Endocrine

System

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 Functions
1. Regulates metabolism and growth

2. Control of food intake and digestion

3. Tissue development

4. Regulates ions (calcium, sodium, potassium)

5. Maintains water balance

6. Regulates heart rate and blood pressure

7. Monitors blood glucose levels

8. Reproductive functions

9. Controls uterine contractions and milk production

10. Aids the immune system

 Components of Endocrine System
Endocrine glands
secrete their product directly into blood stream

Chemical signal
molecules that are released from one location, move to
another location, and produce a response

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 Types of Chemical Signals
Intracellular
produce in one of part a cell and move to another part
of same cell

Intercellular
released from one cell and bind to receptors on another
cell

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 Types of Intercellular Signals
Autocrine
released by cells and a have local effect on same cell type
Ex. Eicosanoids (released in response to inflammation)

Paracrine
released by cells that affect other cell types in close
proximity
Ex. Somatostatin (inhibits insulin secretion)

Neurotransmitter and neuromodulators

secreted by nerve cells
Ex. Nervous system function
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 Pheromones
secreted into environment and modify behavior and
physiology of other individual in same species
Ex. Women and menstrual cycles

Hormones and neurohormones

secreted into blood and bind to receptor sites
Ex. Epinephrine and insulin

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 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Endocrine Glands*

Endocrine Cells*

*responsible for secreting

minute amount of
chemical messengers
called HORMONES.
 Components of Hormones
Receptor site
location on a cell where hormone binds (lock)

Target tissues
group of cells that respond to specific hormones

Specificity
specific hormones bind to specific receptor sites

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 Types of Hormones
Water soluble
Polar molecules
most common includes proteins, peptides, amino acids]
Relatively half short lives- degraded by proteases or lysosomal
enzymes
Regulate activities that a rapid onset and short duration
STABLE attached to a carbohydrates or proteins
Ex. Growth hormone, antidiuretic, prolactin

Lipid hormones
Non-polar
includes steroids and fatty acid derivative: eicosanoids
Attached to binding proteins that transport the hormones
Diffused out of the capillaries and degraded by the circulating
hydrolytic enzymes urine
Ex. LH, FSH, androgens 12
 How does this work?

1. Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands

directly into bloodstream

2. Hormones travel to all parts of body

3. Hormones (key) bind to receptor site (lock) on

target tissue

4. Response occurs

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 How do hormones cause change?
Alter cell activity of target tissues by increasing or
decreasing cells normal processes

Change permeability of cell membrane by opening or

closing ion channels

Synthesis of proteins

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 Regulation of Hormones
HUMORAL STIMULI

Blood levels of chemicals

Ex. Blood glucose levels (insulin)
potassium level (aldosterone)

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 NEURAL STIMULI

Nervous system
Ex. Epinephrine and
fight or flight response

NEUROPEPTIDES
Secreted neuronal
hormones which go to
the blood directly
 HORMONAL
STIMULI

Other hormones
Releasing
hormones

Ex. TSH signals

thyroid gland to
release thyroid
hormone
 Inhibition of Hormones
HUMORAL
Companion hormones which oppose the effect of the
secreted hormone.

NEURAL
Stimulate the target which does not secrete its hormone

HORMONAL
Inhibiting hormones
Regulation of Hormone Levels in the Blood

Negative Feedback
tells body when homeostasis is reached

Positive Feedback
stimulated by a tropic hormone which will promote
synthesis of proteins and secretion of additional tropic
hormones.
 Classes of Hormone Receptors
Lipid soluble hormones bind to nuclear receptors
Relatively small
Diffuse through the plasma membrane and bind to nuclear
receptor which are usually at the cell nucleus or cytoplasm

Water soluble hormones bind to membrane bound

receptors
Cannot passed through the cell membrane, interact with
membrane bound receptors.
Action of Nuclear Receptors in lipid-soluble hormones
Membrane-bound receptors and signal
amplification
1. Alteration of the activity of the G protein at the
inner surface of the plasma membrane

2. Directly altering the activity of the intercellular

enzymes.

Secondary Messengers
Chemical produced inside a cell once a hormone bind to a
certain membrane bound receptors.

Second messenger system

Membrane bound receptors that activate G
proteins
G proteins that interact with Adenylate cyclase
 Signal
Amplification

Single hormones activate

many second messengers
which also produces
enormous amount of the final
product.
Endocrine Glands and
their hormones
Pituitary Gland
Small gland in brain

Controlled by hypothalamus

Connected by a stalk called

infundibulum

Divided into 2 regions:

anterior and posterior

Secretes at least 6
hormones
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 Anterior Pituitary Gland
1. Growth Hormone

Target tissues
most

Functions:
stimulates growth of bones, muscles, and other organs

Abnormalities
Too much GH causes giantism
Too little GH causes pituitary dwarfism
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2. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Target tissues
thyroid gland

Functions
regulates thyroid gland secretions

Abnormalities
Too much TSH, thyroid gland enlarges
Too little TSH, thyroid gland shrinks

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Figure 10.14
3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Target tissues
Cortex of the adrenal gland

Functions
secretion of cortisol which is required in keeping the
adrenal cortex from degeneration.

Abnormalities
Too much ACTH, darkening of the skin
4. GONADOTROPINS

A. LH (Luteinizing) for females

Target tissue
Ovaries

Function
promotes ovulation and progesterone production

LH for males
Target tissue
Testes

Function
sperm production and testosterone
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B. FSH (Follicle-Stimulating)

FSH for females:

Target tissue
follicles in ovaries

Function
follicle maturation and estrogen secretion

FSH for males:

Target tissue
seminiferous tubules (testes)

Function
sperm production 36
5. Prolactin:

Target tissues
mammary glands and ovaries

Functions
milk production

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6. Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)

Target tissues
many

Functions
producing colored pigmentation found in the skin, hair and
eyes

Abnormalities
Too much MSH, darkening of the skin
 Posterior Pituitary Gland
1. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
Target tissues
Kidneys

Functions
conserve water

Abnormalities
Diabetes insipidus
low ADH
kidneys to produce large amounts of dilute (watery)
urine
can lead to dehydration and thirst 39
2. Oxytocin:

Target tissues
uterus

Functions
increases uterine contractions during labor ; milk let-down

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 Thyroid Gland
One of largest glands
Requires iodine to function
Thyroid hormones

Target tissues
most

Functions
regulates metabolic rates and is needed for growth

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 Abnormalities of Thyroid Gland
Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism

Decreased metabolism Increased metabolism

Weight gain, reduced Weight loss, increased

appetite, fatigue appetite, nervousness

Low temperature and pulse Higher temp. and pulse

Dry, cold skin Warm, flushed skin

Myxedema in adults Graves disease (leads to

goiter)
Cretinism in infants
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Calcitonin
Target tissues
bones

Functions
secreted when blood Ca2+ levels are high

If Ca 2+ is low then osteoclasts break down bone matrix

and less Ca 2+ is lost in urine.
If Ca 2+ is high then osteoclasts dont break down bone
matrix and more Ca 2+ is lost in urine.

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 Parathyroid gland
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Target tissues
bones and kidneys

Functions
regulates blood Ca2+ levels
(more than calcitonin)

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 Abnormalities

Hyperparathyroidism
High rate of PTH secretion
Tumor in the parathyroid gland
High amount of calcium bones become soft, deformed and
easily fractured.
Excess calcium can cause inflammation to soft tissues leading
to kidney stones.

Hypoparathyroidism
Surgical removal of thyroid and parathyroid glands
Low level of calcium reduction in bone reabsorption and
formation of vitamin D.
Spontaneous action potential could also be generated leading to
tetanus resulting to death
 Adrenal Glands
On kidneys
2 regions medulla and cortex

Adrenal Medulla (inner portion):

Epinephrine/Norepinephrine
Target tissues
heart, blood vessels, liver, fat cells
Functions
released as part of fight or flight response

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Adrenal Cortex (outer portion)

Aldosterone:
- Type of mineralocorticoids

Target tissues
Kidneys

Functions
causes Na+ and H2O to be retained and K+ to be secreted,
indirectly involved with blood pressure and blood volume

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 Cortisol
Type of glucocorticoids

Target tissues
most

Functions
increases breakdown of fat and protein for energy uses
reduces inflammatory and immune responses

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 Androgens

Target tissues
most

Functions
Males: secondary sexual characteristic
Females: sex drive

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 Pancreas
Consist of Pancreatic islets
Secretes 3 hormones
Alpha cells secretes glucagon
Beta cells secretes insulin
Delta cells- secretes somatostatin
 Insulin
Release from Beta cells

Target tissues
liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue and satiety center of
hypothalamus.

Functions
regulates blood glucose levels
after a meal glucose levels are high and insulin is secreted
extra glucose is stored in form of glycogen

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 Abnormalities

Diabetes mellitus
Causes: too little insulin or faulty insulin receptors
Symptoms: exaggerated appetite, excess urine,
dehydration, thirst, fatigue

Type I: insulin dependent

daily injections required

Type II: insulin independent

often found in obese people, can be treated with diet
but can turn into type I

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Glucagon

Target tissues
liver

Function
regulates blood glucose levels
between meals glucose levels drop and glucagon is secreted
glucagon allows glycogen to be broken down into glucose

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Somatostatin

Released by delta cells

Function
Inhibiting the secretion of insulin and glucagon and inhibits
gastric tract activity.

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 Testes

Testosterone

Target tissues
most

Functions
aids in sperm and reproductive organ development and
function

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 Ovaries
Estrogen and Progesterone

Target tissues
most

Functions
involved in uterine and mammary gland development
and menstrual cycle

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 Thymus gland

Thymosin Hormone

Target tissues
immune system tissues

Functions
promotes immune system
development and function

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 Pineal Body (Gland)

Melatonin

Target tissues
hypothalamus

Functions
plays a role in onset of puberty and controls circadian
rhythms.
Light affects its function.

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 Other Hormones
Prostaglandins
Distributed in all parts of the body
Some cause relation of smooth muscles dilation of BV
Contraction of smooth muscles delivery of baby
Medically used to initiate abortion

Erythropoietin
Reduced oxygen level in kidneys bone marrow to
increase the production of RBC

Human Chorionic gonadotropin

Secreted usually by pregnant women to stimulate breast
development.
Effects of Aging on the Endocrine System

1. Age related changes including gradual decrease in

GH in people who do not exercise
Melatonin
Thyroid hormone decrease
Reproductive hormones
Thymosin

2. PTH increases if Vitamin D and Calcium level

decrease

3. Increase in Type 2 diabetes in people with a familial

tendency.