Winter 2007/8
DISPELLING
THE MYTHS:
THE REAL MECHANICS
OF FLYING
2.90
Interview: the mathematician
who is developing an artificial
pancreas for diabetes patients
isquared Volume 1 Number 2
Editorial
Maths plays an integral role in many aspects of modern life that we take
for granted. For example, fluid mechanics is vital for our understanding of
how aircraft stay up, and is used daily by designers seeking to build planes
which are more efficient (and thus more environmentally friendly).
Surprisingly, many teachers actually give an incorrect explanation of how
lift is achieved in flight. In this issues cover article, Ophir Samson tackles
the common misconceptions associated with the field of aerodynamics.
Another important use of mathematics in the 21st century is in
cryptography. Every time you pay by credit card on the internet, use a
cash machine or even make a call on your mobile phone, encryption
algorithms are being employed to protect your personal information and
privacy. In his article David Mireles Morales explains how these
encryption systems work.
On a similar theme, Rebecca Morris explores how maths has been used
through the ages, from number systems to logistics. Plus, in a special
24
interview, mathematician Roman Hovorka discusses how he is building
an artificial pancreas to treat diabetes sufferers. This issue of iSquared
also contains a book review, a profile of Georg Cantor and numerous
puzzles. You can even take a break and enjoy some mathematical poetry,
taken from a new book by Michael Bartholomew-Biggs. If poems about
mathematics seem a strange concept, consider that patterns are beloved
by mathematicians and poets alike, so the two disciplines are not as
disparate as we might think. If you look hard enough, maths can indeed
be found everywhere!
Sarah Shepherd
contents
FEATURES
The key to a secure future 8
By David Mireles Morales
Why public-key cryptography is vital for confidential communications in the digital age.
REGULARS
News 4
Mathematical greats 14
The life of Georg Cantor, whose theory of the infinite brought fierce opposition
from his contemporaries.
Book review 22
The Mathematicians Brain, by David Ruelle. Plus, a selection of other recent releases.
Interview 30
Roman Hovorka explains how maths is being used to develop an artificial pancreas
for diabetes patients.
Subscription form 34
Puzzles 36
In order to understand the importance of public-key whereas the idea of public key encryption is more akin to
cryptography, let us think about the millions of having a personal telephone number, that can be found in
computers, mobile phones, cash points, PIN terminals the yellow pages and used to send a message without any
and on-line retailers trying to communicate with each effort from the message recipient.
other. If we wanted to secure their interaction using
symmetric encryption algorithms, every pair of devices
would have to agree on a shared secret key before they In this article I will describe both the Diffie-Hellman
could communicate. Ensuring that every pair of devices proposal and the popular RSA public-key encryption
that might want to communicate share a secret key is scheme. Before doing this there are a few observations I
utterly impractical all of our storage capacity would be would like to make. Since public-key encryption
used up by billions of keys that might never be used. Any algorithms solve a more difficult problem than their
attempt to secure the communication between all these symmetric counterparts, they also tend to be significantly
devices would have a mind-boggling complexity.
From this perspective, it is clear that the only practical
solution to the problem would be to use asymmetric The aim of the cryptographer
encryption schemes. That way, if two devices want to
communicate, all they need to do is find each others is to make an attack so difficult
public encryption key (which could be stored in a that it becomes impossible
directory like the yellow pages) and use it to encrypt their
messages.
in practice
In their seminal paper Diffie and Hellman did not
actually present a public-key encryption algorithm. slower. When encrypting large documents, public-key
Instead they presented a protocol that would allow two algorithms are used to encrypt a key for a symmetric
different parties to generate a common secret key. The encryption algorithm, which is in turn used to encrypt the
difference between the Diffie-Hellman key-agreement bulk of the message. This approach provides the best of
protocol and a public key encryption algorithm is that in both worlds.
the Diffie-Hellman proposal both parties need to interact, In some cases the information needs to be encrypted in
FURTHER READING
New directions in cryptography. W. Diffie and M.E. Hellman, IEEE Transactions on Information Theory,
IT-22, No.6, 1976, pp.644-654.
A new kind of cipher that would take millions of years to break. M. Gardner, Scientific American,
August 1977, pp.120-124.
A method for obtaining digital signatures and public-key cryptosystems. R. L. Rivest, A. Shamir and
L. Adleman, Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery, Vol.21, No.2, 1978, pp.120-126.
The Code Book. Simon Singh, Fourth Estate, 2002.
|u|2 + p = constant
Source: http://alg.umbc.edu/usaq/archives/001854.html
have a larger circulation than a
small slow moving tornado.
Once a vortex has been created
at the wingtip, it moves off and
becomes a trailing vortex.
FURTHER READING
Physical Properties of Winged Flight. Gale M. Craig, http://www.regenpress.com/
Stop Abusing Bernoulli! How Airplanes Really Fly. Gale M. Craig, Regenerative Press, 1998.
Vortex shedding of thin wings with time dependent camber functions. Ophir Samson, MSci Thesis,
Imperial College London, 2006.
Coanda Effect: Understanding How Things Work. Jef Raskin,
http://jef.raskincenter.org/published/coanda_effect.html
and other such aids. However, it also had applications calculating the area under a graph, is essentially the
for fraudsters since it is very easy to alter written inverse operation of differentiation.
numerals. For example, just adding a 0 can turn 10 into The techniques of differentiation and integration had a
100, and therefore forged cheques are an example of how significant impact on physics in particular. As an
our modern positional number system can sometimes example, consider Newtons famous second law of
work to our disadvantage. There is no disputing the fact motion. This law states that the unbalanced force acting
that the Arabic Numerals and their modern descendant on an object is equal to the rate of change of momentum
have had great influence on people over the years the of that object, where momentum is defined to be the
fact that they are still so widespread today is testimony to
product of the mass and the velocity. To find the rate of
their power and application, both for good and for bad. change of momentum we differentiate the momentum (=
mass velocity). If we assume that the mass of the object
doesnt change with time (i.e. mass takes a constant
The power of calculus value), then differentiating momentum gives the mass
multiplied by the rate of change of velocity (which is
Having looked a little at our number system, we shall defined as the acceleration). Thus, by using
now touch on what is probably one of the most famous differentiation, we end up with the very succinct equation
developments in mathematics: calculus. This has F = ma, where F is the force in Newtons, m is the mass
applications in maths, physics, astronomy, finance, in kg and a is the acceleration in m/s2.
etcin fact its influence can be found almost everywhere. Quantities like displacement and velocity may depend
Calculus was developed independently by the great on only one variable, usually the variable of time, and
mathematicians Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm when we differentiate these to obtain velocity and
Leibnitz in the middle to late seventeenth century, and acceleration respectively, we are differentiating with
can be thought of as consisting of two (fundamentally respect to time. However, it is also possible to
related) parts: differentiation and integration. differentiate a function that depends on more than one
Differentiation is concerned with rates of change, while variable. If we differentiate with respect to one of the
integration, which is often introduced as a way of several variables on which our function depends, we have
Chinese postmen
Another recent influential development in
maths which was to have applications
almost everywhere was that of the
computer, and a very important notion for
computers is that of the algorithm.
Roughly, an algorithm is a set of
completely unambiguous instructions that
are to be carried out in a finite amount of
time. There are every day informal
examples of these all around us; from the
lather, rinse and repeat if desired found
on shampoo bottles, to the rules we follow
to perform arithmetic tasks. Although the
concept of an algorithm is probably
intuitively very familiar, it wasnt until the
early twentieth century that a precise
definition was given.
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FURTHER READING
Zero: The Biography of a Dangerous Idea. Charles Seife, Penguin, 2000.
Advanced Physics. Keith Gibbs, Cambridge University Press, 1987.
The Numbers Behind Numb3rs: Solving Crime with Mathematics. Keith Devlin and Gary Lorden,
Plume Books, 2007.
Decision Mathematics 1. John Hebborn, Heinemann Educational Publishers, 2002.
COMPUTING ERRORS
Digital alarm 2000
Poets show, dont tell: Explanation: Our answers may only be as precise
build metaphors from concrete as the data we start with. (Much even hinges on the
and specific bricks. simple fact that we have ten fingers.) Tiny errors
can get magnified during a calculation until there
In mathematics, is no accuracy in the final result. Think about the
abstract and general is meeting of two nearly parallel lines. A small shift in
our bread and butter. one of them can move the crossing point a long way.
lurking in a dip,
destroys more hope of getting
where you want to be.
Explanation: Optimisation calculates best
strategies for planning and control
problems. Its algorithms look for the lowest
points in numerical landscapes of cost or Uneasy Relations by Michael Bartholomew-Biggs
loss. But the terrain containing an optimal is published by Hearing Eye. It can be ordered for
solution is often complicated by paths we 3 (+ 0.50 postage & packaging) from Hearing
must stick to and obstacles to avoid. Both Eye Publications, Box 1, 99 Torriano Avenue,
may thwart our instincts about where to go. London, England NW5 2RX
Profile
Michael Bartholomew-Biggs was born in Essex and grew up in Surrey and Middlesex. A youthful
aptitude for sums and symbolic manipulation caused him to be channeled through school and
university into a career as a research mathematician in the
aircraft industry and in higher education. In the late 1980s he
began writing poetry and has subsequently had four poetry
chapbooks published. Some of the haiku-like pieces in his
new collection, Uneasy Relations, appeared first in his
undergraduate textbook Nonlinear Optimisation with
Financial Applications (Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004)
where they were used as fillers for what would otherwise
have been mere white space. The challenge of making
mathematical ideas accessible to non-mathematical readers
became increasingly addictive and eventually there were
enough poems for a small collection.
Michael Bartholomew-Biggs was born in Essex and grew up in Surrey and Middlesex. iSquared
www.isquaredmagazine.co.uk A youthfulmagazine
aptitude for29
sums and s
manipulation caused him to be channeled through school and university into a career as a research mathematician in the ai
and in higher education. In the late 1980s he began writing poetry and has subsequently had four poetry chapbooks publ
interview
Did you always enjoy maths? theoretical foundations of computation. This was a five
Yes, from about the age of 10. Maths was natural to me, year course. The first two years were shared among all
and it gave me an edge over my mates I was always mathematics courses. We received good foundations in
quite competitive. logic, analysis, algebra, statistics etc. I found myself to be
motivated by practical applications of mathematics and
What did you want to be when you were a child? the early use of computers was very appealing to me.
As a child, I was not sure what I wanted to do and went This was reflected in my grades in subsequent years when
from the street sweeper to the prime minister we moved from the theory to the practice. However,
ambition and back. Later, in my teenage years, the books intellectually and in terms of life-long research
I was reading opened my mind, and I realised that it was motivation, grammar school did more for me than
important for me to contribute to the progress of science university. I did not particularly enjoy my university
in some form or other. I have to admit that I was rather years.
overambitious when young.
What was your first job?
What did you study at university? This came through my project supervisor, who over and
I moved from a smallish town to study in the city of above his maths appointment at the University held a
Prague, at the prestigious Mathematics and Physics part-time position at the Department of Internal Medicine,
Faculty of Charles University. I read informatics, which University Hospital, Prague. I took a position as a
was a new subject at the time, and basically covered the research associate at the hospital. Being the only
adolescents, doing experimental work but also fluxes affect blood sugar concentration, etc. The models
developing a so-called in silico simulation environment, help to diagnose defects in carbohydrate metabolism, and
where we can simulate clinical trials before we do them they are used inside decision-support systems for
for real. This area of predictive biosimulation is very treatment of diabetes and related metabolic diseases.
active and offers drastic acceleration of the research into
medical devices and new medicines alike. How has mathematics been used in the development
I also participate in an EU-funded consortium of the artificial pancreas?
developing closed-loop glucose control for critically ill The maths comes out in several areas. The glucose
patients at intensive care units. Our research is going controller employs a predictive model, which is used to
really well. The glucose controller that I have developed make predictions about what happens to blood sugar for
is being commercialised by a major medical-devices different insulin infusions. This mathematical model,
company. My research group has also developed in silico
models of critically ill patients. We can test different
insulin-treatment algorithms on our synthetic patient in a Developing a general model that
fraction of the time and at a fraction of the cost of clinical
tests, and without the safety implications that there would
can describe all aspects of, say,
be for real patients. carbohydrate metabolism is not
possible at the moment
How realistic are your mathematical models? What
can you learn from them?
All models are wrong (at least in my field). It has been basically a set of differential equations solved in closed-
said, and I concur, that defining what the model should form in a novel way, is the core of the system. It needs to
do is half of the solution. Thus, I stay very focused when be relatively simple as it will run on a low-spec hand-
developing models for a particular application. held device in real time. To arrive at this model, we
Developing a general model that can describe all simplified our more complex models while retaining the
aspects of, say, carbohydrate metabolism is not possible. main features. It can be adapted to the individual patient
Not at the moment. We are a long way behind physics, using a variation of the Kalman filter which is currently
where relatively simple models can be used for a wide being patented. We also developed an in silico simulation
range of purposes. The models I develop help to find out environment, which includes a model of the patients, the
how sensitive various body tissues are to insulin, how sensor, and the pump. The patient model is complex,
much insulin the body produces, what different glucose with time-variant model parameters to describe as
realistically as possible the blood glucose variations
during the day and night.
Profile
How would an artificial pancreas improve the lives of
Roman Hovorka was born in the Czech Republic diabetes sufferers?
in 1960. He studied at Charles University in Prague The artificial pancreas will reduce extreme glucose levels.
before accepting a research position at Pragues Both too low and too high glucose levels are bad. The
former may lead to loss of consciousness and possibly
University Hospital. He is now the head of the coma. Over a long time, the latter leads to diabetes
Diabetes Modelling Group at the University of complications such as blindness, limb amputations and
Cambridge. His work involves mathematical kidney problems. The artificial pancreas will provide a
more physiological insulin delivery than is possible with
modelling of metabolic diseases, in particular existing treatment modalities. Imagine a sailboat on the
diabetes. Currently his research group is develop- sea. If you use an analogy of the state-of-art diabetes
ing and testing a prototype of an artificial pancreas, treatment, you preset the tiller and the sails and let the
sailboat go. If the wind does not change and the
which is intended as a treatment for type 1 diabetes.
underwater current does not change, then the sailboat
although now I have a secretary who can help. On If you could change one thing about the world, what
average I travel 3-4 times a month although there are would it be?
busy times such as one week next month when I am in Make everybody happy.
Berlin on Monday and Tuesday, in Glasgow on
Wednesday and in Athens on Friday and Saturday. The Whats on your to-do list for the future?
scientific life is very international, and the work I do on Just one item: to make the artificial pancreas reality. In
the artificial pancreas takes me often to the US. I rather the short term, I need to finish this interview by today, an
struggle with the jet-lag. invited paper by Wednesday (not yet started), a draft
My creative work is squeezed into moments of grant application by the end of September, a major
tranquillity such as in the evening or in the airport lounge. document to the regulatory body by the end of November,
I used to like time in the plane there are no two posters by early October, hire a study clinician asap,
interruptions. review two papers (one overdue), sign a collaboration
agreement before the end of September and go to the
What do you do if you get really stuck on a problem? bed before midnight. Failed again.
I used to spend lots of time trying to find alternative Interview by Sarah Shepherd
Postcode
Telephone Date
Email
in 80 days
Around the world
Right puzzle:
all fears
The sum of
Left puzzle:
Mathabus
Samurai Sudoku
Above:
Below: Futoshiki
Above: Kakuro
8 3 1 2 8
2 3 5 7 1
4 9 8 5 4
6 7
2 5 8 4 1 3 6 8 7
3 1 1
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2 3 6 4 2 5
4 4
6 5
8 5
8 4 9
3 9
6 6 9 6 4
7 3 1
1 8 4 5 7 2 3
9 2 2 1 3 7
2 1 6 8 9 6
5 8 8 5 1
2 9 7 3 7 6
1 4 6 9 4
How to Play
Samurai is a puzzle made up of five interlinked sudoku grids. Each of these 9x9 grids must be
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Puzzle supplied by
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Killer Sudoku
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9
Congratulations to Alan Gall who won a copy of
84
the Concise Oxford Dictionary of Mathematics.
6
C A N T O R F T L A E
Y R H A R M O N I C F
2
C Z E R O A R G F
L N E C A U C H Y O
I S F T S T R
5137
C T G P O L A R W A T T
A I C L O A
Q U A N T U M T R I V I A L
D S T D E N
V A L U E M O D E L P D E
E C R R E N
R S T O K E S U S T
T I N I H A L F I
E T O P O L O G Y E T
X I N T N P A R I T Y
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Chartwell-Yorke Ltd.
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