For other uses, see Ultraviolet (disambiguation). ltered out by the Earths atmosphere, particularly the
UV redirects here. For other uses, see UV (disam- ozone layer.[3] More-energetic, shorter-wavelength ex-
biguation). treme UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly that it
is absorbed before it reaches the ground.[4] Ultraviolet is
also responsible for the formation of bone-strengthening
vitamin D in most land vertebrates, including humans.
The UV spectrum thus has eects both benecial and
harmful to human health.
1 Discovery
Ultraviolet means beyond violet (from Latin ultra,
beyond), violet being the color of the highest frequen-
cies of visible light. Ultraviolet light has a higher fre-
quency than violet light.
UV radiation was discovered in 1801 when the German
physicist Johann Wilhelm Ritter observed that invisible
rays just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum
darkened silver chloride-soaked paper more quickly than
violet light itself. He called them oxidizing rays to em-
phasize chemical reactivity and to distinguish them from
heat rays, discovered the previous year at the other
(left) Portable ultraviolet lamp. (right) UV light is also end of the visible spectrum. The simpler term chemi-
produced by electric arcs. Arc welders must wear eye cal rays was adopted shortly thereafter, and it remained
protection to prevent welders ash. popular throughout the 19th century, although there were
those who held that these were an entirely dierent sort of
Ultraviolet (UV) light is an electromagnetic radiation radiation from light (notably John William Draper, who
with a wavelength from 400 nm to 100 nm, shorter than named them tithonic rays[5][6] ). The terms chemical
that of visible light but longer than X-rays. Though usu- and heat rays were eventually dropped in favour of ul-
ally invisible, under some conditions children and young traviolet and infrared radiation, respectively.[7][8] In 1878
adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths of about the eect of short-wavelength light on sterilizing bacteria
310 nm,[1][2] and people with aphakia (missing lens) can was discovered. By 1903 it was known the most eective
also see some UV wavelengths. Near-UV is visible to a wavelengths were around 250 nm. In 1960, the eect of
number of insects and birds. ultraviolet radiation on DNA was established.[9]
UV radiation is present in sunlight, and is produced by The discovery of the ultraviolet radiation below 200 nm,
electric arcs and specialized lights such as mercury-vapor named vacuum ultraviolet because it is strongly absorbed
lamps, tanning lamps, and black lights. Although lacking by air, was made in 1893 by the German physicist Victor
the energy to ionize atoms, long-wavelength ultraviolet Schumann.[10]
radiation can cause chemical reactions, and causes many
substances to glow or uoresce. Consequently, biological
eects of UV are greater than simple heating eects, and 2 Subtypes
many practical applications of UV radiation derive from
its interactions with organic molecules. The electromagnetic spectrum of ultraviolet radiation
Suntan, freckling and sunburn are familiar eects of (UVR), dened most broadly as 10400 nano-meter, can
over-exposure, along with higher risk of skin cancer. Liv- be subdivided into a number of ranges recommended by
ing things on dry land would be severely damaged by ul- the ISO standard ISO-21348:[11]
traviolet radiation from the sun if most of it were not A variety of solid-state and vacuum devices have been
1
2 3 SOLAR ULTRAVIOLET
UV-c
UV-b
UV-a
Many approaches seek to adapt visible light-sensing de-
vices, but these can suer from unwanted response to vis- 60 Stratopause
Altitude (km)
tected by suitable photodiodes and photocathodes, which
can be tailored to be sensitive to dierent parts of the 40
UV spectrum. Sensitive ultraviolet photomultipliers are
available. Spectrometers and radiometers are made for
measurement of UV radiation. Silicon detectors are used 20
across the spectrum.[12] Tropopause
processing industries, and for disinfecting water supplies. already successful in digital print applications and inert
UV curing environments. Power densities approaching 3
W/cm2 (30 kW/m2 ) are now possible, and this, coupled
5.3 Gas-discharge lamps with recent developments by photoinitiator and resin for-
mulators, makes the expansion of LED-cured UV mate-
Main article: Gas-discharge lamp rials likely.
+ lambda2 - lambda3 ) has an advantage over sum fre- 6.2 Harmful eects
quency mixing because the phase matching can be more
perfect and provide greater tuning.[29] In particular, dif- Main article: Ultraviolet light and cancer
ference frequency mixing two photons of an ArF (193 The dierential eects of various wavelengths of light on
nm) excimer laser with a tunable visible or near IR laser in
Hydrogen or Krypton provides resonantly enhanced tun-
able VUV covering from 100 nm to 200 nm.[29] Practi- 1
cally, the lack of suitable gas/vapor cell window materials Sunlight spectrum
2
free geometries are needed past this point. Erythemal action
0.01 spectrum
0.001
5.7 Plasma and synchrotron sources of ex-
Effective spectrum
treme UV 0.0001
280 300 320 340 360 380
Lasers have been used to indirectly generate non-
Wavelength (nm)
coherent extreme UV (EUV) light at 13.5 nm for extreme
ultraviolet lithography. The EUV light is not emitted
Sunburn eect (as measured by the UV Index) is the product
by the laser, but rather by electron transitions in an ex-
of the sunlight spectrum (radiation intensity) and the erythemal
tremely hot tin or xenon plasma, which is excited by an action spectrum (skin sensitivity) across the range of UV wave-
excimer laser.[30] This technique does not require a syn- lengths. Sunburn production per milliwatt is increased by almost
chrotron, yet can produce UV at the edge of the X-ray a factor of 100 between the near UVB wavelengths of 315-295
spectrum. Synchrotron light sources can also produce all nm
wavelengths of UV, including those at the boundary of
the UV and X-ray spectra at 10 nm. the human cornea and skin are sometimes called the ery-
themal action spectrum..[32] The action spectrum shows
that UVA does not cause immediate reaction, but rather
UV begins to cause photokeratitis and skin redness (with
Caucasians more sensitive) at wavelengths starting near
6 Human health-related eects the beginning of the UVB band at 315 nm, and rapidly
increasing to 300 nm. The skin and eyes are most sensi-
Further information: Health eects of sun exposure tive to damage by UV at 265275 nm, which is in the
lower UVC band. At still shorter wavelengths of UV,
damage continues to happen, but the overt eects are not
The impact of ultraviolet radiation on human health has
as great with so little penetrating the atmosphere. The
implications for the risks and benets of sun exposure,
WHO-standard ultraviolet index is a widely publicized
and is also implicated in issues such as uorescent lamps
measurement of total strength of UV wavelengths that
and health.
cause sunburn on human skin, by weighting UV exposure
for action spectrum eects at a given time and location.
This standard shows that most sunburn happens due to
UV at wavelengths near the boundary of the UVA and
6.1 Benecial eects
UVB bands.
eye, and immune system.[33] All bands of UV radiation Ordinary, untreated eyeglasses give some protection.
damage collagen bers and accelerate aging of the skin. Most plastic lenses give more protection than glass lenses,
Both UVA and UVB destroy vitamin A in skin, which because, as noted above, glass is transparent to UVA
may cause further damage.[34] and the common acrylic plastic used for lenses is less so.
UVB light can cause direct DNA damage. [35]
The Some plastic lens materials, such as polycarbonate, inher-
mutagenicity of UV radiation can be observed in bacte- ently block most UV. Protective coating is available for
rial cultures. This cancer connection is one reason for eyeglass lenses that need it, but even a coating that com-
concern about ozone depletion and the ozone hole. pletely blocks UV will not protect the eye from light that
arrives around the lens.
Medical organizations recommend that patients protect aects plastics exposed to sunlight. The problem appears
themselves from UV radiation by using sunscreen. Five as discoloration or fading, cracking, loss of strength or
sunscreen ingredients have been shown to protect mice disintegration. The eects of attack increases with ex-
against skin tumors. However, some sunscreen chemicals posure time and sunlight intensity. The addition of UV
produce potentially harmful substances if they are illumi- absorbers inhibits the eect.
nated while in contact with living cells.[36][37]
Sensitive polymers include thermoplastics and speciality
Ultraviolet radiation can aggravate several skin conditions bers like aramids. UV absorption leads to chain degra-
and diseases, including rosacea, lupus and others.[38] dation and loss of strength at sensitive points in the chain
structure. Aramid rope must be shielded with a sheath of
6.2.2 Eye damage thermoplastic if it is to retain its strength.
8 Applications
Because of its ability to cause chemical reactions and ex-
cite uorescence in materials, ultraviolet light has a num-
ber of applications. The following table[41] gives some
uses of specic wavelength bands in the UV spectrum
8.1 Photography
Main article: Ultraviolet photography
Photographic lm responds to ultraviolet radiation but
the glass lenses of cameras usually block radiation shorter Aurora at Jupiter's north pole as seen in ultraviolet light by the
than 350 nm. Slightly yellow UV-blocking lters are of- Hubble Space Telescope.
ten used for outdoor photography to prevent unwanted
bluing and overexposure by UV light. For photography In ultraviolet astronomy, measurements are used to
in the near UV, special lters may be used. Photography discern the chemical composition of the interstellar
with wavelengths shorter than 350 nm requires special medium, and the temperature and composition of stars.
quartz lenses which do not absorb the radiation. Digital Because the ozone layer blocks many UV frequencies
8 8 APPLICATIONS
from reaching telescopes on the surface of the Earth, most In some types of nondestructive testing UV light stimu-
UV observations are made from space. lates uorescent dyes to highlight defects in a broad range
of materials. These dyes may be carried into surface-
breaking defects by capillary action (liquid penetrant in-
8.2 Electrical and electronics industry spection) or they may be bound to ferrite particles caught
in magnetic leakage elds in ferrous materials (magnetic
Corona discharge on electrical apparatus can be detected particle inspection).
by its ultraviolet emissions. Corona causes degradation of
electrical insulation and emission of ozone and nitrogen
oxide.[43] 8.4 Analytic uses
Some EPROM (erasable programmable read-only mem- 8.4.1 Forensics
ory) modules are erased by exposure to UV radiation.
These modules have a transparent (quartz) window on the UV is an investigative tool at the crime scene helpful in lo-
top of the chip that allows the UV radiation in. cating and identifying bodily uids such as semen, blood,
and saliva.[45] For example, ejaculated uids or saliva can
be detected by high-power UV light sources, irrespective
8.3 Fluorescent dye uses of the structure or colour of the surface the uid is de-
posited upon.[46] UV-Vis microspectroscopy is also used
Colorless uorescent dyes that emit blue light under UV to analyze trace evidence, such as textile bers and paint
are added as optical brighteners to paper and fabrics. The chips, as well as questioned documents.
blue light emitted by these agents counteracts yellow tints
that may be present, and causes the colors and whites to Other applications include authentication of various col-
appear whiter or more brightly colored. lectibles and art, and detecting counterfeit currency. Even
materials not specially marked with UV sensitive dyes
UV uorescent dyes that glow in the primary colors are may have distinctive uorescence under UV light, or may
used in paints, papers and textiles either to enhance color uoresce dierently under short-wave versus long-wave
under daylight illumination, or to provide special eects ultraviolet.
when lit with UV lamps. Blacklight paints that contain
dyes that glow under UV are used in a number of art and
esthetic applications. 8.4.2 Enhancing contrast of ink
A bird appears on many Visa credit cards when they are held 8.4.3 Sanitary compliance
under a UV light source
Ultraviolet light aids in the detection of organic material
To help prevent counterfeiting of currency, or forgery deposits that remain on surfaces where periodic cleaning
of important documents such as drivers licenses and and sanitizing may not have been properly accomplished.
passports, the paper may include a UV watermark or u- The phenyl and indole chemical moieties in proteins ab-
orescent multicolor bers that are visible under ultravio- sorb UV, and are made visible by blocking the uores-
let light. Postage stamps are tagged with a phosphor that cence of the material beneath themoften UV bright-
glows under UV light to permit automatic detection of eners in fabrics. Detergents are easily detected using
the stamp and facing of the letter. UV inspection. In ABS or alkylbenzenesulfonate de-
UV uorescent dyes are used in many applications (for tergents, the substituted benzine absorbs UV. Phosphate
example, biochemistry and forensics). Some brands of detergents with a phenyl moiety also absorb.
pepper spray will leave an invisible chemical (UV dye) Pet urine deposits in carpeting or other hard surfaces can
that is not easily washed o on a pepper-sprayed attacker, be detected for accurate treatment and removal of min-
which would help police identify the attacker later.[44] eral traces and the odor-causing bacteria that feed on pro-
8.5 Material science uses 9
After a training exercise involving fake body uids, a healthcare In general, ultraviolet detectors use either a solid-state de-
workers personal protective equipment is checked with ultraviolet vice, such as one based on silicon carbide or aluminium
light to nd invisible drops of uids. These uids could contain nitride, or a gas-lled tube as the sensing element. UV
deadly viruses or other contamination. detectors that are sensitive to UV light in any part of the
spectrum respond to irradiation by sunlight and articial
teins in urine. Many hospitality industries use UV lamps light. A burning hydrogen ame, for instance, radiates
to inspect for unsanitary bedding to determine life-cycle strongly in the 185- to 260-nanometer range and only
for mattress restoration, as well as general performance very weakly in the IR region, whereas a coal re emits
of the cleaning sta. A perennial news feature for many very weakly in the UV band yet very strongly at IR wave-
television news organizations involves an investigative re- lengths; thus, a re detector that operates using both UV
porters using a similar device to reveal unsanitary condi- and IR detectors is more reliable than one with a UV de-
tions in hotels, public toilets, hand rails, and such. tector alone. Virtually all res emit some radiation in the
UVC band, whereas the Sun's radiation at this band is ab-
sorbed by the Earths atmosphere. The result is that the
8.4.4 Chemistry UV detector is solar blind, meaning it will not cause
an alarm in response to radiation from the Sun, so it can
UV/VIS spectroscopy is widely used as a technique in easily be used both indoors and outdoors.
chemistry to analyze chemical structure, the most notable UV detectors are sensitive to most res, including
one being conjugated systems. UV radiation is often used hydrocarbons, metals, sulfur, hydrogen, hydrazine, and
to excite a given sample where the uorescent emission ammonia. Arc welding, electrical arcs, lightning, X-rays
is measured with a spectrouorometer. In biological re- used in nondestructive metal testing equipment (though
search, UV light is used for quantication of nucleic acids this is highly unlikely), and radioactive materials can pro-
or proteins. duce levels that will activate a UV detection system. The
presence of UV-absorbing gases and vapors will attenuate
the UV radiation from a re, adversely aecting the abil-
ity of the detector to detect ames. Likewise, the pres-
ence of an oil mist in the air or an oil lm on the detector
window will have the same eect.
8.5.2 Photolithography
193 nm UV, and are experimentally using 13.5 nm UV less inert byproducts. The cleansing mechanism of UV is
for extreme ultraviolet lithography. a photochemical process. Contaminants in the indoor en-
vironment are almost entirely organic carbon-based com-
pounds, which down when exposed to high-intensity UV
8.5.3 Polymers at 240 to 280 nm. Short-wave ultraviolet light can destroy
DNA in living microorganisms. UVCs eectiveness is
Electronic components that require clear transparency for directly related to intensity and exposure time.
light to exit or enter (photo voltaic panels and sensors)
can be potted using acrylic resins that are cured using UV UV light has also been shown to reduce gaseous contam-
[52][53][54]
light energy. The advantages are low VOC emissions and inants such as carbon monoxide and VOCs. UV
rapid curing. lamps radiating at 184 and 254 nm can remove low con-
centrations of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide, if the
air is recycled between the room and the lamp chamber.
This arrangement prevents the introduction of ozone into
the treated air. Likewise, air may be treated by passing by
a single UV source operating at 184 nm and passed over
iron pentaoxide to remove the ozone produced by the UV
lamp.
Certain inks, coatings, and adhesives are formulated with Main article: Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation
photoinitiators and resins. When exposed to UV light, Ultraviolet lamps are used to sterilize workspaces and
polymerization occurs, and so the adhesives harden or
cure, usually within a few seconds. Applications include
glass and plastic bonding, optical ber coatings, the coat-
ing of ooring, UV Coating and paper nishes in oset
printing, dental llings, and decorative nger nail gels.
UV sources for UV curing applications include UV
lamps, UV LEDs, and Excimer ash lamps. Fast pro-
cesses such as exo or oset printing require high-
intensity light focused via reectors onto a moving sub-
strate and medium so high-pressure Hg (mercury) or Fe
(iron, doped)-based bulbs are used, energized with elec-
tric arcs or microwaves. Lower-power uorescent lamps
and LEDs can be used for static applications. Small high-
pressure lamps can have light focused and transmitted to
the work area via liquid-lled or ber-optic light guides.
A low-pressure mercury vapor discharge tube oods the inside
The impact of UV on polymers is used for modication of of a hood with shortwave UV light when not in use, sterilizing
the (roughness and hydrophobicity) of polymer surfaces. microbiological contaminants from irradiated surfaces.
For example, a poly(methyl methacrylate) surface can be
smoothed by vacuum ultraviolet.[51] tools used in biology laboratories and medical facil-
ities. Commercially available low-pressure mercury-
UV radiation is useful in preparing low-surface-energy
vapor lamps emit about 86% of their light at 254 nanome-
polymers for adhesives. Polymers exposed to UV light
ters (nm), which is near one of the peaks of the germi-
will oxidize, thus raising the surface energy of the poly-
cidal eectiveness curve. UV light at these germicidal
mer. Once the surface energy of the polymer has been
wavelengths damage a microorganisms DNA so that it
raised, the bond between the adhesive and the polymer is
cannot reproduce, making it harmless, (even though the
stronger.
organism may not be killed). Since microorganisms can
be shielded from ultraviolet light in small cracks and other
8.6 Biology-related uses shaded areas, these lamps are used only as a supplement
to other sterilization techniques.
8.6.1 Air purication Disinfection using UV radiation is commonly used in
wastewater treatment applications and is nding an in-
Using a catalytic chemical reaction from titanium diox- creased usage in municipal drinking water treatment.
ide and UVC light exposure, oxidation of organic matter Many bottlers of spring water use UV disinfection equip-
converts pathogens, pollens, and mold spores into harm- ment to sterilize their water. Solar water disinfection[55]
11
8.6.4 Therapy
8.6.3 Biological
Main article: Ultraviolet light therapy
Some animals, including birds, reptiles, and insects such
as bees, can see near-ultraviolet light. Many fruits, ow- Ultraviolet radiation is helpful in the treatment of skin
ers, and seeds stand out more strongly from the back- conditions such as psoriasis and vitiligo. Exposure to
ground in ultraviolet wavelengths as compared to human UVA light while the skin is hyper-photosensitive by tak-
color vision. Scorpions glow or take on a yellow to green ing psoralens is an eective treatment for psoriasis. Due
color under UV illumination, thus assisting in the con- to the potential of psoralens to cause damage to the liver,
trol of these arachnids. Many birds have patterns in their PUVA therapy may be used only a limited number of
plumage that are invisible at usual wavelengths but ob- times over a patients lifetime.
servable in ultraviolet, and the urine and other secretions
UVB phototherapy does not require additional medica-
of some animals, including dogs, cats, and human beings,
tions or topical preparations for the therapeutic benet;
is much easier to spot with ultraviolet. Urine trails of
only the light exposure is needed. However, photother-
rodents can be detected by pest control technicians for
apy can be eective when used in conjunction with cer-
proper treatment of infested dwellings.
tain topical treatments such as anthralin, coal tar, and Vi-
Butteries use ultraviolet as a communication system for tamin A and D derivatives, or systemic treatments such
sex recognition and mating behavior. For example, in the as methotrexate and soriatane.[60]
Colias eurytheme buttery, males rely on visual cues to lo-
cate and identify females. Instead of using chemical stim-
uli to nd mates, males are attracted to the ultraviolet- 8.6.5 Herpetology
absorbing color of female hind wings.[59]
Reptiles need long-wave UVA light for synthesis of vi-
Many insects use the ultraviolet wavelength emissions tamin D, which in turn is needed to metabolize calcium
from celestial objects as references for ight navigation. for bone and egg production. Thus, in a typical reptile
A local ultraviolet emitter will normally disrupt the navi- enclosure, a uorescent UV lamp should be available for
gation process and will eventually attract the ying insect. vitamin D synthesis. This should be combined with the
The Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) is often used in provision of heat for basking, either by the same lamp or
genetics as a marker. Many substances, such as proteins, another. Certain reptiles such as Bearded Dragons need
have signicant light absorption bands in the ultraviolet both UVA and UVB light.
that are of interest in biochemistry and related elds. UV-
capable spectrophotometers are common in such labora-
tories. 9 Evolutionary signicance
Ultraviolet traps called bug zappers are used to elimi-
nate various small ying insects. They are attracted to Evolution of early reproductive proteins and enzymes is
the UV light, and are killed using an electric shock, or attributed in modern models of evolutionary theory to ul-
trapped once they come into contact with the device. traviolet light. UVB light causes thymine base pairs next
Dierent designs of ultraviolet light traps are also used to each other in genetic sequences to bond together into
by entomologists for collecting nocturnal insects during thymine dimers, a disruption in the strand that reproduc-
faunistic survey studies. tive enzymes cannot copy. This leads to frameshifting
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tice 22 (2): 1036. PMID 4688707.
[39] Nolan, Timothy M.; DiGirolamo, Nick; Sachdev, Nitin
H. et al. (2003). The Role of Ultraviolet Irradiation and [54] Shorter, AJ; Scott, KJ (1986). Lebensm-Wiss u Technol-
Heparin-Binding Epidermal Growth Factor-Like Growth ogy 19: 1769. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Factor in the Pathogenesis of Pterygium. Am. J. Pathol.
162 (2): 56774. doi:10.1016/S0002-9440(10)63850-3. [55] Solar Water Disinfection. Sodis.ch. 2 April 2011. Re-
PMC 1851157. PMID 12547714. trieved 2011-11-08.
12 Further reading
Hu, S; Ma, F; Collado-Mesa, F; Kirsner, R. S. (July
2004). UV radiation, latitude, and melanoma in
US Hispanics and blacks. Arch. Dermatol. 140 (7):
819824. doi:10.1001/archderm.140.7.819. PMID
15262692.
M., Erik9, Sesu Prime, Haploidavey, Dougofborg, Dan6hell66, FrescoBot, Avidiax, Recognizance, Haeinous, Vishnu2011, Miscelaine,
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talYawn, Beht, TobeBot, CarolinahurricanesEr, Aytrus, , XAtsukex, Lotje, Hpyoup, Dinamik-bot, Vrenator, Dragonof-
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