infeasible
to reach without the use of leaded additives.
Tetraethyllead

Gasoline, when used in high-compression internal combustion engines, tends to autoignite (detonate) causing
damaging "engine knocking" (also called "pinging" or "pinking"). To address this problem, tetraethyllead
(TEL) was widely adopted as an additive for gasoline in the 1920s. With the discovery of the extent of
environmental and health damage caused by the lead, however, and the incompatibility of lead with catalytic
converters, leaded gasoline was phased out in the USA beginning in
1973. By 1995, leaded fuel accounted for only 0.6% of total gasoline
sales and under 2000 short tons (1814 t) of lead per year in the USA.
From 1 January 1996, the U.S. Clean Air Act banned the sale of leaded
fuel for use in on-road vehicles in the USA. The use of TEL also
necessitated other additives, such as dibromoethane. First European
countries started replacing lead by the end of the 1980s and by the end
of the 1990s leaded gasoline was banned within the entire European
Union. Reduction in the average blood lead level is believed to have
been a major cause for falling violent crime rates in the United
States[26] and South Africa.[27] A statistically significant correlation has
been found between the usage rate of leaded gasoline and violent crime:
taking into account a 22-year time lag, the violent crime curve virtually
tracks the lead exposure curve.[28][29]

Lead Replacement Petrol

Lead Replacement Petrol (LRP) was developed for vehicles designed to A gas can
run on leaded fuel and incompatible with unleaded. Rather than
tetraethyl lead it contains other metal such as potassium compounds or
methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT); these are purported to buffer soft exhaust valves and
seats so that they do not suffer recession due to the use of unleaded fuel.

LRP was marketed during and after the phaseout of leaded motor fuels in the United Kingdom, Australia, South
Africa and some other countries. Consumer confusion led to widespread mistaken preference for LRP rather
than unleaded,[30] and LRP was phased out 8 to 10 years after the introduction of unleaded.[31]

Leaded petrol was withdrawn from sale in Britain after 31 December 1999, seven years after EEC regulations
signalled the end of production for cars using leaded petrol in member states. At this stage, a large percentage
of cars from the 1980s and early 1990s which ran on leaded petrol were still in use, along with cars which
could run on unleaded fuel. However, the declining number of such cars on British roads saw many petrol
stations withdrawing LRP from sale by 2003.[32]

MMT

Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT) is used in Canada and in Australia to boost octane.[33]
It also helps old cars designed for leaded fuel run on unleaded fuel without need for additives to prevent valve
problems. Its use in the US has been restricted by regulations.[34] Its use in the EU is restricted by Article 8a of
the Fuel Quality Directive[35] following its testing under the Protocol for the evaluation of effects of metallic
fuel-additives on the emissions performance of vehicles.[36]

Fuel stabilizers (antioxidants and metal deactivators)

Gummy, sticky resin deposits result from oxidative degradation of gasoline upon long term storage. These
harmful deposits arise from the oxidation of alkenes and other minor components in gasoline (see drying oils).
Improvements in refinery techniques have generally reduced the susceptibility of gasolines to these problems.
Previously, catalytically or thermally cracked gasolines are most susceptible to oxidation. The formation of
these gums is accelerated by copper salts, which can be neutralized by additives called metal deactivators.

This degradation can be prevented through the addition of 5100 ppm of antioxidants, such as
phenylenediamines and other amines.[4] Hydrocarbons with a bromine number of 10 or above can be protected
with the combination of unhindered or partially hindered phenols and oil-soluble strong amine bases, such as
hindered phenols. "Stale" gasoline can be detected by a colorimetric enzymatic test for organic peroxides
produced by oxidation of the gasoline.[37]
Gasolines are also treated with metal deactivators, which are
compounds that sequester (deactivate) metal salts that otherwise
accelerate the formation of gummy residues. The metal impurities
might arise from the engine itself or as contaminants in the fuel.

Detergents

Gasoline, as delivered at the pump, also contains additives to

reduce internal engine carbon buildups, improve combustion, and
to allow easier starting in cold climates. High levels of detergent Substituted phenols and derivatives of
can be found in Top Tier Detergent Gasolines. The specification phenylenediamine are common antioxidants
for Top Tier Detergent gasolines was developed by four used to inhibit gum formation in gasoline
automakers: GM, Honda, Toyota and BMW. According to the (gasoline).
bulletin, the minimal EPA requirement is not sufficient to keep
engines clean.[38] Typical detergents include alkylamines and alkyl
phosphates at the level of 50100 ppm.[4]

Ethanol

European Union

In the EU, 5% ethanol can be added within the common gasoline spec (EN 228). Discussions are ongoing to
allow 10% blending of ethanol (available in Finnish, French and German gas stations). In Finland most
gasoline stations sell 95E10, which is 10% of ethanol; and 98E5, which is 5% ethanol. Most gasoline sold in
Sweden has 515% ethanol added.

Brazil

In Brazil, the Brazilian National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels (ANP) requires gasoline for
automobile use to have 27.5% of ethanol added to its composition.[39] Pure hydrated ethanol is also available as
a fuel.

Australia

Legislation requires retailers to label fuels containing ethanol on the dispenser, and limits ethanol use to 10% of
gasoline in Australia. Such gasoline is commonly called E10 by major brands, and it is cheaper than regular
unleaded gasoline.

United States

The federal Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) effectively requires refiners and blenders to blend renewable
biofuels (mostly ethanol) with gasoline, sufficient to meet a growing annual target of total gallons blended.
Although the mandate does not require a specific percentage of ethanol, annual increases in the target combined
with declining gasoline consumption has caused the typical ethanol content in gasoline to approach 10%. Most
fuel pumps display a sticker that states that the fuel may contain up to 10% ethanol, an intentional disparity that
reflects the varying actual percentage. Until late 2010, fuels retailers were only authorized to sell fuel
containing up to 10 percent ethanol (E10), and most vehicle warranties (except for flexible fuel vehicles)
authorize fuels that contain no more than 10 percent ethanol. In parts of the United States, ethanol is sometimes
added to gasoline without an indication that it is a component.

India
The Government of India in October 2007 decided to make 5% ethanol blending (with petrol) mandatory.
Currently, 10% Ethanol blended product (E10) is being sold in various parts of the country.[40][41]

Ethanol has been found in at least one study to damage catalytic converters.[42]

Dye

In Australia, the lowest grade of gasoline (RON 91) is dyed a light shade of red/orange and the medium grade
(RON 95) is dyed yellow.[43]

In the United States, aviation gasoline (avgas) is dyed to identify its octane rating and to distinguish it from
kerosene-based jet fuel, which is clear.[44]

In Canada the gasoline for marine and farm use is dyed red and is not subject to sales tax. [45]

Oxygenate blending

Oxygenate blending adds oxygen-bearing compounds such as MTBE, ETBE, ethanol, and biobutanol. The
presence of these oxygenates reduces the amount of carbon monoxide and unburned fuel in the exhaust gas. In
many areas throughout the US, oxygenate blending is mandated by EPA regulations to reduce smog and other
airborne pollutants. For example, in Southern California, fuel must contain 2% oxygen by weight, resulting in a
mixture of 5.6% ethanol in gasoline. The resulting fuel is often known as reformulated gasoline (RFG) or
oxygenated gasoline, or in the case of California, California reformulated gasoline. The federal requirement
that RFG contain oxygen was dropped on 6 May 2006 because the industry had developed VOC-controlled
RFG that did not need additional oxygen.[46]

MTBE was phased out in the US due to ground water contamination and the resulting regulations and lawsuits.
Ethanol and, to a lesser extent, the ethanol-derived ETBE are common replacements. A common ethanol-
gasoline mix of 10% ethanol mixed with gasoline is called gasohol or E10, and an ethanol-gasoline mix of 85%
ethanol mixed with gasoline is called E85. The most extensive use of ethanol takes place in Brazil, where the
ethanol is derived from sugarcane. In 2004, over 3.4 billion US gallons (2.8 billion imp gal/13 million m) of
ethanol was produced in the United States for fuel use, mostly from corn, and E85 is slowly becoming available
in much of the United States, though many of the relatively few stations vending E85 are not open to the
general public.[47]

The use of bioethanol, either directly or indirectly by conversion of such ethanol to bio-ETBE, is encouraged
by the European Union Directive on the Promotion of the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels for
transport. Since producing bioethanol from fermented sugars and starches involves distillation, though,
ordinary people in much of Europe cannot legally ferment and distill their own bioethanol at present (unlike in
the US, where getting a BATF distillation permit has been easy since the 1973 oil crisis).

Safety
Environmental considerations

Combustion of 1 U.S. gallon (3.8 L) of gasoline produces 8.74 kilograms (19.3 lb) of carbon dioxide (2.3 kg/l),
a greenhouse gas.[48][49]

The main concern with gasoline on the environment, aside from the complications of its extraction and
refining, is the potential effect on the climate through the production of carbon dioxide. Unburnt gasoline and
evaporation from the tank, when in the atmosphere, reacts in sunlight to produce photochemical smog. Vapor
pressure initially rises with some addition of ethanol to gasoline, but the increase is greatest at 10% by volume.
At higher concentrations of ethanol above 10%, the vapor pressure of the blend starts to decrease. At a 10%
ethanol by volume, the rise in vapor pressure may potentially increase
the problem of photochemical smog. This rise in vapor pressure could
be mitigated by increasing or decreasing the percentage of ethanol in
the gasoline mixture.

The chief risks of such leaks come not from vehicles, but from gasoline
delivery truck accidents and leaks from storage tanks. Because of this
risk, most (underground) storage tanks now have extensive measures in
place to detect and prevent any such leaks, such as monitoring systems
(Veeder-Root, Franklin Fueling).

Production of gasoline consumes 0.63 gallon of water per mile

driven.[50]
HAZMAT class 3 gasoline

Toxicity

The safety data sheet for unleaded gasoline shows at least 15 hazardous chemicals occurring in various
amounts, including benzene (up to 5% by volume), toluene (up to 35% by volume), naphthalene (up to 1% by
volume), trimethylbenzene (up to 7% by volume), methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) (up to 18% by volume, in
some states) and about ten others.[51] Hydrocarbons in gasoline generally exhibit low acute toxicities, with
LD50 of 7002700 mg/kg for simple aromatic compounds.[52] Benzene and many antiknocking additives are
carcinogenic.

People can be exposed to gasoline in the workplace by swallowing it, breathing in vapors, skin contact, and eye
contact. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has designated gasoline as a
carcinogen.[53]

Inhalation for intoxication

Inhaled (huffed) gasoline vapor is a common intoxicant. Users concentrate and inhale gasoline vapour in a
manner not intended by the manufacturer to produce euphoria and intoxication. Gasoline inhalation has become
epidemic in some poorer communities and indigenous groups in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and some
Pacific Islands.[54] The practice is thought to cause severe organ damage, including mental
retardation.[55][56][57]

In Canada, Native children in the isolated Northern Labrador community of Davis Inlet were the focus of
national concern in 1993, when many were found to be sniffing gasoline. The Canadian and provincial
Newfoundland and Labrador governments intervened on a number of occasions, sending many children away
for treatment. Despite being moved to the new community of Natuashish in 2002, serious inhalant abuse
problems have continued. Similar problems were reported in Sheshatshiu in 2000 and also in Pikangikum First
Nation.[58] In 2012, the issue once again made the news media in Canada.[59]

Australia has long faced a petrol (gasoline) sniffing problem in isolated and impoverished aboriginal
communities. Although some sources argue that sniffing was introduced by United States servicemen stationed
in the nation's Top End during World War II[60] or through experimentation by 1940s-era Cobourg Peninsula
sawmill workers,[61] other sources claim that inhalant abuse (such as glue inhalation) emerged in Australia in
the late 1960s. Chronic, heavy petrol sniffing appears to occur among remote, impoverished indigenous
communities, where the ready accessibility of petrol has helped to make it a common substance for abuse.

In Australia, petrol sniffing now occurs widely throughout remote Aboriginal communities in the Northern
Territory, Western Australia, northern parts of South Australia and Queensland. The number of people sniffing
petrol goes up and down over time as young people experiment or sniff occasionally. "Boss", or chronic,
sniffers may move in and out of communities; they are often responsible for encouraging young people to take

it up.[62] In 2005, the Government of Australia and BP Australia began the usage of opal fuel in remote areas
it up.[62] In 2005, the Government of Australia and BP Australia began the usage of opal fuel in remote areas
prone to petrol sniffing.[63] Opal is a non-sniffable fuel (which is much less likely to cause a high) and has
made a difference in some indigenous communities.

Flammability

Like other hydrocarbons, gasoline burns in a limited range of its

vapor phase and, coupled with its volatility, this makes leaks
highly dangerous when sources of ignition are present. Gasoline
has a lower explosive limit of 1.4% by volume and an upper
explosive limit of 7.6%. If the concentration is below 1.4%, the air-
gasoline mixture is too lean and does not ignite. If the
concentration is above 7.6%, the mixture is too rich and also does
not ignite. However, gasoline vapor rapidly mixes and spreads with
air, making unconstrained gasoline quickly flammable.

Use and pricing

Uncontrolled burning of gasoline produces
The United States accounts for about 44% of the worlds gasoline large quantities of soot and carbon monoxide.
consumption.[64] In 2003, the United States consumed 476
gigaliters (126 billion U.S. gallons; 105 billion imperial
gallons),[65] which equates to 1.3 gigaliters (340 million U.S. gallons; 290 million imperial gallons) of gasoline
each day. The United States used about 510 gigaliters (130 billion U.S. gallons; 110 billion imperial gallons) of
gasoline in 2006, of which 5.6% was mid-grade and 9.5% was premium grade.[66]

Europe

Unlike the US, countries in Europe impose substantial taxes on fuels such as gasoline. The price of gasoline in
Europe is typically about three times that in the US.

United States

From 1998 to 2004, the price of gasoline fluctuated between US$1 and US$2 per U.S. gallon.[67] After 2004,
the price increased until the average gas price reached a high of $4.11 per U.S. gallon in mid-2008, but receded
to approximately $2.60 per U.S. gallon by September 2009.[67] More recently, the U.S. experienced an upswing
in gasoline prices through 2011,[68] and by 1 March 2012, the national average was $3.74 per gallon.

In the United States, most consumer goods bear pre-tax prices, but gasoline prices are posted with taxes
included. Taxes are added by federal, state, and local governments. As of 2009, the federal tax is 18.4 per
gallon for gasoline and 24.4 per gallon for diesel (excluding red diesel).[69] Among states, the highest gasoline
tax rates, including the federal taxes as of 2005, are New York (62.9/gal), Hawaii (60.1/gal), and California
(60/gal).[68]

About 9% of all gasoline sold in the US in May 2009 was premium grade, according to the Energy Information
Administration. Consumer Reports magazine says, "If [your owners manual] says to use regular fuel, do so
there's no advantage to a higher grade."[70] The Associated Press said premium gaswhich is a higher octane
and costs more per gallon than regular unleadedshould be used only if the manufacturer says it is
"required".[71] Cars with turbocharged engines and high compression ratios often specify premium gas because
higher octane fuels reduce the incidence of "knock", or fuel pre-detonation.[72] The price of gas varies during
the summer and winter months.[73]

CO2 production
About 19.64 pounds (8.91 kg) of carbon dioxide (CO2) are produced from burning a (US) gallon (3.78l) of
gasoline that does not contain ethanol (2.36 kg/l). About 22.38 pounds (10.15 kg) of CO2 are produced from
burning a (US) gallon (3.78l) of diesel fuel (2.69 kg/l).[49]

The US EIA estimates that U.S. motor gasoline and diesel (distillate) fuel consumption for transportation in
2015 resulted in the emission of about 1,105 million metric tons of CO2 and 440 million metric tons of CO2,
respectively, for a total of 1,545 million metric tons of CO2.[49] This total was equivalent to 83% of total U.S.
transportation sector CO2 emissions and equivalent to 29% of total U.S. energy-related CO2 emissions in
2015.[49]

Most of the retail gasoline now sold in the United States contains about 10% fuel ethanol (or E10) by
volume.[49] Burning a gallon of E10 produces about 17.68 pounds of CO2 that is emitted from the fossil fuel
content. If the CO2 emissions from ethanol combustion are considered, then about 18.95 pounds of CO2 are
produced when a gallon of E10 is combusted.[49] About 12.73 pounds of CO2 are produced when a gallon of
pure ethanol is combusted.[49]

Biodiesel fuel is sold with various amounts of biodiesel content. B20 is a commonly sold biodiesel fuel. B20
contains 20% biodiesel and 80% petroleum diesel fuel. Burning a gallon of B20 results in the emission of about
17.90 pounds of CO2 that is emitted from the fossil fuel content. If the emissions from burning the biodiesel in
B20 are included, then about 22.06 pounds of CO2 are produced. About 20.77 pounds of CO2 are produced
from burning a gallon of B100 (100% biodiesel).[49]

Comparison with other fuels

Volumetric and mass energy density of some fuels compared with gasoline (in the rows with gross and net, they
are from[74]):

Gross Gross
Net BTU/gal
Fuel type Gross MJ/L MJ/kg BTU/gal BTU/gal RON
(U.S.)
(imp) (U.S.)

Conventional gasoline 34.8 44.4[75] 150,100 125,000 115,400 9192

Autogas (LPG) (Consisting mostly of C3 and

26.8 46 95,640 108
C4 hydrocarbons)

Ethanol 21.2[75] 26.8[75] 101,600 84,600 75,700 108.7[76]

Methanol 17.9 19.9[75] 77,600 64,600 56,600 123

Butanol[2] 29.2 36.6 6,087 7,311 9199

Gasohol 31.2 145,200 120,900 112,400 93/94

Diesel(*) 38.6 45.4 166,600 138,700 128,700 25

33.3
Biodiesel 126,200 117,100
35.7[77]

Avgas (high octane gasoline) 33.5 46.8 144,400 120,200 112,000

Jet fuel (kerosene based) 35.1 43.8 151,242 125,935

Jet fuel (naphtha) 127,500 118,700

Liquefied natural gas 25.3 ~55 109,000 90,800

Liquefied petroleum gas 46.1 91,300 83,500

10.1 (at 20
Hydrogen 142 130[78]
kelvin)
(*) Diesel fuel is not used in a gasoline engine, so its low octane rating is not an issue; the relevant metric for diesel engines is
the cetane number

See also
Aviation fuel Internal combustion engine (ICE)
Butanol fuel replacement fuel for use in Jerrycan
unmodified gasoline engines List of automotive fuel brands
Diesel fuel List of gasoline additives
Filling station Natural-gas condensate#Drip gas
Fuel dispenser Octane rating
Fuel saving device World oil market chronology from 2003
Gasoline and diesel usage and pricing
Gasoline gallon equivalent
Internal combustion engine (ICE)
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Bibliography
Gold, Russell. The Boom: How Fracking Ignited the American Energy Revolution and Changed the
World (Simon & Schuster, 2014).
Yergin, Daniel. The Quest: Energy, Security, and the Remaking of the Modern World (Penguin, 2011).
Yergin, Daniel. The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power (Buccaneer Books, 1994; latest
edition: Reissue Press, 2008).
Graph of inflation-corrected historic prices, 19702005. Highest in 2005
The Low-Down on High Octane Gasoline
MMT-US EPA
An introduction to the modern petroleum science, and to the Russian-Ukrainian theory of deep, abiotic
petroleum origins.
What's the difference between premium and regular gas? (from The Straight Dope)
"Here Comes Winter Gasoline" R-Squared Energy Blog 14 September 2006
International Fuel Prices 2005 with diesel and gasoline prices of 172 countries
EIAGasoline and Diesel Fuel Update
World Internet News: "Big Oil Looking for Another Government Handout", April 2006.
Durability of various plastics: Alcohols vs. Gasoline
Dismissal of the Claims of a Biological Connection for Natural petroleum.
Fuel Economy Impact Analysis of RFG i.e. reformulated gasoline. Has lower heating value data, actual
energy content is higher see higher heating value

External links
CNN/Money: Global gas prices
EEP: European gas prices
Transportation Energy Data Book
Energy Supply Logistics Searchable Directory of US Terminals
Definition of basic terms, Graphs of Gas prices. all in Slovak language
Gasoline from Vinegar | MIT Technology Review
High octane fuel, leaded and LRP gasolinearticle from robotpig.net
CDC NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
Aviation Fuel Map

Images

Down the Gasoline Trail Handy Jam Organization, 1935 (Cartoon)

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