CONTENTS

1. STANDARDIZATION OF THE SOLUTION ............................................................ 1

1.1. Objective ......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Apparatus ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.3. Required Chemicals ...................................................................................................... 1
1.4. Indicators ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.5. Theoretical Background ............................................................................................... 1
1.6. Procedure........................................................................................................................ 2
2. ALKALINIY ESTIMATION .............................................................................................. 4
2.1. Objective ............................................................................................................................. 4
2.2. Apparatus ....................................................................................................................... 4
2.3. Reagents .......................................................................................................................... 4
2.4. Theoretical Background ............................................................................................... 4
2.5. Environmental Significance ..................................................................................... 4
2.6. Procedure........................................................................................................................ 5
3. ESTIMATION OF CHLORIDES IN WATER ................................................................ 6
3.1. Objective ......................................................................................................................... 6
3.2. Apparatus ....................................................................................................................... 6
3.3. Reagents .......................................................................................................................... 6
3.4. Theoretical Background ............................................................................................... 6
3.5. Procedure........................................................................................................................ 6
3.6. Observations & Calculations ....................................................................................... 7
4. ESTIMATION OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN FOR WASTEWATER ........................... 8
4.1. Objective ......................................................................................................................... 8
4.2. Apparatus ....................................................................................................................... 8
4.3. Reagents .......................................................................................................................... 8
4.4. Theoratical Background ............................................................................................... 8
4.5. Procedure........................................................................................................................ 8
4.6. Observations And Calculations .................................................................................. 9
5. EFFECT OF SEDIMENTATION ON BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
(BOD) FOR WASTEWATER .................................................................................................. 10
 Experimental Methods In Environmental Engineering: Lab. Manual

5.1. Objective ....................................................................................................................... 10

5.2. Apparatus ..................................................................................................................... 10
5.3. Reagents ........................................................................................................................ 10
5.4. Theoretical Background ............................................................................................. 10
5.5. Procedure...................................................................................................................... 10
5.6. Observations And Calculations ................................................................................ 12
5.7. Objective ....................................................................................................................... 15
5.8. Apparatus ..................................................................................................................... 15
5.9. Chemicals Required .................................................................................................... 15
5.10. Theoretical Background ...................................................................................... 15
5.11. Procedure .................................................................................................................. 15
5.12. Observations And Calculation............................................................................... 16
6. Estimation of sulfates in drinking water ......................................................................... 17
6.1. Objective ....................................................................................................................... 17
6.2. Apparatus ..................................................................................................................... 17
6.3. Chemicals used ............................................................................................................ 17
6.4. theoretical background ............................................................................................... 17
6.5. Procedure...................................................................................................................... 18
6.6. Observations and calculations ................................................................................... 18
References ................................................................................................................................... 19

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 Experimental Methods In Environmental Engineering: Lab. Manual

1. STANDARDIZATION OF THE SOLUTION

1.1. OBJECTIVE
To standardize the given solution

1.2. APPARATUS
Burette
Pipette
Titration flask
Measuring Cylinder
1.3. REQUIRED CHEMICALS
Auxolic Acid
Sodium hydroxide
Sulfuric acid
1.4. INDICATORS
Phenolphthalein
EBT

1.5. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

When an unknown quantity of a reagent is reacted with a known quantity of a second
reagent then based upon theoretical data, concentration of unknown quantity reagent is
calculated and percentage error is found. This process is called standardization.

Solution that contains precise known concentration of substance is called a standard solution.
Normally it is expressed as moles per liter. Standards are of two types: Primary and Secondary.

A primary standard is the one which is pure, stable, high molecular weight and has no
water of hydration. Secondary standard is usually prepared in the laboratories for
specific purposes with the help of primary standards.

Standardization helps in calculation of exact concentration of substances being used in

different reactions and solution preparations.

Molarity is defined as the ratio of the number of moles of solute and the volume of
solution (in liters), symbolized by M

Molarity-M (moles/liter) =

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 Experimental Methods In Environmental Engineering: Lab. Manual

Normality is defined as the concentration equal to the gram equivalent weight per liter
of solution, symbolized by N

()
Normality-N =
()

Mass of a compound or substance that reacts with a reference compound is called gram
equivalent. It is the molecular mass of atom that reacts divided by the valence. Mass is
taken in grams. (Sawyer and McCarty 1978), (Csuros 1997)

1.6. PROCEDURE
0.1 M oxalic acid was prepared and provided. An unknown concentration of NaOH
solution was given. Firstly its molarity will be estimated using known concentration
solution of oxalic acid.

Take 10 mL of oxalic acid in titration flask.

Add phenolphthalein indicator in it. Pink color appears.
Now titrate it against NaOH till pink color disappears.
Note the volume of NaOH used, suppose.
Now using formula
11 22
=
1 2

Where M = Molarity, V = volume and N = no. of moles, 1 is for oxalic acid and 2 is for
NaOH
Now calculating
(COOH)2. 2H2O + 2NaOH Na2C2O4 + 2H2O

0.110 224.3
=
1 2
Molarity of NaOH (M2) = 0.082 M

(0.10.082)100
% error as compare to 0.1 M = = 18 %
0.1
Now to standardize the sulfuric acid with the help of NaOH solution, density of
sulfuric acid is 1.84 and for it to be 0.1 M mass should be 9.8 g and using density
volume should be 5.3 mL
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 Experimental Methods In Environmental Engineering: Lab. Manual

Now to react with standard NaOH 0.082 M solution with 0.1 M sulfuric acid volume is
calculated to be:
H2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2H2O
33 22
=
3 2
2 is for NaOH and 3 is for Sulfuric Acid
0.13 0.08210
=
1 2
Volume of sulfuric acid used V3 = 4.1 mL
If Sulfuric acid is 0.1 M then volume used should be 4.1 mL Now to check take 10 mL of
0.082 M NaOH solution in titration flash and add indicator, color turns to pink titrate it
against sulfuric acid. Note the volume
Volume of sulfuric acid used is 5.9 mL now to find actual molarity of sulfuric acid
33 22
=
3 2
35.9 0.08210
=
1 2
Molarity of sulfuric acid (actual) M3 = 0.07 M
(0.10.07)100
% error as compare to 0.1 M = = 30 %
0.1

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 Experimental Methods In Environmental Engineering: Lab. Manual

2. ALKALINIY ESTIMATION
2.1. OBJECTIVE
To estimate the alkalinity of given samples by titrating against sulfuric acid.

2.2. APPARATUS
Burette
Pipette
Titration flask
Measuring Cylinder

2.3. REAGENTS
0.02N sulfuric acid
Phenolphthalein indicator
Methyl orange indicator

2.4. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Alkalinity is defined as the capacity of water or a solution to neutralize acids. Water
alkalinity is majorly due to presence of calcium carbonate which dissolved in water
from rocks such as limestone while water flows over these. Alkalinity of water can also
be affected by addition of salts or waste water. Alkalinity is expressed as mg per liter of
calcium carbonate.

Alkalinity is due to hydroxyl (OH-1), bicarbonate (HCO3-1) and carbonate (CO3-2) ions.
Alkalinity can be classified as P and M alkalinity.

P-alkalinity determines all hydroxyl and half of the carbonate alkalinity.

M-alkalinity determines the total of carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxyl
alkalinity. (Sawyer and McCarty 1978), (Benjamin 2014)

Water types Alkalinity mg/L

Rainwater < 10
Typical surface water 20 200
Surface water in regions with alkaline soils 100 500
Groundwater 50 1000
Seawater 100 500

2.5. ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

Alkalinity of water / solution tells how it handles sudden changes in pH. Because of
this, alkalinity is very important for aquatic life as it provides protection against pH
changes. Areas which are affected by acidic rain, alkalinity is very important there.

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 Experimental Methods In Environmental Engineering: Lab. Manual

2.6. PROCEDURE
Take 50 mL of sample in a titration flask.
Add 1ml of phenolphthalein indicator.
If Pink color doesnt appear means there is no P-alkalinity.
But if Pink color appears then P-alkalinity exists.
To find P-alkalinity titrate it against 0.02N sulfuric acid till pink color
just disappears.
Note down H2SO4 volume used, suppose P mL
Now in same solution add 1 mL of methyl orange indicator, orange color appears.
Titrate it against (0.02 N) sulfuric acid till the orange color changes to red.
Note down the volume of H2SO4 used, suppose M mL
(P(mL)N(0.02)Eq.Wt(50)1000)
Phenolphthalein alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO3) =
(Volume of sample in mL)

(M(mL)N(0.02)Eq.Wt(50)1000)
Methyl orange alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO3) =
(Volume of sample in mL)

((P+M)(mL)N(0.02)Eq.Wt(50)1000)
Total alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO3) =
(Volume of sample in mL)

2.7. OBSERCATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Three samples are provided.

1st sample:

P= 0 mL > P-Alkalinity = 0 mg/L

M= 11 mL > M-Alkalinity = 220 mg/L

Total Alkalinity (P+M) = 220 mg/L

2nd sample:

P= 10 mL > P-Alkalinity = 200 mg/L

M= 16.8 mL > M-Alkalinity = 336 mg/L

Total Alkalinity (P+M) = 536 mg/L

3rd sample:

P= 0 mL > P-Alkalinity = 0 mg/L

M= 13.5 mL > M-Alkalinity = 270 mg/L

Total Alkalinity (P+M) = 270 mg/L

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 Experimental Methods In Environmental Engineering: Lab. Manual

3. ESTIMATION OF CHLORIDES IN WATER

3.1. OBJECTIVE
To calculate the amount of chlorides in the given sample by titrating it against mercuric
nitrate

3.2. APPARATUS
Burette
Pipette
Titration flask
Measuring cylinder

3.3. REAGENTS
Mercuric Nitrate 0.141N Hg(NO3)2
Nitric Acid
Mixed indicator (di-phenyl carbazone + Bromophenol dissolved in alcohol)

3.4. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Chlorides are salts which are formed when metal and chlorine gas combines. Sodium
chloride (NaCl), magnesium chloride (MgCl2) and calcium chloride (CaCl2) are
commonly present chlorides. However, Chlorine as Cl2 is toxic and a disinfectant for
water. Chlorides are measured as mg per Liter.
Chlorides are essential minerals. Excess of chlorides can cause increase in blood
pressure. Human metabolism requires chlorides for proper functioning. Chlorides and
hydrogen forms hydrochloric acid inside stomach that breaks down the food. Kidneys
control chloride content of the blood.

Higher concentrations of chloride in water can cause corrosion of pipes thus increasing
metal contents in the drinking water. (Sawyer and McCarty 1978), (Cohen-Adad and
Lorimer 2013)

Sodium chloride is very important in regard to industries. It is widely used as raw

material for the production of many products such as soda ash and caustic soda.

3.5. PROCEDURE
Take 50 mL of sample in a titration flask.

Add mixed indicator in it. Violet color will appear

Now add conc. Nitric acid in it till violet color disappears.

Now titrate it against 0.141 N Hg (NO3)-2 mercuric nitrate till violet color reappears.

Note the volume of mercuric nitrate used suppose A Ml

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 Experimental Methods In Environmental Engineering: Lab. Manual

Calculate chlorides using the formula given below:

(A(mL)N(0.141)Eq.Wt(35.48)1000)
Cl- (mg/L) =
(Volume of sample in mL (50))

3.6. OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

1st Sample:
Volume A used: 8.8 mL
Cl-1 (mg/L) = 880.96 mg/L
2nd Sample:
Volume A used: 7.6 mL
Cl-1 (mg/L) = 760.836 mg/L
3rd Sample:
Volume A used: 3.2 mL
Cl-1 (mg/L) = 320.352 mg/L
4th Sample:
Volume A used: 15 mL
Cl-1 (mg/L) = 1501.65 mg/L

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 Experimental Methods In Environmental Engineering: Lab. Manual

4. ESTIMATION OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN FOR

WASTEWATER
4.1. OBJECTIVE
To find the amount of dissolved oxygen in the given sample

4.2. APPARATUS
BOD bottles
Pipette
Burette
Titration flask
Measuring cylinder
4.3. REAGENTS
Sample
MnSO4
Alkali Azide
Conc. H2SO4
0.025 N Sodium thiosulfate Na2S2O3
Starch

4.4. THEORATICAL BACKGROUND

Oxygen dissolved in water is called the Dissolved oxygen. In water stream, oxygen
demand is affected by Industrial and municipal water discharges, storm water runoff
from urban, industrial and agricultural areas. Aquatic life requires oxygen for their
growth. A decrease in dissolved oxygen can be lethal to aquatic life. Few hours of very
low DO values can kill a large fish. A very high conc. of oxygen can also affect aquatic
life. Bubbles of oxygen can block the flow of blood in fish. Sudden changes of DO also
induce stress in fish.

Dissolved oxygen determination also plays important role in controlling the aerobic
reactions. DO also first step in calculation of biological oxygen demand. (Liptak 1994),
(Sawyer and McCarty 1978)

4.5. PROCEDURE
Take 300 mL BOD bottle and fill it completely with sample.
After that place cap on it and remove extra volume.
Add 1 mL of MnSO4 + 1mL of Alkali Azide solution.

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 Experimental Methods In Environmental Engineering: Lab. Manual

If sample contains oxygen, after addition of Alkali Azide, yellow (low oxygen
intensity) or brown (high oxygen intensity) color precipitates will appear. These
precipitates are indicators of presence of oxygen. If white precipitates form, sample
contains no oxygen. If oxygen is present then proceed.
Place cap again and remove extra solution. Shake the bottle and leave it for 5-10 min
till all precipitates are settled down.
Remove the cap and add 1mL of concentrated sulfuric acid to dissolve all
precipitates. Solution color changes to reddish brown. Again, place cap on it and
remove excess solution.
Shake it and take 100 ml of it in a titration flask and titrate it against sodium
thiosulfate solution 0.025N till pale yellow color appears
Add 1 mL of starch solution. Color will change to violet.
Again titrate it against sodium thiosulfate solution till solution becomes colorless.
Note the used volume, suppose A1
Repeat the same procedure for remaining solution by taking 100 mL, 100 mL
Add these three volumes A1, A2, A3 of sodium thiosulfate to get total volume,
suppose A mL
Find DO by the given formula:
((A)(mL)N(0.025)Eq.Wt(8)1000)
DO (mg/L) =
F(Volume of sample)

300 (mL)Volume of all reagents added (3 mL)

F= = 0.99
BOD Bottle Volume (300 mL)

4.6. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

1st sample
Total volume = 3.5 + 3.8 + 4.0 = 11.3 mL
DO (mg/L) = 7.61 mg/L
2nd sample
Total volume = 2.3 + 2.4 + 2.4 = 7.1
DO (mg/L) = 4.78 mg/L
3rd sample
White precipitates
No dissolved oxygen

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 Experimental Methods In Environmental Engineering: Lab. Manual

5. EFFECT OF SEDIMENTATION ON BIOCHEMICAL

OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD) FOR WASTEWATER
5.1. OBJECTIVE
To find the effect of sedimentation upon biological oxygen demand of a given sample.

5.2. APPARATUS
300 mL BOD bottles
Incubator
Measuring cylinder
Pipette
Beaker
titration flask
Burette
5.3. REAGENTS
MnSO4 solution
Alkali Azide solution
Concentrated sulfuric acid
0.025N Na2S2O3 solution
Reagents required for the preparation of dilution media

5.4. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

For BOD measurement, take two samples at single site. One is tested at once to find
dissolved oxygen, and the second is incubated at 20 2C for 5 days (it is referred as a
Five Day BOD-BOD5) and then find for the dissolved oxygen remaining. The difference

of two values gives BOD in mg/L. this oxygen is consumed by microorganisms present
in water to decompose the organic material present in the sample.
BOD plays a major role in water treatment processes. Low BOD means, efficient
removal of waste from water.
Before test, dilution media must be prepared very efficiently to get proper readings.
Media should be of pure distilled water with dissolved essential minerals and
adequately aerated for dissolved oxygen levels. (Liptak 1994), (Sawyer and McCarty
1978)

5.5. PROCEDURE
Take 11 BOD bottles, note their numbers and arrange them in four groups.
Three bottles in group A (A1, A2, A3),

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 Experimental Methods In Environmental Engineering: Lab. Manual

Three bottles in group B (B1,B2,B3),

Three bottles in group C (C1, C2, C3),
Two bottles in group four i.e. of blank (blank1, blank2)
Half-fill each of these bottles with dilution media.
First do the following procedure for the sample before sedimentation and then after
sedimentation. When all readings are noted, removal efficiency can be calculated as
() ()
Removal Efficiency = ( )*100
()
Add 1 ml of waste water sample in A1, B1, and C1 each.
Add 3 ml of waste water sample in A2, B2, and C2 each.
Add 5 ml of waste water sample in A3, B3, and C3 each.
Now fill the bottles completely with dilution media and place the stopper such that
no air bubbles are trapped.
Remaining two bottles of blank are completely filled with dilution media.
Now take three bottles of group A and blank1. Estimate there DO. This will be DO
at 0 day.
Find DO by the given formula:
((A)(mL)N(0.025)Eq.Wt(8)1000)
DO (mg/L) =
F(Volume of sample)

300 (mL)Volume of all reagents added (3 mL)

F= = 0.99
BOD Bottle Volume (300 mL)

Place rest of the seven bottles in the incubator at 20 2C for 5-days.

After five days find the DO in all the remaining bottles.
Now find difference of DO at zero day and five / seven day this will be DO
depletion.
Calculate the BOD5 for the sample using the following relationship:

mg
DO depletion ( L )300 (mL)
BOD7 (mg/l) =
volume of sample in bottle(mL)

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 Experimental Methods In Environmental Engineering: Lab. Manual

5.6. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Before Sedimentation
At Zero Day:

Bottle Sample added Volume of Volume DO

Name (mL) sample of (mg/L)
(mL) Na2S2O3
(mL)
A1 1 300 9.8 6.6
A2 3 300 11.7 7.87
A3 5 300 8.8 5.93
Blank1 0 300 11.9 7.98

After 7 Days:

Bottle Volume of Volume of Volume of DO Mean

name Sample sample Na2S2O3 (mg/L) DO
Added (mL) (mL) (mL) (mg/L)
B1 300 8.8 5.9
1 6.11
C1 300 9.4 6.32
B2 300 8 5.4
3 5.46
C2 300 8.2 5.52
B3 300 6.2 4.17
5 4.81
C3 300 8.1 5.45
Blank2 0 300 11.2 7.576

Note: Since, blank sample also shows DO depletion so its effect will be included in
other sample results.

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 Experimental Methods In Environmental Engineering: Lab. Manual

BOD7 :
Sample DO at zero DO at 7 days DO BOD at 7 days
added(mL) day(mg/L) (mg/L) depleted (mg/L)
(mg/L)
1 6.6 6.11 0.894 268.2
3 7.87 5.46 2.814 281.4
5 5.93 4.81 1.524 91.44
blank 7.98 7.576 0.404

After Sedimentation
At Zero Day:
Volume
of Volume
Sample
Bottle sample of DO
added
Name Na2S2O3 (mg/L)
(mL)
(mL)
(mL)
A1 1 300 9.4 6.31
A2 3 300 11.1 7.46
A3 5 300 7.7 5.21
Blank1 0 300 11.6 7.78
After 7 Days:

Volume Volume
Volume Mean
of of DO
Bottle of DO
Sample sample
name Na2S2O3
Added
(mL)
(mL) (mL) (mg/L) (mg/L)

B1 300 8.9 5.96

1 6.07
C1 300 9.2 6.18
B2 300 7.3 4.9
3 5.88
C2 300 10.2 6.86
B3 300 6.2 4.2
5 4.15
C3 300 6.1 4.1
Blank2 0 300 10.9 7.36

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 Experimental Methods In Environmental Engineering: Lab. Manual

Note: Since, blank sample also shows DO depletion so its effect will be included in
other sample results.
BOD7 :
BOD
DO at DO at DO at 7
Sample days
zero 7 days depleted
added(mL)
day(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
(mg/L)
1 6.31 6.07 0.66 198.47
3 7.46 5.88 2.00 199.79
5 5.21 4.44 1.19 71.32
Blank 7.78 7.36 0.42

Now to calculate the removal efficiency

1mL Sample = ((268.2-198.47)/(268.2))*100 = 26 %
3mL Sample = ((281.4-199.79)/(281.3))*100 = 29 %
5mL Sample = ((91.44-71.32)/(91.44))*100 = 22 %

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 Experimental Methods In Environmental Engineering: Lab. Manual

EFFECT OF SEDIMENTATION ON CHEMICAL OXYGEN

DEMAND (COD) FOR WASTEWATER
5.7. OBJECTIVE
To find the effect of sedimentation upon the chemical oxygen demand of the sample.

5.8. APPARATUS
Reflex condenser
COD flask
Titration flask
Burette
5.9. CHEMICALS REQUIRED
K2 Cr2O7
AgCl or HgCl2
H2SO4
Ferroin solution
FAS (0.025N)
5.10. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
The amount of dissolved oxygen in water consumed by different chemicals in it is
known as chemical oxygen demand. Sources of such chemicals are sewage, industrial
wastewater discharge, agricultural and urban runoff.
In environmental chemistry, the chemical oxygen demand (COD) test is commonly
used to indirectly measure the number of organic compounds in water. Most
applications of COD determine the amount of organic pollutants found in surface water
(e.g. lakes and rivers) or wastewater, making COD a useful measure of water quality. It
is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) also referred to as ppm (parts per million),
which indicates the mass of oxygen consumed per liter of solution. A strong oxidizing
agent will produce nascent oxygen, which will combine with organic matter for
decomposition. (Sawyer and McCarty 1978), (Liptak 1994)

5.11. PROCEDURE
For COD calculation, first find COD for blank and then for your sample.
Take 50 mL of sample or mL of your choice and fill the rest with distilled water,
in COD flask and add 6-7 glass beads in it.
If the sample contains chlorides it will react with Cr2O7-2 and chlorine will be
produced, which is highly toxic. To avoid this, add a pinch of silver or mercuric
salt (nitrate). AgCl or HgCl2 will be produced. Chlorides salts of Ag or Hg are
insoluble and precipitate out hence no interference.
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 Experimental Methods In Environmental Engineering: Lab. Manual

Now in two separate beakers, add 75 mL of sulfuric acid and 25 mL of potassium

chromate or dichromate.
Add approx. 10-15 ml of H2SO4 in COD flask very slowly.
Then add 25 ml of K2 Cr2O7 in it and then add remaining H2SO4 in it. Total
volume of sample will be 150 ml. addition should be slow.
Transfer COD flask to a reflex condenser.
High temperature produce oxygen as sulfuric acid and potassium chromate
react. That oxygen is assumed to react with organic matter and decompose it.
After 2 hrs. stop heating and leave COD apparatus for cooling.
Then add 200 ml distilled water in it. Total volume will be 350 ml.
Add 1 ml Ferroin solution as indicator, a brownish red color will appear.
Titrate this solution against Ferrous Ammonium Sulfate (0.25N), brown color
will change to green, then to orange and then again brown, that is the end point.
Note reading of FAS, suppose A.
Then find reading of FAS for blank sample, suppose B.
Find COD using following formula
((BA)(mL)N(0.25)Eq.Wt(8)1000)
COD (mg/L) =
(Volume of sample)

5.12. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION

Before Sedimentation

A=56

B=100

COD (mg/L) = 88000 mg/L

After Sedimentation

A= 75.5

B= 100

COD (mg/L) = 49000 mg/L

Removal Efficiency: ((88000-49000)/88000)*100 =44.318 %

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 Experimental Methods In Environmental Engineering: Lab. Manual

6. Estimation of sulfates in drinking water

6.1. OBJECTIVE
To estimate the sulfates by gravimetric method

6.2. APPARATUS
Conical Flasks
Beaker
Spatula
Petri dishes
Filter paper

6.3. CHEMICALS USED

Hydrated copper sulfate
Barium chloride
Distilled water

6.4. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Sulfate is a major component of rain. It is one of the highly contaminant group. It is found
excessively in seawater. Main source is from mineral rocks dissolving in water. Sulfates are of
main concern as they indirectly cause odor and sewer corrosion problem as the reduction of
sulfates forms hydrogen sulfide under anaerobic conditions. Sulfates are majorly present in the
form of Na, Ca and Mg sulfates
People not used to drink water with high levels of sulfate can experience dehydration and
diarrhea. Kids are often more sensitive to sulfate than adults. As a safety measure, water with a
sulfate level exceeding 400 mg/l should not be used in the preparation of baby food. Older
children and adults become used to high sulfate levels after a few days.
Sulfate gives a bitter or medicinal taste to water if it exceeds a concentration of 250 mg/l. This
may make it unpleasant to drink the water. If the water smells like rotten eggs, it has a
hydrogen sulfide problem. High sulfate levels may also be corrosive for plumbing, particularly
copper piping. In areas with high sulfate levels, it is common to use corrosion resistant
plumbing materials, such as plastic pipe. Secondary maximum contaminant level (SMCL) for
sulfate in drinking water is 250 milligrams per liter (mg/L) (Udeh 2004), (Sawyer and McCarty
1978)

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 Experimental Methods In Environmental Engineering: Lab. Manual

6.5. PROCEDURE
Prepare 10 ppm SO-24 in 100 ml.
Take 10 ml of above solution in a titration flask
Add a pinch of BaCl2 in it. White precipitates will form as it causes sulfates to
become insoluble.
Dilute it with distilled water till 100mL solution becomes.
Take Pre-weighted filter paper, suppose weight of filter paper is Wf.
Filter 10ppm sulfate solution using pre-weighted filter paper.
Transfer the filter paper in oven for dryness.
After complete drying and cooling weigh the filter paper.
Suppose this weight is WFR (filter paper + residue).
Difference will give the amount of sulfates in sample

6.6. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Weight of sulfates = WFR -Wf

Wf =

WFR =

Amount of sulfates =

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 Experimental Methods In Environmental Engineering: Lab. Manual

References

Benjamin, M. M. (2014). Water Chemistry: Second Edition, Waveland Press.

Cohen-Adad, R. and J. W. Lorimer (2013). Alkali Metal and Ammonium Chlorides in Water and
Heavy Water (Binary Systems), Elsevier Science.

Csuros, M. (1997). Environmental Sampling and Analysis: Lab Manual, Taylor & Francis.

Liptak, B. G. (1994). Analytical Instrumentation, Taylor & Francis.

Sawyer, C. N. and P. L. McCarty (1978). Chemistry for environmental engineering, McGraw-Hill.

Udeh, P. J. (2004). A Guide to Healthy Drinking Water: All You Need to Know about the Water You
Drink, iUniverse.

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