Design Technical Data

Design of Earth Dams

- Construction and Improvement of Earth Dams -

JICA Training Course

Irrigation and Drainage through Integrated Water Management

S.Tani

May, 2014
 Contents
Construction and Improvement of Earth Dams

Chapter 1 General concepts

1-1 Purpose of the manual
1-2 Range of application
1-3 Basic factors in design
1-4 Designing procedure

Chapter 2 Surveys
2-1 Surveys of earth dams
2-1-1 Measurements of the details
2-1-2 Geological surveys
2-1-3 Surveys of the soil materials for constructing a dam

Chapter 3 Design flood discharge

3-1 Designing flood discharge
3-2 200-year probability flood discharge (A-item flow)
3-2-1 Estimation of the A-item discharge
3-2-2 Mean effective rainfall intensity during the flood trip time
3-3 Maximum flood discharge in the past (B-time flow)
3-4 Regional maximum flood discharge (C-item flow)
3-5 Storage effect

Chapter 4 Design of a dam

4-1 Selection of a method for improving a dam
4-2 Dam
4-2-1 Structure of a dam and definitions of terms
4-2-2 Foundation ground of a dam
4-2-3 Materials for embankments
4-2-4 Design flood level
4-2-5 Freeboard
4-2-6 Crest width of dam
4-2-7 Standard profile of a dam
4-2-8 Quantity
 4-2-9 Seepage lines
4-2-10 Calculation of dam stability
4-2-11 Drains
4-2-12 Grouting to dams and foundation ground
4-3 Design of facilities of dams
4-3-1 Slope protection

Chapter 5 Design of spillways

5-1 Spillways
5-2 Approach channels
5-3 Control section
5-4 Intergrade section
5-5 Drawoff channel
5-6 Energy dissipator
5-7 Free board
5-8 Side canal spillways
5-9 Design detail of structures
Chapter 6 Design of intakes
6-1 Intakes
6-2 Design of inclined conduits
6-3 Design of bottom outlets
Chapter 1 General concepts

1-1 Purpose of this technical data book

This data book summarizes data for planning construction and repair work for
agricultural small earth dams.

This technical data book summarizes general methods and factors that must be
considered for examining agricultural earth dams (hereafter earth dams) for irrigation ,
designing, and constructing work.
Earth dams, each with different conditions, should be inspected, designed, and
improved with consideration of their purpose, scale, topography, and other conditions.
Technical and economic factors should be investigated for each earth dam to conform
to the concept of this data book.

1-2 Range of application

This technical data book applies to construction and repair work to earth dams lower
than 15 m in height.

This book gives technical data for constructing and repairing earth fill dams of
lower than 15 m in height. Earth dams of 15 m or over in height should be designed
according to the design standard for high dams

1-3 Basic factors in design

Earth dams should be designed to satisfy the following factors:
(1) The original function of a earth dam is preserved.
(2) The facility has a safe structure.
(3) Construction is easy and economical.
(4) Maintenance after construction is easy.
(5) It harmonizes with the surrounding natural environment and scenery.

Factor (1) is the most fundamental and includes the satisfaction of required
storage capacity and other basic functions. Factors (2), (3), and (4) are general
requirements in designing facilities.

1
Factor (5) is consideration of the surrounding natural environment and scenery. The
earth dam should, at each stage of design, correspond appropriately to the conditions
revealed by preliminary inspections.
Facilities that constitute an earth dam, repairing methods, and types of intakes
and flood sluices are given in Figure 1-1.

homogenous earth dam

dam with inclined core
dam dam with central core
dam with concrete facing
grouted dam

intakes inclined conduit

earth dam intake intakes tower
driving canals bottom conduit
intake tunnel
main spillway
inlet overflow spillway
side spillway
spillway driving canals chute spillway
overfull spillway
energy hydraulic jump basin
dissipation special type
(plunge basin, impact basin)
Figure 1-1 Constitution of a earth dam
1-4 Designing procedure
To secure the necessary functions and safety and to make construction and repair work
easy and economical, the work should be planned with sufficient inspection and Repair
work for an earth dam should be designed in an appropriate and effective manner with
sufficient consideration of the relationship among operations. A standard design
program is shown in Figure 1-2.

design of accessory

determination structures of the dam

survey determination
of the method design of
of an of the design
the dam design of the spillway
earth flood discharge for constructing
repairing

dam the earth dam

design of intakes

Figure 1-2 Design procedure

2
Chapter 2 Surveys

2-1 Surveys of an earth dam

Surveys of an earth dam should be conducted 1) in accordance with the planning guide
lines of the earth dam, 2) to obtain data necessary for determining the constructing
method and detailed structures, and 3) in a scientifically precise manner.

The following surveys should be conducted:

(1) Measurements of the details
(2) Geological survey
(3) Survey of the soil used for constructing the dam

2-1-1 Measurements of the details

To determine the amount of soil to fill and the ground to excavate for the foundation
and to design spillways, intakes, and other accessory and tentative facilities, precise
measurements should be conducted over a necessary range. A topographic map of the
earth dam site and cross- and longitudinal sections along the earth dam axes should be
created.

(1) Topographical survey

A topographic map of the earth dam site is indispensable for designing spillways,
intakes, and construction roads and should cover not only the reservoir basin but also
upstream and downstream sections. The map should cover wide areas on both bank
sides to include spillways and other facilities.
Maps of 1/250 ~ 1/1,000 scales with contour intervals of 1 m are widely used.
The following data should be shown on topographic maps of earth dam sites.
general visible outlines and main facilities to show the relationship between the
facilities and landscape, e.g., the axes and outline of a earth dam, intakes,
spillways,
boring points,
location of the earth dam (latitude and longitude)

3
 title, compass direction, scale, drawing number, and
high water level, and elevations of the opening of a pipe, the downstream channel,
the ground surrounding the earth dam, roads, etc.
(2). Survey of dam (longitudinal and cross)
Determination of dam axis
The dam axis should be determined with consideration of the foundation ground,
the shape and geology of both banks, change in storage capacity by re-embanking,
amount of earthwork, and the range of the site.
Longitudinal survey
Station intervals of a longitudinal survey vary by topography but are usually 10 -
20 m, and supplementary stations are established at uneven sections.
Scales are 1/100 - 1/200 lengthwise and 1/200 - 1/1,000 crosswise.
A map should show the left bank side of a earth dam on its left. A longitudinal
section should cover a length equal to the height of the dam and should show a section
along a line where spillways or other facilities are located or along the exterior line.
The following data should be recorded on a longitudinal section.
a. station numbers (Both the number and distance should start from the left
bank),
b. distances between stations,
c. distance added,
d. elevation of the ground,
e. depth of excavation,
f. height of cutting or embankment,
g. design bank height,
h. elevation of dam crest
i. design flood stage (H. W. L.),
j. normal high-water level,
k. location and sectional form of spillways, and
l. boring positions (with histograms if necessary).
Cross-sectional survey
A cross-sectional survey should be conducted for each station and intermediate
station up to 20 m from the downstream and upstream slopes. The scale is usually
1/100. A cross section should show the upstream section on its left. The following
data should be shown:
a. the line and elevation of the ground for each station,
b. cross section of a earth dam and design heights, and
c. cross-sectional areas of cutting, embankments and concrete areas for each
station.

4
(3) Spillway survey (longitudinal and cross leveling)
Longitudinal leveling
Stations should be established on every curve of the planned profile with
supplementary stations if necessary. Scales should be 1/100 - 1/200 lengthwise and
1/200 - 1/1,000 crosswise.
Cross leveling
Cross leveling should be conducted for all stations established for longitudinal
leveling. The standard scale is 1/100.
(4) Other types of land surveys
Survey for construction roads
If a survey is necessary for constructing temporary roads in mountains and
woods, longitudinal and cross leveling should be conducted after determining slope
lines.
Survey on borrow pits and spoil banks
If a borrow pit and a spoil area are to be designated, a survey should be
conducted of the landscape to determine the amount of soil to borrow and dump, and to
determine the boundaries of the project.
Areal surveys
a. Establishment of boundary markers
Boundary markers should be established in the presence of persons of related
organizations and landowners.
b. Establishment of station markers
Station markers should be established after creating a plan for construction and
repair work.
c. Areal surveys
The traverse lines of the markers established in a and b should be surveyed, and
the quadrature should be derived.

5
 Figure 2-1 An arrangement of profiles

Profiles should show the upstream side on the left and the downstream on the right.

inclination
height of dam crest
height of fixed blocks
height of the fixed-block foundation
depth of excavation
depth of bed excavation
depth of the foundation
added distance
simple distance
station
curve

Figure 2-2 Factors of longitudinal sections

6
2-1-2 Geological surveys
Geological surveys should be conducted to obtain data for identifying problems that
may occur during construction and for determining the type of earth dam and the line
of the foundation ground.

(1) Survey on the dam and the foundation ground

Boring surveys, which are the most widely used and most precise of the
numerous types of surveys, should be conducted.
Determination of the locations and number of boreholes
The more holes are bored, the higher the precision of the survey is. However,
boreholes should be established effectively with consideration of cost. A standard
hole location is shown in Figure 2-3. The locations and number of holes should be
determined after conducting a field investigation.

Figure 2-3 Standard locations and number of boreholes

Depth of boreholes
Boreholes should be deep enough to confirm N layers (N>20) in a standard
penetration test of the holes. If such layers cannot be confirmed, the standard depth of
the holes is the height of the dam from the foundation ground or 5m.

7
 Figure 2-4 Depth of boreholes

Types of surveys and objectives

The types of surveys conducted utilizing boreholes and their objectives are
shown in Figure 2-5.

Figure 2-5 Types of boring surveys and objectives

Methods and frequency of boring surveys

a. Core sampling
The standard diameter of a borehole is 66 mm if tests are to be conducted within
the hole and 86 mm for collecting undisturbed specimens. Holes should be bored
dry. Countermeasures must be planned for soft ground

b. Permeability tests
Permeability tests should be conducted along boring holes with packers.
Holes may be more effectively bored with casing if the soil (such as wet sand and
gravel) is too soft to hold the hole wall.

8
 Water permeability test length should be tested for 2 m in depth. However, if
permeability is large, the test length may be shortened, and the point where water
infiltrates should be determined.
Water permeability of the foundation ground should be tested for a very shallow
depth. The test pressure should not adversely affect the dam.
c. Standard penetration test
A standard penetration test should be conducted for each 1.0 m of the dam and
the foundation ground. However, the test should be conducted at least once for each
layer if there is a change in soil layer.

(2) Survey of the foundation ground for spillways

To construct a spillway, the geology of the foundation ground should be
surveyed in advance. A side spillway requires an especially rigid foundation, which
must be confirmed with a boring survey.
The inlet and dissipation sections, which constantly receive impact from flowing
water, must be constructed on a sufficiently hard foundation.

(3) Survey of the foundation ground for bottom outlets

To construct a bottom outlet, the geology of the foundation ground should be
surveyed in advance. Countermeasures should be planned for a soft foundation in
advance.

(4) Leakage inspection

Leakage from the exiting embankment and both banks should be identified.
Leakage from clearly known sources, such as a bottom conduit, should be examined
for its areal extent only, and leakage from the entire dam should be examined by boring
a hole at the downstream slope toe.
The relationship between leakage and water level should also be investigated.

9
2-1-3 Survey of the soil materials for constructing dam
The materials for constructing dams may greatly affect the improvement and
construction plans of earth dams and should thus be sufficiently surveyed and
examined.

(1) Range of survey

Materials of 1.5 to 2.0 times the amount of soil for embankment should be
secured by conducting sufficient surveys such as boring and sounding test holes.

(2) Sampling
Sampling in a test hole is illustrated in Figure 2-6. The surface of soil layers
should be recorded in color photographs.

Figure 2-6 Test holes

(3) Soil tests

a. Test items
Samples collected at the site should be tested for the items listed in Table 2-1 to
determine the appropriateness for materials for constructing the dam and to obtain the
data necessary for designing and controlling embankments.
Soil tests items (Table 2-1) should be selected by considering the property of the
embankment soils.

10
 Table 2-1 Soil test items
test item test standard for banking for an old notes
materials dam
density of soil JISA 1202 : density of soil grains
grains
mechanical JISA 1204
analysis
water content JISA 1203 : may be conducted if
necessary
liquid limit and JISA 1206
plastic limit tests
in situ JISA 1214 and - * *: must be conducted if
measurement of others most of the soil of the old
density dam is used for banking
compaction test JISA 1210 * (Repair work)
permeability test JISA 1218 and (in situ)
others
uniaxial JISA 1216
compression test
triaxial Society of the
compression test Geotechnical
Engineering
consolidation
test
*JIS = Japan Industrial Standard
b. Triaxial compression test and stability analysis of embankment

The specimen for a triaxial compression test should be taken at the point in

Figure 2-7 (D value for 90 at the wet side). However, if the D value for 90 Wwet is
water content too high to embank, and
D value for 90 Wdry < natural water content (Wf) <D value for 90 Wwet,
a specimen with water content slightly higher than the natural water content

(Wf: the point in Figure 2-7) may be used. Triaxial test methods should be

selected based on Table 2-2. Earth dams of 15 m or over in height should be designed
according to the design standard for high dams

Figure 2-7 Specimen for a triaxial compression test

11
Table 2-2 Application of test methods and stability analysis
Triaxial test method stability analysis calculated slope safety
coefficient
Unconsolidation and immediately after upstream and over 1.2
undrain (UU) test completion downstream sides
Consolidation and
undrain (CU) test
Consolidation and full water level upstream and over 1.2
undrain (CU) test downstream sides
Consolidation and drain
(CD) test
Consolidation and design flood stage upstream and over 1.2
undrain (CU) test downstream sides
Consolidation and drain
(CD) test

*note) Refer to calculation of dam stability in Section 4-2-10 for application of test
methods.

Flow chart of soil tests

A flow chart of soil tests is shown in figure 2-8.

Figure 2-8 Flow chart of soil tests

12
** High dams
Earth dams of 15 m or over in height should be designed according to the design
standard for high dams. Stability analysis of high dam should be examined for the
conditions in Table 2-2-2.

Table 2-2-2 Application of test methods and stability analysis (High dams)

13
Chapter 3 Design flood discharge

3-1 Design flood discharge

Design flood discharge (except for concrete dams) should be 1.2 times greater than the
largest of the following values:
(A) the 200-year probability flood discharge, which is estimated to occur once every
200 years (hereafter, A-item discharge),
(B) the maximum flood discharge that occurred in the past and was either observed
or estimated from flood marks (hereafter, B-item discharge), and
(C) the maximum flood discharge that is estimated from water movements in nearby
districts which show similar climatic conditions or from weather observation
records (hereafter , C-item discharge).

Design flood discharge is the maximum value of flood discharge that is

considered in making plans. earth dams (except for concrete dams) should have a
margin of safety of 20%. If it is difficult to estimate the A-item discharge, the
200-year probability flood discharge may be derived by multiplying the 100-year
probability flood discharge by 1.2.
If water discharge into the earth dam through channels, such a discharge may be
added to the flood discharge. For a earth dam into which flood water never
discharges, such as Sara Ike, the design flood discharge should be determined from the
precipitation to the earth dam and the redundant water from channels.

3-2 200-year probability flood discharge (A-item discharge)

3-2-1 Estimation of the A-item discharge
The A-item discharges are estimated with the following rational formula:
where
1
Qp = re A (3-1)
3.6
Qp: the discharge at the peak of a flood (m3/sec)
re: mean effective rainfall intensity during the flood trip time
A: area of the basin (km2)

The basin area to which this formula may be applied is 40 km2 or under and
includes the area of the earth dam at the high water level. The flood discharge from
indirect basins may be added if necessary.

14
3-2-2 Mean effective rainfall intensity during the flood trip time
The mean effective rainfall intensity during the flood trip time (re) should satisfy
both of the following equations:
tp = C A0.22 re-0.35 (3-2)
re = fp r .................................. (3-3)
where tp: flood trip time (min)
C: coefficient that varies according to landuse conditions (Table 3-1)
A: area of the basin (km2)
fp: coefficient of runoff at the peak of the flood
r: 200-year probability rainfall intensity (or the 100-year probability rainfall
intensity 1.2)

(1) Flood trip time and the mean effective rainfall intensity
The flood trip time should be estimated for each basin based on actual empirical
data. If such data are not available, the time should be determined with the formula of
Kadoya and Fukushima (3-2).

Table 3-1 Coefficient C for determining flood trip time (Kadoya and Fukushima)
natural mountainous and hilly area: C= 250 ~ 350 290
grazing land: C = 190 ~ 210 200
golf course: C = 130 ~ 150 140
just completed housing developments, paved roads, farmland with densely
established channels: C = 90 ~ 110 100
urban districts: C = 60 ~ 90 65

The effective rainfall intensity re that is used in the rational formula should
simultaneously satisfy both the relationship between the duration of rainfall and the
effective rainfall intensity and the relationship between the effective rainfall intensity
and the flood trip time. If these relationships are expressed in equations, the solution
may be derived simply by solving the simultaneous equations. If not, the 200-year
probability rainfall intensities that correspond to three different durations, such as 30
minutes, 60 minutes and 120 minutes, should be derived and multiplied with the
coefficient of runoff at the peak of the flood. The products should then be plotted
against the flood trip time to derive a curve of rainfall duration (tr ~ re) on a diagram
that also shows a curve for flood trip time (re ~ tp) (Figure 3-1). The re value should
then be determined from the intersection P of the curves. If the flood trip time that
corresponds to the re so derived is under 60 minutes, an effective rainfall intensity
that corresponds to both a flood trip time of 60 minutes and a rainfall duration of 60
minutes should be used as re.
A rainfall intensity formula may be used to express a curve for rainfall duration tr ~ re.

15
 Figure 3-1 Curves for flood trip time re~tp and for rainfall duration tr~re
(2) Coefficient of runoff at the peak of a flood
The coefficient of runoff at the peak of a flood varies by rainfall profiles and
topographic and ground conditions. Inappropriate estimation may result in extremely
large or small values. The coefficient for a basin varies greatly by local rainfall
conditions and is thus not constant for a basin. The maximum value that is
determined by ground conditions should be used for making plans. To use the
formula 3-3 for deriving the flood trip time, values in Table 3-2, which are similar to
the conventional values in Table 3-1, are standard. For a different basin topography,
fp should be derived by calculating the weighted mean.

Table 3-2 Widely used coefficient of runoff fp at the peak of flood

landform conditions fp landform conditions fp
steep mountains 0.75-0.90 irrigated paddy fields 0.70-0.80
Tertiary mountains 0.70-0.80 mountain rivers 0.75-0.85
hills and woodlands 0.50-0.75 small streams in plains 0.45-0.75
flat farmland 0.45-0.60 large rivers whose drainage basins 0.50-0.75
are mostly flat land

Table 3-3 Conditions of the surface soil and the coefficient of runoff at the peak of a
flood fp
conditions of the surface soil fp notes
granite sand (when the surface 0.1-0.2 (Shiga Prefecture) woodland on a slope along
soil is thick) the upper reaches of the Nosu River
granite sand (when the surface 0.5-0.7 (Hiroshima Prefecture) Tachibana Experimental
soil is thin) farmland
volcanic ash sedimentary soil 0.25-0.35 (Kagoshima Prefecture) upland field in the
Shirasu zone
mountainous region covered with 0.5-0.7 (Kyoto Prefecture) Kamo River basin of
thick surface soil of the approximately 120 km2 in which farmland exists
Palaeozoic or Mesozoic era intermixed with woodlands
mountainous region covered with 0.6-0.8 (Kyoto Prefecture) Obatake River basin of 1.3 -
thin surface soil of the tertiary or 12 km2 which is mostly woodland with about
quaternary deposit 30% farmland
urban districts which are highly 0.9-1.0 (Kyoto Prefecture) Tenjin River
paved

16
3-3 Maximum flood discharge in the past (B-item discharge)
The larger of the maximum flood discharge that was observed at the earth dam
and the maximum flood discharge in the past estimated from the flood marks should be
used.

3-4 Regional maximum flood discharge (C-item discharge)

(1) If a curve of the maximum flood discharge in the past that is sufficiently
reliable is already derived for a district in the same river basin and with similar climatic
conditions and flood discharge properties, the flood peak discharge of a earth dam can
be derived by multiplying the area of the earth dam basin with the flood discharge ratio
that corresponds to the area.
(2) The flood peak discharge is estimated by assuming that the heaviest rainfall
ever observed in the past within 50 km of the same river basin and with similar
climatic conditions also occurred in the earth dam basin.
The larger of the flood peak discharges estimated in (1) and (2) is used as the
C-item discharge.

3-5 Storage effect

The design flood water level for an earth dam that has a very small basin compared to
its water-surface area (basin area / water-surface area = 30 or smaller) may be
determined from its storage effect.

Generally, the design flood water level for a earth dam that has a very small basin
compared to its water-surface area (basin area / water-surface area = 30 or smaller)
can be determined from its storage effect. The storage effect should be calculated
from the climatic conditions, water movement, and properties of the basin and the earth
dam.
Obviously, the value for storage must be higher than the full water level for
calculating the storage effect. Flood discharge that is smaller than the conventional
discharge capacity of spillways cannot be determined with storage effect.

17
 start

Are there short-term data

on precipitation?

Determination of a formula
YES for rainfall intensity by
determining the coefficient

Calculation of the 200-year probability rainfall

intensity values for rainfall duration of 30, 60 and
120 minutes
Determination of the coefficient of runoff at the
peak of a flood (fp)

Determination of the values of re and tp that

simultaneously satisfy
tp= CA0.22re-0.35

Determination of the A-item disharge

QA = 1/3.6reA

Determination of the B-item Determination of the C-item

discharge QB discharge

Q=max (QA, QB, QC)

Determination of the design flood discharge

1.2 Q

NO
Investigate storage
effects?
YES
Determination of
runoff analysis
rainfall profiles

Determination of the design target discharge of spillways

and the design flood stage

end
Figure 3-2 Flow chart for determining the design flood discharge and the design

flood stage
18
Chapter 4 Design of a dam

Repair work for earth dams should be planned so that repair materials can be
obtained near the site. Design profiles should be determined with comprehensive and
manifold consideration on the conditions of the foundation ground and the relationship
between dam height and the depth of overflow from spillways. The procedure of
planning is shown in Figure 4-1.

4-1 Selection of methods for constructing and repairing dams

Safe and economical methods that secure the fundamental functions of earth
dams should be selected for repairing dams.

(1) Selection of methods for constructing and repairing dams

Methods for repairing dams are the homogeneous method, zone method (inclined core
and central core), facing method, and grouting method and are listed in Table 4-1.
The characteristics of each method are given below:

Homogeneous method repairs the dam with soil materials having characteristics
similar to the materials of the existing dam. This method, which constructs a dam
with gentler slopes and of larger volume than the zone method, is appropriate for
relatively low dams.
Inclined-core method stops water by establishing an inclined core at the upstream
side of an existing dam. This method is widely used for repairing dams when
impermeable materials are available. It highly cuts off water and fits well with the
old dam.
Central-core method stops water by establishing a core at the center of the dam.
This method may require more soil materials than the inclined-core method when
an existing dam is simply repaired.
Facing method: Facing may be synthetic plastic sheets, synthetic resin sheets,
asphalt panels, etc. This method is useful when the core materials are difficult to
obtain.
Grouting method is used when there are clear seepage routes from a dam. The
cost is usually expensive.

19
 start
survey

determination of the dam foundation ground

Note; a standard determination of the design flood discharge

profile of a dam
(In Figure 4-10 tentative gradient of the upstream slope
and Table 4-6) (tentative dam height)

determination of the free board (wave height)

determination of the crown height and width

Do they match the

tentative gradient of
the upstream slope?

determination of a standard profile

estimation of seepage (q)

determination of the saturation line

calculation of safety factor (Fs) from dam stability

NO

NO
the sliding surface
passes through the Fs1.2
foundation ground

YES YES
improvement of the
end
foundation ground
Figure 4-1 Procedure for formulating a plan

20
(Reference)

Standard profile of a dam

A standard profile of a dam should satisfy the conditions given in Figure 4-10

and Table 4-6 and should be determined by calculating and investigating stability.

Figure 4-10 Standard profile of a dam with an inclined core

21
 Table 4-6 Standard sizes for dams with inclined cores
front core
dam height of design freeboard width of gradient width of a distance width of width at the width at depth of gradient
height water level overflow dam step from the the core top of the the excavation of the
depth crest crest excavated bottom of
rear
H1 section the
slope
H h1 h2 B n1 b h3 di d2 excavated h4
section
d3
n4

~5 ~3.3 0.3~0.5 1.0~1.2 2.0~3.0 1.5~1.8 0~1.5 0.5~0.3 1.5~1.8 1.1~1.3 1.5~1.8
5~10 3.3~7.8 0.5~0.8 1.2~1.4 3.0~4.0 1.8~2.1 1.5 over 1.5 1.8~2.4 1.3~2.1 1.8~2.1
10m~15 7.8m~12.2 0.8m~1.2 1.4m~1.6 4.0m~5.0 2.1%~3.0 2.0m over 0.5 2.4m~3.5 2.1m~3.2 2.1%~3.

5
notes estimated varies by should be should be 15 - 30% Steps, if over 0.5 m 1.5 - 3.5 m determined d3 = 1/2 Varies by 15 ~
from the the 0.05 H2 + 0.2 H + 2.0 any, from n2 = n1 d2 the soil 25%
dam height location surge m (3.0 m at should be - 0.1 and n3 conditions
and height (1.0 the at least 1 = n2 - 0.2 of the
structure m at the minimum) m. foundation
of a minimum) ground.
spillway Values are
only for
reference.

Note: The b values should be investigated when a wave-breaker is not necessary.

22
 Table 4-1 Comparison of methods for constructing and repairing dams
method rough diagram definition characteristics notes
homogeneous This method stops water with the Construction is easy since all profiles are made of almost the same materials.
earth-dam method whole surface of the dam. Over Materials of a permeability slightly higher than those used for cores can be
(for constructing dams) 80% of the maximum profile of used. The dams have gentler slopes and larger volume than dams with cores.
the dam is composed of a uniform When constructing a dam with clay, drains should be established inside the
material. dam since the pore pressure generated inside the dam during construction is
difficult to dissipate and may destabilize the dam.
inclined core Both impermeable soil materials The pore pressure within the core dissipates fast since the ratio of impermeable This method is widely used for
method(for (for a core) and semi- or materials is low. Cores must be constructed with care, making this more repairing and improving old earth
constructing completely permeable soil difficult than the homogeneous method. However, this method is useful for dams.
zone and reconst- materials are used. The core repairing dams since it establishes a core inclining upstream.
method ructing inclines upstream.
dams)

central core Both impermeable soil materials The pore pressure within the core dissipates fast since the ratio of impermeable
method (for a core) and semi- or materials is low. Cores must be constructed with care, making this more
(for completely permeable soil difficult than the homogeneous method. Since the core is installed at the
constructing materials are used. The core is center of the dam, this method is not useful for repairing dams but is easier than
dams) installed at the center of the dam. the inclined-core method for constructing new dams.

facing with This method stops water by This method is widely used when impermeable banking materials are difficult
plastic sheet covering the upstream slope of a to obtain. This method can reduce the volume of the dam by using materials
dam that is made of permeable or that are permeable but of high shear strength for most of the dam. Sheets
semi-permeable materials with a must be installed to closely joint the earth or structures of the dam. Sheets
facing plastic sheet. may also be installed under concrete blocks to prevent intrudance of foreign
method objects that may cause damage.
for asphalt This method stops water by This method is widely used when impermeable banking materials are difficult There are asphalt-concrete
const- pavement applying asphalt on the surface of to obtain. It can reduce the volume of the dam by using materials that are pavement, asphalt sheets, and
ructing the upstream slope of a dam that permeable but of high shear strength for most of the dam. However, this asphalt panels.
and is made of permeable or method is not economical since the materials for cutting off water are usually
semi-permeable materials. expensive.
reconst-
ructing
dams

grouting method This method stops water by
(for reconst-ructing grouting the center of a dam that
dams) is made of permeable or
semi-permeable materials.
excavation method This method constructs a earth
dam by digging the ground and
stops water by laying sheets or
paving asphalt on the bottom and
slope surfaces.
This method is used when impermeable banking materials are difficult to
obtain and when there is a clear seepage route. Construction cost is rather
high.
This method is used for constructing a new earth dam. It requires a smaller When sheets are applied, the
area than constructing a dam and a earth dam and is appropriate for inclination of the slope should be
constructing a earth dam of a relatively small storage capacity. Synthetic 1:1.5 for shallow earth dams of
plastic sheets or asphalt should be used to cut off water. The earth dam area is approximately 2 m in depth and
larger than the concrete-tank method. 1:2 or over for deeper earth dams
to stabilize the sheets.

23
4-2 Dam
4-2-1 Structure of a dam and definitions of technical terms
The structure and terms of a dam with an inclined core are given in this section
(see Figures 4-2 and 4-3) although they are the same for other types of dams as well.

Figure 4-2 Profile of a dam with an inclined core

Figure 4-3 Dam length

Dam: the main structure of a earth dam that is constructed

above the foundation ground
Foundation ground: the ground under or near the dam
Core: the part of dam fill that is mainly installed to stop water
Random fill: the part of dam fill other than the core
Crest of dam: the highest surface of a dam. Balustrades, parapets, or
structures added to use the crest as roads are not
included.
Height of dam (H): the vertical distance from the line of the foundation
ground to the dam crest. The line of the foundation
ground is the deepest line that the core traverses the
foundation ground. If the bottom width of the core is
10 m or over, the height of the dam is the vertical
distance from the bottom of the core to the dam crest.
For homogeneous earth dams, the height is the vertical
distance from the line of the foundation ground to the
dam crest at the upstream end of the dam.
Length of dam (L):
Width of dam (B):
Design flood stage (HWL):
Full water level (FWL):
Earth dam depth (H1):
Maximum depth (H2):
Total overflow depth (h1):
Freeboard (h2):
the length of a dam at the crest. For a dam with
structures such as spillways that are established within
or next to the dam and that are considered to constitute
the dam, the length of the dam should include these
structures.
the width of the dam at the crest
the elevation of the design flood stage
the elevation of the full water level
the difference in height between the full water level and
the sand trap bed.
the difference in height between the design flood stage
and the line of the foundation ground.
the difference in height between the design flood stage
and the full water level.
the difference in height between the dam crest and the
design flood stage.

Impermeable ground is a foundation ground of a permeability equal to or less

than the design permeability coefficient of a core. A foundation ground of larger
permeability than the design permeability coefficient of a core is permeable ground.
Soft ground does not have sufficient strength to serve as the foundation ground
of a dam (N values: 0 ~ 4). Usually, soft ground is constituted by soft clay, silt,
organic soil, or loose sand.

25
4-2-2 Foundation ground of a dam
The foundation ground of a dam should have the necessary bearing capacity and water
tightness. Foundations that do not satisfy these conditions should be improved to
acquire the necessary capacities.
A desirable permeability coefficient of the foundation ground of a dam is
K 1 10-5 cm/s.
The foundation ground should have a bearing capacity sufficient to support heavy
equipment. As a yardstick, the cone index determined by penetration tests of portable
cones is approximately qc = 500 kN/m2. The relationship between cone indices qc
and N values is usually

qc 198 N (kN/m2) for silty soil, and

qc 396N (kN/m2) for sandy soil

(Geological Engineers Handbook, p.483, 1982).

The foundation ground for a cut-off core should be impermeable with a
permeability coefficient equal to or smaller than the design permeability coefficient of
the core. When the foundation ground is permeable and cannot attain the desirable
permeability coefficient, measures to prevent piping and to secure hydraulic stability
(investigation of cut-off depth and application of blankets) should be taken.

(1) Methods for improving permeable ground

When the foundation ground is permeable and it is difficult or uneconomical to
construct a core to reach the impermeable layer, a method shown in Table 4-2 should
be applied to restrain the amount of seepage within the allowable range and to safely
discharge the seepage outside the dam.
Table 4-2 Methods for improving permeable ground
thickness of the design sketch outline
permeable layer method
shallow core core It stops water completely.
The permeable layer should be thinner
than 1/3 of the height of the dam
above the foundation.
medium sheet piles core Cut-off of water is incomplete.
sheet pile It is not appropriate for layers with
cobblestones.
It is effective for layers of fine sand or
silt.
grout core It is effective for permeable rock
curtain grout layers.

thick blanket impermeable blanket It is effective for preventing piping.

core The cost is low.

overall overall pavement It is very costly. It is not used unless

pavement it can completely stop seepage.

26
 Blanket method
When there is a permeable layer that is thick, wide, or inclines and is exposed
within an earth dam, the upstream side of the earth dam can be covered with
impermeable materials interlinked with the impermeable section of the dam to prevent
seepage discharge. This method is economical, does not require excavation of the
ground, is easy to apply, and is widely used for low dams (Figure 4-4). It is effective
not only for a dam foundation but also for a permeable layer at the abutment of a dam.
In grounds of large horizontal permeability, blankets alone cannot prevent seepage
destruction at the toe of a downstream slope and should be combined with an upstream
impermeable blanket and downstream drains or relief wells. A natural blanket is an
impermeable clay layer on top of a permeable sandy layer, while an artificial blanket is
artificially created by transporting materials from other areas.

Figure 4-4 Blanket

The effects and length of a blanket are usually calculated according to Bennets
theory. Bennets theory assumes that water flows only horizontally within the
foundation ground that is composed of uniform and horizontal permeable layers, and
neglects vertical discharge.
(a) Effective length of a seepage path in a natural blanket
The effective length of a seepage path Xr that is created by a natural blanket that
is wide with a uniform thickness, such as a clay layer accumulated on the surface of a
earth dam bed, is determined with the following equation:

Zb Kf Zf
Xr = (4-1)
Kb

27
Here, Zb: thickness of the blanket,
Zf: thickness of the permeable layer
Kb: mean vertical permeability coefficient of the blanket
Kf: mean horizontal permeability coefficient of the permeable layer

Xr is the horizontal distance necessary for generating a head drop h as shown

in Figure 4-5. The head drop by a natural blanket X (m) is equal to the application of
perfectly impermeable blocks Xr meters horizontally at the upstream side of the earth
dam.
The total amount of water qf that seeps from the permeable layer is determined
with the following equation from Xr derived from equation 4-1.
Kf Zf H
qf = (4-2)
Xr + Xd
Here, H: all heads on the blanket
Xd: width of the base of the impermeable part of the dam

Figure 4-5 Blanket

(b) Length of an artificial blanket

The length X of an artificial blanket of a uniform thickness is determined with
the following equations:

Kf Zf H
qf = (4-3)
Xr + Xd

e 2ax 1
Xr = (4-4)
a(e 2ax + 1)

28
 kb
Here, a =
Zb Kf Zf

X: the necessary length of an artificial blanket.

The value for qf is first determined from the allowable amount of seepage, and
then the corresponding Xr is determined with equation 4-3. X is then determined by
substituting the Xr in equation 4-4.
The thickness of a blanket is usually 1/10 the value of water pressure or 1.0 - 3.0
m. A blanket should be thicker near the dam and thinner upstream. When a
permeable layer is directly covered by a thin impermeable layer, it is only necessary to
disturb the surface, fill up holes, and recompacted with a roller.

(2) Methods for improving poor ground

To construct a dam on a soft ground, the dam should be designed to be
sufficiently safe against slippage loss and consolidation settlement. Methods for
improving soft ground are listed in Table 4-3.

Table 4-3 Methods for improving soft ground

thickness of design sketch outline
soft layer method
thin replacing soft layer This method
removes all or
part of a soft
layer and
replaces it with
safe materials.
thick counterweig counterweight fill Counterweight
ht fill soft layer fill is applied at
the toe of a slope
to prevent
slippage loss
with the
foundation
ground.

29
4-2-3 Materials for embankment
Materials for embankment must have the necessary watertightness and strength and
must not cause slippage loss or seepage failure.

For a zoned dam, both impermeable materials (core) and semi-permeable or

permeable materials should be used for embanking.
Usually, impermeable materials are those that have a permeability coefficient 1
-5
10 cm or less when they compact. Permeable materials are those that have a
permeability coefficient larger than 1 10-5 cm when they compact. Semi-permeable
materials are those of intermediate permeability.
Materials for embankment should be selected based on the following criteria:
Particle size analysis*: Materials should have a particle size distribution that
makes them dense and should contain an appropriate
amount of fine particles.
Consistency*: The materials should have a small contraction
coefficient and should be adequately plastic.
*These can be determined by a unified classification
(See Figure 4-6 and Tables 4-4 and 4-5.)
Relative density: The relative density should be over 2.6. (The
materials of a relative density under 2.6 may contain
organic substances.)
Permeability: The permeability coefficient of the impermeable
materials at compaction should be under 1 10-5 cm
(1 10-6 cm in laboratory test).
Standard tamping: The watertightness, strength, and adequacy of
application are determined since the density, shear
strength, and permeability coefficient change by the
amount of water contained. The shear strength is
maximum under the optimum moisture content.
The permeability coefficient is minimum when the
moisture content is slightly higher than the optimum.
Shear strength: The shear strength, which is usually expressed by the
apparent cohesion and the angle of shear resistance,
should be determined by a triaxial test to conduct
stability analysis. The shear strength may be
roughly estimated with a unified classification.

30
 Figure 4-6 Range of adequate materials for embankment

Table 4-4 Properties and adequacy of soil and sandy materials

classification important properties suitability of materials
symbol
permeability shear compressi ease of for dams for foundations
after rolling strength bility after operation
compaction after being being when it is
rolling rolling used for
compacted compacted embanking
to saturation to homoge- imper-me permea- seepage seepage
saturation neous able zone ble zone empha-s ignored
dam ized
GW permeable excellent almost excellent 1 1
negligible
GP very good almost good 2 3
permeable negligible
GM semi-permea good almost good 2 4 1 4
ble - negligible
impermeable
GC impermeable good - very small good 1 1 2 6
satisfactory
SW permeable excellent almost excellent 3* 2
negligible
SP permeable good very small satisfactory 4* 5
SM semi-permea good small satisfactory 4 5 3 7
ble -
impermeable
SC impermeable good - small good 3 2 4 8
satisfactory
ML semi-permea satisfactory medium satisfactory 6 6 6 9
ble -
impermeable
CL impermeable satisfactory medium good 5 3 5 10
satisfactory
OL semi-permea un-satisfact medium satisfactory 8 8 7 11
ble - ory
impermeable
MH semi-permea satisfactory large un-satisfact 9 9 8 12
ble - un-satisfact ory
impermeable ory
CH impermeable un-satisfact large un-satisfact 7 7 9 13
ory ory
OH impermeable un-satisfact large un-satisfact 10 10 10 14
ory ory
PT - - - - - -
notes) *: materials of a high gravel content
In the column suitability of materials, the number 1 represents the highest suitability; and the larger
the number, the lower the suitability.

31
 Table 4-5 Uniform classification of soil and sandy materials and their properties
classification standard tamping void ratio piping resistance permeability water perme- shear strength shear difficulty of impervious suitability for compressibility (%) suitability for the foundation ground
symbol eo coefficient k ability strength construction zones actually banking materials
(cm/sec) and/or constructed (zone)
maintenance by the Bureau
range (mean) of Recla-
mation
dmax opt Co csat () 1.4 kg/cm2 3.5 kg/cm2 bearing measures against
(t/m2) (%) (kg/cm2) (kg/cm2) capacity seepage
GW >1.91 <13.3 high 1-8~1-1(2.7-21.3-2) permeable >38 very high very easy - adequate (for <1.4 good The materials cut off
permeable zone) water
GP >1.76 <12.4 high~medium 5-8~1+1(6.4-23.4-2) permeable ~ >36 high very easy - adequate (for <0.8 good completely.
very permeable permeable zone)
GM >1.83 <14.5 high~medium 1-71-4 (>3-7) semi-permeabl >34 high very easy 4 adequate (for <1.2 <3.0 good trenching at the toe of
e impermeable zone) the slope
GC >1.84 <14.7 very high 1-8~1-5(>3-7) impermeable >31 high very easy 4 adequate (for <1.2 <2.4 good not necessary
impermeable zone)
SW 1.910.08 13.32.5 0.37 high~medium 5-4~5-2() permeable 0.400.04 381 very high very easy - adequate (for 1.4 good The materials cut off
permeable zone) water
SP 1.760.03 12.41.0 0.500.03 low ~ very low 5-5~5-1(7.2-4) permeable~ 0.230.06 361 high easy ~ - adequate (for 0.80.3 good ~ poor completely.
semi-permeabl intermediate permeable zone)
e
SM 1.830.02 14.50.4 0.480.02 medium ~ low 1-7~5-4(7.5-64.8-6) semi-permeabl 0.520.06 0.200.07 341 high easy ~ 16 adequate (for 0.20.1 3.00.4 good ~ poor
e~ intermediate impermeable zone)
impermeable
SM-SC 1.910.02 12.80.5 0.410.02 - - (8.0-76.0-7) - 0.510.22 0.150.06 333 - - 3 - 1.40.3 2.91.0 - -
SC 1.840.02 14.70.4 0.480.01 high 1-8~5-5(3.0-72.0-7) impermeable 0.760.15 0.110.06 313 high ~ easy ~ 7 adequate (for 1.20.2 2.40.5 good ~ poor not necessary
medium intermediate impermeable zone)
ML 1.650.02 19.20.7 0.630.02 low ~ very low 1-8~5-5(5.9-72.3-7) impermeable 0.680.10 0.09 322 medium ~ intermediate 7 adequate (for 1.50.2 2.60.3 poor The materials cut off
low ~ very impermeable zone) water completely.
difficult
ML-CL 1.750.02 16.80.7 0.540.03 - - (1.3-70.7-7) - 0.640.17 0.22 323 - - - - 1.00.2 2.20.0 - -
CL 1.730.02 17.30.3 0.560.01 high 1-8~5-5(8.0-83.0-8) impermeable 0.880.10 0.13 282 medium easy ~ 10 adequate (for 1.40.2 2.60.4 good ~ poor not necessary
intermediate impermeable zone)
OL medium impermeable low intermediate - not adequate poor not necessary
~ difficult
MH 1.310.06 36.33.2 1.150.12 low ~ very low 1-9~1-7(1.6-71.0-7) very 0.730.30 0.200.01 252 low difficult ~ - not adequate 2.01.2 3.80.8 poor not necessary
impermeable very difficult
CH 1.500.03 25.51.2 0.800.04 very high 1-10~1-8(5.0-55.0-8) very 1.040.34 0.110.06 195 low ~ very difficult 1 adequate (for 2.61.3 3.91.5 poor not necessary
impermeable medium impermeable zone)
OH - - () - - - not adequate poor not necessary
Pt impossible to impossible to use must be removed from the
compress foundation
notes): 1 This table contains data from materials of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, such as Earth and Earth-Rock Dams, etc. The values shown have a mean reliability of 90%.

2. These types of soils may not perfectly match with the soils of Japan, but the precision is sufficient for making rough plans.

3. * marks show insufficient data.

4. Co: the value at the optimum water content; Csat: the value at saturation. (1-3 ~ 1-1) in permeability coefficients are abbreviation of (1 10-3 ~ 1 10-1).

32
4-2-4 Design flood level
The design flood level is determined with the following equation:
Design flood level (HWL) = full water level (FWL) + total overflow depth (h1)
(4-5)

(1) Full water level (FWL)

Full water level is the height of a spillway bed or the crest of an overflow weir.
The effective storage capacity of an earth dam signifies water contained under this
level. Full water levels are determined in relation to the storage capacity and the
conditions of the peripheral regions.

(2) Total overflow depth(h1)

Total overflow depth is usually 0.3 ~ 1.2 m and should be determined in
association with the following factors:
Spillways
The topography of the places to establish spillways should be considered since
the total overflow depth (h1) determines the width of the spillways (b) (large h1 -->
small b, small h1 --> large b).
Embankment
The amount of available banking material should be considered since the total
overflow depth (h1) determines the amount of embankment (v) (large h1 --> large v,
small h1 --> small v).
Height of dam crest
The effect on the distribution of side margins, rear slope lines, and the height of
wainscot blocks should be studied.
(height of dam crest = full water level + total overflow depth + free board)
Surrounding regions
The total overflow depth should be determined by checking that sections lying
below the design flood stage (roads, channels, lowlands) do not exist in the basin of the
earth dam and that houses in the surrounding area are not flooded.

33
4-2-5 Freeboard

The freeboard of a dam should be sufficiently high so that flood water never
overflows the dam crest.
Freeboard is determined with the following equations:

When surge height less than or equal to 1.0 m,

h2 = 0.05 H2 + 1.0 (m) (4-6)
H2: maximum water depth (the height from the foundation ground to the
design flood level)
For earth dams lower than 5.0 m in height, a freeboard of at least 1 m may be
used if the flood discharge, storage capacity, and the landuse in the surrounding regions
indicate that the damage to the dam is small.

When surge height is over 1.0 m,

h2 = 0.05 H2 + R (m) (4-7)
h2: free board
H2: maximum water depth (height from the foundation to the design flood
level)
R: height of surge

The height of surge by wind (R) is determined from Figure 4-9 by determining
the fetch from Figures 4-7 and 4-8. The water surface used for determining the fetch
is the level at the design flood level.

Figure 4-7 Fetch lines

34
 Figure 4-8 Maximum wind speeds recorded in Japan

4. The border lines between strong-wind and light-wind zones were determined by
proportionally distributing values of two adjacent points, and no topographic factors
were considered.

Figure 4-9 Surge height by the S.M.B. and Saville methods

35
4-2-6 Crest width of a dam
The width of a dam is determined with the following equation:
B = 0.2 H + 2.0 (4-8)
B: crest width of the dam (m)
H: height of the dam (m)
The crest width of a dam should be determined with consideration of the
utilization of dam crest and the maintenance of the dam. The width should be over 3.0
m for best dam construction and maintenance.
Dams lower than 5.0 m in height over which vehicles do not pass may be 2.0 m in
width.

36
 4-2-7 Standard profile of a dam
A standard profile of a dam should satisfy the conditions given in Figure 4-10
and Table 4-6 and should be determined by calculating and investigating stability.

Figure 4-10 Standard profile of a dam with an inclined core

Table 4-6 Standard sizes for dams with inclined cores

front core
dam height of design freeboard width of gradient width distance width of width at width at depth of gradient
height water level overflow dam of a from the the core the top of the bottom excavation of the rear
depth step crest crest the of the
slope
H1 excavated excavated
H h1 h2 B n1 h3 di section section h4
n4
b d2 d3
~5 ~3.3 0.3~0.5 1.0~1.2 2.0~3.0 1:1.5~1:1.8 0~1.5 0.5~0.3 1.5~1.8 1.1~1.3 1:1.5~1:1.8
5~10 3.3~7.8 0.5~0.8 1.2~1.4 3.0~4.0 1:1.8~1:2.1 1.5 over 1.5 1.8~2.4 1.3~2.1 1:1.8~1:2.1
10m~15 7.8m~12.2 0.8m~1.2 1.4m~1.6 4.0m~5.0 1:2.1~1:3.0 2.0m over 0.5 2.4m~3.5 2.1m~3.2 1:2.1~1:2.5
notes estimated varies by should be should be 1:1.5~1:3.0 Steps, over 0.5 m 1.5 - 3.5 m determine d3 = 1/2 d2 Varies by 1:1.5~1:2.5
from the the 0.05 H2 + 0.2 H + 2.0 if any, d from n2 the soil
dam height location surge m (3.0 m should = n1 - 0.1 conditions
and height (1.0 at the be at and n3 = n2 of the
structure m at the minimum) least 1 - 0.2 foundation
of a minimum) m. ground.
spillway Values are
only for
reference.
Note: The b values should be investigated when a wave-breaker is not necessary.
Note: Installation of filters and drains should be investigated under certain in-situ conditions.

The standard profile of a dam should be determined with sufficient consideration

for safety. The sizes shown in Table 4-6 are usually used, but actual sizes should be
determined after calculating the stability of the dam. If the dam crest is used for roads,
crushed rock and other road materials should be laid over the dam crest.

37
4-2-8 Seepage quantity
The allowable amount of seepage is 30 l/m per 100 m of dam at the maximum.
It should be also investigated in terms of storage efficiency.

(1) Calculation of seepage

A method for calculating the seepage from a dam with an inclined core is given
below. Refer to the design standard for dams in land improvement projects (April
1981) for the methods for dams with central cores and homogeneous dams.
(H 1 0.5h) 1 H1 h
q= + k (4-9)
b + CM/2 2 sin1 sin1

b: the length PQ of the wet line

H1: the difference in height between the high water level and the
foundation ground
k: permeability coefficient
The value q is seepage per unit width (cm3/s). CM is the length of a flow line
that passes through the bottom of the downstream surface of the inclined core, which is
the distance determined by drawing a line from L parallel to MQ and a perpendicular
line to this line from M and letting the intersection of this perpendicular line and the
line LP be C.
sin1
CM = B1 (4-10)
cos(2 1 )

38
 Figure 4-11 Drawing for the calculation of seepage

(2) Design of profiles for homogeneous dams and dams with cores
The profile of a dam either homogeneous or with a core should be designed
according to the procedure given in Figure 4-12 and should limit the seepage within the
allowable range.

profile of a
homogeneous dam or determination of seepage
dam with a core (q)

investigation of a design
permeability coefficient NO YES The design of
revision of the slope gradients q allowable value the dam
of the dam (homogeneous or profile is
with a core)

Figure 4-12 Flowchart for investigating the profile of a homogeneous dam or a dam
with a core

39
4-2-9 Seepage lines
Seepage lines should be investigated since seepage within a dam adversely affects the
stability of the dam and may lead to rupture.

Seepage lines should not emerge on the downstream slope of a dam. If the
lines appear on the slope, drains should be established to hold them within the dam.
Seepage lines should be calculated to investigate the stability of the dam. The
seepage lines for a dam with an inclined core are calculated in the following manner.
The methods for dams with central cores and homogeneous dams are described in the
design standard for "dams" in land improvement projects (April 1981).
The mean of the widths of the core at the bottom and at the water level is
determined. Point R is determined by taking this mean value from point P along the
upstream slope downward. A circle with a radius (B1+B2)/2 is drawn from point R to
determine point Q. The arc PQ is a seepage line.
For a wet line at the downstream side of Q, the height Y0 above point D at the
toe of the slope which is shown in Figure 4-13 is determined with the following
equation:

Y0 = K1/K2h (4-11)
Here, h is the height from the foundation to point Q, K1 is the permeability coefficient
of the core, and K2 is the permeability coefficient of the random fill.
The wet line from point D (the basic parabola) is expressed with the following
equation: seepage

Y = 2Y0 X + Y0 2 (4-12)
When K2/K1 is smaller than 10, the dam should be homogeneous. Wet lines for
the core and random fill are determined separately from these equations. These lines
are discontinuous and should be connected with a smooth curve that passes through
point Q.

40
Figure 4-13 Seepage lines of a dam with an inclined core

41
4-2-10 Calculation of dam stability
The safety of a dam must be confirmed by calculating its stability. Dams must have a
safety coefficient of 1.2 or over.

1. Methods for calculating stability

(a) Stability Calculation Method I should be used for calculating the stability of earth
dam dams.
(b) Stability Calculation Method II may be used for dams lower than 10 m in height.

2. Stability Calculation Method I

(1) Conditions for calculating stability
Safety coefficient
Safety coefficients (Fs) must be 1.2 or over. They should be even larger when
the material tests or safety calculations are not very precise or when there are various
indeterminate factors such as in dams on poor ground.
Cases in which sliding failure should be investigated
Sliding failure should be investigated according to Table 4-7.

Table 4-7 Cases in which sliding failure should be investigated

stability slope to be safety design test method
analysis analyzed coefficient seismic
intensity
immediately upstream and 1.2 or over 50% CUUU
after downstream
construction sides
full water same as above same as above 100% CUCD
level
design flood same as above same as above - CUCD
stage
(Design seismic intensities are shown in Table 4-8)

Load
a. Dead load
The dead load of a dam that is used for calculating the resistance to slippage loss
should be determined according the method given below (see Figure 4-14). The unit
volume weights of dam materials that are actually used should be tested and
determined.

42
a) Immediately after construction and when water is not yet stored
Dead load is the wet weight per unit volume of the banking materials (1).
b) After several years of water storage and constant seepage
Dead load is the wet weight per unit volume of the banking materials (1) for
sections above the wet line and is the saturated unit volume weight (sat) for
sections below the wet line.

Figure 4-14 Unit volume weight for calculating the dead load of a earth dam

b. Hydrostatic pressure
Figure 4-15 shows various methods for calculating the resistance of a dam to
slippage loss which interpret the slippage moment of hydraulic pressure in different
manners. Method (d) should be used as it neglects hydrostatic pressure by balancing
the sliding and resisting hydrostatic pressures at each slice.

Figure 4-15 Various interpretations of the moment of hydrostatic pressure on the

center of a sliding circle

43
c. Seismic inertia force
The seismic inertia force is the product of the design seismic intensity given in
Table 4-8 and the wet unit volume weight and the saturated unit volume weight for
above and below the wet lines, respectively.

Table 4-8 Standard seismic intensity

regional classification strong-earthqua weak-earthqua intermediate
ke region ke region region
earth dam almost 0.15 0.12 0.15
homogeneous dam
other types of 0.15 0.10 0.12
dams

Figure 4-16 Regional classification for design seismic intensity in Japan

d. Pore water pressure

The pore water pressure, which must be considered for determining the stability
from effective stress, comprises pore water pressures that are generated by stress
change during and immediately after construction and those that are caused by constant
seepage during water storage. The method for calculating stability from pore water
pressure, which is related to triaxial compression tests, is described in Section (2)
Method for calculating stability.

44
 e. Design values of soil materials
The design density ds (the design unit volume weight ds) of soil materials
should be such that the materials will harden given the water content of the site. The
design density varies by soil type, climate, and construction conditions, and is usually
90 - 95% of the JIS maximum dry density for clay (D values 90 - 95%). Generally,
the shadowed section in Figure 4-17 is used for banking. However, a moisture
content larger than the allowable driest moisture content determined from the density
must be used as the allowable minimum moisture content for construction since
permeability is minimum when the soil is slightly wetter than the optimum moisture
content and permeability does not change much for wetter soil but changes drastically
for drier soil.

Figure 4-17 Compaction curve

Determination of design intensity constants for embankment
A zone of a dam, although homogeneous, is usually constructed with materials
of slightly different compositions and properties. The design intensity constants C

and (or C and ) for a design density (the design unit volume weight) should be

determined for each material type. The constants C and (or C and ) should

also be determined from the amount of soil that can be used. There are various
methods for determining these constants, which are appropriate for the respective
occasion, but the following equations are usually used:

45
 n

1
n = i (4-9)
n i =1

=
1
n 1
{
(1 m ) 2 + ( 2 m ) 2 + ( n m ) 2 } (4-10)

1
ds = m f (4-11)
2

whereds = the design value for the angle of shear resistance.

(2) Method for calculating stability (slip circle slice method)
Stability analysis should be conducted by the slip circle slice method. There
are two methods for expressing the apparent cohesion and the shear resistance angle,
which are derived from triaxial compression tests, i.e., the expression of total stress and
effective stress.
The total stress expression shows C and that are derived by applying the axial
force 1 (maximum main stress) and the lateral pressure 3 (minimum main stress) that
were used for triaxial compression tests to Mohrs stress circle. The effect of pore
water pressure is included.
On the other hand, the effective stress expression shows C and that are
derived by subtracting the pore water pressure U from the axial force 1 and the lateral
pressure 3 that were used for triaxial compression tests and by using the differences as
the maximum and minimum main stresses, respectively, in Mohrs stress circle.

Application of shear test values

Dams of over 30 m in height are usually susceptible to pore water pressure.
However, dams less than 15 m in height have very thin impermeable sections (cores),
and most of the pore water pressure generated during construction diffuses when the
dams, regardless of the soil type, are completed.
Therefore, the safety factor against sliding slopes may be determined by an
effective stress analysis which uses C and .
However, if dam profiles or construction conditions suggest that this method is
inappropriate, the safety factor for a dam immediately after construction should be
determined from total stress analysis with C and . Since the effects of pore water
pressure are included in C and , these effects must be removed during the analysis.

46
 Circular slip surface slicing method
This method defines safety factor as the sum of the slide and resisting moments
that act upon each slice of the circular slip surface. The safety factor is determined
with the following equations:
When intensity constants C and expressed in total stress are used:

Fs =
{c l + (N N )tan })
e
(4-15)
(T + T )e

When intensity constants C and expressed in effective stress are used:

Fs =
{c l + (N U N e )tan }
(4-16)
(T + T ) e

where Fs: safety factor

c, c: cohesion of the materials at each slice of the slip surface (C: total stress
expression, C: effective stress expression)
, : angle of shear resistance of the materials at each slice of the slip surface
(: total stress expression, : effective stress expression)
l: length of slip surface for each slice = b/cos
b: width of a slice
N: vertical load that acts upon each slice of the slip surface
T: tangential load that acts upon each slice of the slip surface
Ne: vertical earthquake load that acts upon each slice of the slip surface
Te: tangential earthquake load that acts upon each slice of the slip surface
U: pore pressure that acts upon each slice of the slip surface (sum of the pore
pressure by seepage and excess pore pressure generated during dam
construction)
The osmotic pressure by seepage of the dam should not be included in the
pore water pressure (U).
Safety factors should be calculated for all cases listed in Table 4-7 and must be
1.2 or over.
For dams on soft ground, safety factors should be calculated for slip surfaces that
pass through the foundation.
Safety factors for dams during or immediately after construction may be
calculated with either equation 4-15 (total stress expression) or 4-16 (effective stress
expression). Safety factors after water is stored should be calculated with equation
4-16 (effective stress expression).
The following description is for the equation of effective stress expression.
The values for N, N-U, Ne and Te are determined with the following methods:
For dams immediately after construction and when water is not stored (Figure 4-21)
If the total weight of a slice is W, then

Figure 4-21 Forces acting upon a Figure 4-22 Forces acting upon a
slice above a circular slip surface slice slice above a circular slip surface

47
 (when there is no water stored) (years after construction, when there is
water stored)
W = tA (t: the wet unit volume weight of the fill materials)
A: area of a slice = hb
N = Wcos
T = Wsin
l = b/cos
We = KW
Ne= Wesin
Te = Wecos
K: design seismic intensity
U = ul = ub/cos (u is the pressure that acts upon a unit area of the slip
surface from the excessive pore water pressure generated during construction)

If the excessive pore water pressure is assumed to be % of the weight of the

soil column, then N - U = W (1 - /1001/cos2)cos

For dams that were constructed years before having constant seepage
a) Slice with a wet surface (slices (1) and (2) in Figure 4-22)
W = Wa + Wb
Wa = tAa
Wb = Ab
N - U = Wcos = (Wa + Wb) cos
T = Wsin
We = K(tAa + satAb) = K (W + w Ab)
sat: the saturated unit volume weight of the fill materials
Ne = Wesin
Te = Wecos
Aa: area of a slice above the wet surface (m2)
t: wet unit volume weight of the fill materials (t/m3)
Ab: area of a slice below the wet surface (saturated region) (Submerged weight is
used) (m2)
: submerged unit volume weight of the fill materials (=sat - w) (t/m3)
sat: saturated unit volume weight of the fill materials (t/m3)
w: unit volume weight of water (t/m3)
48
3. Method for calculating stability II
(1) Conditions for calculating stability
Determination of design intensity constants for banking materials
a. When the principal banking materials are clay
The shear strength of a dam that is mainly made of clay (plasticity index: Ip >
10) varies according to test conditions, such as saturated or unsaturated, or on
expressions such as total and effective stress. It is costly and time consuming to
precisely determine these values with tests, so it is not advisable for small dams.
Instead, the cohesion expressed in total stress Cu (undrained shear strength) is used
for the design intensity constant of the dam. The value of Cu is determined from test
results in the following manner:
Triaxial CU test: Assuming that cu is 0,
let the obtained Ccu be Cu.
(4-14)
Triaxial UU test: Cu = 1/2(1 -3)max
Uniaxial compression test: Cu = 1/2qu

Cu may be determined from an average N value of a standard penetration test in

the following manner if it is difficult to test the materials, such as when part of a dam is
repaired.

qu = 0.5 N
(4-15)
Cu = 1/2 qu

b. When the principal banking materials are sandy soil

For dams that are mainly made of sand (plasticity index: Ip < 10), the internal
friction angle should be accurately evaluated. However, in dams of 10 m or less in
height, the lateral confining pressure is only 98kN/m2 even at the deepest sections, and

the has little effect on the intensity coefficients of the materials.

The coefficients of sandy materials expressed in total stress also includes

cohesion. Therefore, Cu that is derived in the method described in section a may be
used as the design intensity coefficient since it is convenient and since a safety factor
smaller than the value determined with should be used.

49
 Density of banking materials
For calculating the stability of the upstream slope, the saturated unit volume
weight sat of the principal materials of the said part should be used.
For calculating the stability of the downstream slope, the wet unit volume weight
t of the principal materials of the said part should be used.

50
 (3) Method for evaluating safety during earthquakes
Simple standard for evaluating earthquake resistance
Since the method for calculating stability II uses a chart to calculate stability in
an easy way, it cannot investigate earthquake resistance with the conventional
antiseismic method. Therefore, a simple method for evaluating earthquake resistance
of a dam and the foundation ground from soil data shall be used, which was proposed
by Tani et al. and is based on the field surveys of earth dams damaged (over 200) and
not damaged by the Nihon-kai Chubu Earthquake in 1983 and laboratory soil tests of
collected specimens.

a. Classification of embankment and foundation ground

Embankment and the foundations ground are classified as shown in Table 4-9 to
investigate their seismic resistance.

Table 4-9 Classification of dams and foundation ground*

classification characteristics
Embankment a Sandy soil that may cause liquefaction (note 1) and that has a degree
of compaction or D value of 90% or lower or an N value of 10 or
lower
b Clayey soil with an N value of 3 or lower or a qu value of 60kN/m2
or smaller
c Dams other than a and b
Foundation a Sandy ground where liquefaction may occur or very soft clayey
ground
ground
1. sandy layer that is 10 or smaller in N value and over 2 m in
thickness
2. clayey layer that is 3 or smaller in N value, or 60kN/m2 or lower
in qu value, and over 2 m in thickness
b Ground of classes 3 or 4 other than a (note 2)
c Ground of classes 1 or 2 other than a (note 2)

(Note 1) Sandy soil that may liquefy: For dam materials, this is soil that has a particle
size distribution in the range shown in Figure 4-23.

* Tani, S. and Hasegawa, T.: Tameike no jishin-ji anzensei no hyokaho (Method for evaluating the
safety of earth dams during earthquakes), Nogyo doboku gakkai ronbun shu (Collection of Reports of
51
 Figure 4-23 Particle size distribution of soil that may liquefy*

(Note 2) Ground is classified according to the Shin taishin sekkei-ho (New methods
for anti-seismic design), Doboku Kenkyusho Shiryo (Bulletin of the Public Works
Institute), No. 1185, 1977) into Classes 1 to 4 described in the following table.

Class Type of ground

Class 1 (1) Tertiary or earlier deposit (hereafter, rock mass)
(2) The diluvial layer on the rock mass is less than 10 m in thickness.
Class 2 (1) The diluvial layer on the rock mass is at least 10 m in thickness.
(2) The alluvial layer on the rock mass is less than 10 m in thickness.
Class 3 The alluvial layer on the rock mass is less than 25 m in thickness and
the soft ground layer is less than 5 m in thickness.
Class 4 Ground other than that listed above.

the Society of Agricultural Civil Engineers), 152, pp. 55-64 (1991)

* Design Standards for Dams in Land Improvement Projects, p.253 (April 1981)
52
b. Simple standard for evaluating earthquake resistance

Table 4-10 Simple standard for evaluating earthquake resistance*

Dam a b c
Foundation ground
a large large medium
b large medium small
c medium small none
Large: Dam may subside for 1.0 m or more or may collapse.
Medium: Dam may subside for 0.5 - 1.0 m or a slope may slide.
Small: Dam may subside for 0.5 m or less or cracks may appear.
None: No damage is caused by an earthquake.

Evaluation of earthquake resistance

These standards were created based on analyses of earth dams damaged by the
Nihonkai Chubu Earthquake. An earthquake of a similar intensity (magnitude 7.5 or
over, seismic intensity scale of V or over) is very likely to cause damage such as is
listed in Table 4-10.
Dams of earth dams should be earthquake resistant, but it is not feasible to invest
much money or time in constructing earthquake-resistant dams. Therefore, dams
should be designed, constructed, and repaired to meet the medium or better standards
in Table 4-10.
All dams should be evaluated based on the research on the materials and ground
conditions. Dams that fall in the large standard of Table 4-10 must be improved
into medium or better by taking the measures listed below.
a. Measures for dams
1) Improve the particle size distribution of the materials.
2) Confirm during construction that D value is or over 95%.
3) Apply reinforcement when natural materials cannot satisfy the required conditions.
b. Measures for foundation ground
1) Improve the bearing force of the ground. Ground improvement with solidifying
cement, sand compaction piles, counterweight fill, sheet piles, etc., may be used.

*D value = ( d / dmax)100(%)

* Tani, S. and Hasegawa, T.: Tameike no jishin-ji anzensei no hyokaho (Method for evaluating the
safety of earth dams during earthquakes), Nogyo doboku gakkai ronbun shu (Collection of Reports of
the Society of Agricultural Civil Engineers), 152, pp. 55-64 (1991)
53
4-2-11 Drains
Drains should act as a filter that drains seepage water from embankments without
causing much head loss to prevent piping.

Seepage flow within an embankments may cause small soil particles to enter
within gaps of larger particles and invite piping, leading to erosion of the dam inside,
settlement of a part of the dam, or even collapse. To prevent piping, drain zones must
be established. Drain zones should prevent the movement of soil particles and should
act as a filter that drains seepage water without causing much head loss.
Drains may be classified into drains at the toes of downstream slopes, horizontal
drains, rising drains, and combined drains. Drains at the toes of downstream slopes
are widely used for dams with inclined cores.

Figure 4-24 Types of drains

54
(1) Drains at the toes of downstream slopes
If there is seepage at the downstream slope of a dam, a drain should be installed
at the toe of the slope. The configuration of the drain is shown in Figure 4-25. The
size should be determined so that the wet line of the embankment dam does not appear
on the surface of the lower slope.

If the masonry is too high, a gentler slope or wet masonry should be used.
Unscreened gravels may be used for filters if the dams are 5 m or less in height.

Figure 4-25 Examples of drains at the toes of downstream slopes

55
(2) Horizontal drains
Horizontal drains may be installed in horizontal layers or aligned within a dam.
For repairing earth dams, drains of a configuration shown in Figure 4-26 or in
the manner shown in Figure 4-27 (same as Figure 4-26 but without the porous pipe)
may be used. Horizontal drains are installed by digging and opening the embankment
dams to be repaired (the bottom conduit may be repaired at the same time).
Horizontal drains are effective in reducing the pore water pressure of the
foundation ground.

Figure 4-26 Design of a horizontal drain

Figure 4-27 Dam with a horizontal drain

56
(3) Design of filters
The materials for filters should satisfy the following conditions
F15 F
a. < 5 , 15 > 5
B 85 B15

where F15: 15% of the particle size of the filter

B85: 85% of the particle size of the materials that are protected by the filter
B15: 15% of the particle size of the materials that are protected by the filter

b. The filter materials should have low cohesion and should contain no more than 5%
fine particles of 0.074 mm or smaller in diameter. The curve of the particle size should
be roughly parallel to the materials that it protects.
For multilayer filters, adjacent filters should also satisfy these conditions.

Figure 4-28 Design of filter

57
4-2-12 Grouting of embankment and foundation ground
When there is water leaking from an embankment dam or its foundation ground,
grouting may be applied to reduce the amount of leakage and to reinforce the dam.

Grouting is very effective in stopping leakage that occurs in a relatively large

pores and when the location is known since grouting is easy to apply and has less
restrictions than other measures.
Grouting methods should be selected with consideration of the following points.
Although grouting can be conducted by simultaneously checking leakage of stored
water, it is difficult to know the degree of improvement by and the exact position of
grout. The effects of grouting should be checked after its application.

Grout which has different properties from the rest of the embankment may
destabilize the embankment. This is especially true for cement grout, which is
different in rigidity and may invite cracking when an earthquake occurs.
Recently, grouts of a rigidity similar to soil have been developed, such as
bentonite and a mixture of polymeric materials and cement, reducing adverse effects on
dams. Table 4-11 shows recent repair work with grouting.

High grouting pressure may cause cracks on the embankment, leading to leakage.

58
 Table 4-11 Repair work of existing old earth dams by grouting (conducted in 1990-1992)
Name Dam Purpose of Dam type Method Position and range of Inclination, Number of grouts Materials grouted and Grouting Amount injected Effect of notes
height repair grouting and locations of diameters, and composition pressure kg/m improvement
(m) grout holes depth of holes kgf/cm2
A 15 To stop homogeneou Stage method Crest. Two rows. Part of Vertical. General Boring: 519 m Ordinary portland, 1st: 0.5 C: 200
leakage s earth dam Air packers were the dam and foundation. holes: 46 mm. Cement: 79.2 t cement, bentonite 2st: 1.0 B: 10
from the installed at the Hole interval: 2m. Depth: 8 -18 mm (3 Bentonite: 158.4 B/C = 0.05 3st: 1.5 (plan)
dam and the end of casing. Row interval: 1.5 m. m max for the base sacks W/C = 8 - 1 4st: 2.0
foundation Staggered. ground) Injection: 396 m

B 4.5 To stop Homogeneo Extraction of rods Crest. Two rows. The Vertical. Some Grout holes: 29 Ordinary portland 2.0-0.5 281.7 heck holes:
leakage us earth dam and injection dam and foundation. inclined. 268.4 m Only cement top row k=310-6
from the (VP-50 with grout Hole interval: 2m. General holes: 46 W/C = 2.1 (downstream) = 210-5cm/s
dam and the nipple) Row interval: 1.5 m. mm, 10 m 304.1
foundation. Staggered. last row (upstream) =
253.7
C 9.2 To stop Homogeneo Extraction of rods Crest. Two rows. The Vertical. Grout holes: 17, Ordinary portland 3.0-0.2 237
leakage us earth dam and injection dam. Hole interval: 2m. General holes: 46 170.0 m Only cement 0.49h/m
from the (VP-50 with grout Row interval: 1.0 m. mm Cement: 1,007 sacks W/C = 4, 2, 1
dam nipple) Staggered. 10 m (0.8 m for the Injection hours: 83
base ground) hours
D 10.3 To stop Earth dam Extraction of rods Crest. Two rows. The Vertical. Grout holes: 32 Ordinary cement (plan) Maximum C: 114 Desired value
leakage with an and injection dam and foundation. General holes: 46 445.0 m W/C = 4, 2, 1 3.0 (plan) M: 0.66m3 (plan) after the
from the inclined core (VP-50 with grout Hole interval: 2m. mm Cement: 647.2 sacks Ordinary mortar (plan) improvement:
dam and the nipple) Row interval: 1.0 m. 6 -21 m Mortar: 114.6 sacks C: S = 1:2 k = 1 x 10-5
foundation Staggered. cm/s (plan)
E - To stop Extraction of rods Crest. Two rows. The Vertical. Some Grout holes: 47 Ordinary portland only Maximum 178 (plan)
leakage and injection dam and foundation. inclined. 376.0 m W/C = 6, 4, 2, 1 (plan) 2.0 (plan)
from the Hole interval: 2.0 m. General holes: 46 Cement: 1,671 sacks
dam and Row interval: 1.0 m. mm (plan)
foundation Staggered. 8 m (plan)
F - To stop Dam: extraction Crest. Two rows. Hole Vertical. Some Class B blast furnace Rod
leakage of rods and interval: 2m. inclined. cement injection:
from the injection Row interval: 1.0 m. General holes: 46 bentonite (C 5%) maximum
dam and Foundation: Staggered. mm pozzolan No. 8: 0.25% 2.0 (plan)
foundation Grouting in stages 15 - 40 m (plan) W/C (C+B) = 10 ~ 1
G 14 To stop and Homogeneo Extraction of rods Crest. Two rows. Hole Vertical. Grout holes: 26 Class B blast furnace 0.2 - 1.6. Injection rate: 10
prevent us earth dam and injection interval: 2.0 m. General holes: 46 256.4 m cement Maximum l/minute
leakage (VP-50 with grout Row interval: 1.0 m. mm Cement: 38,460 kg bentonite (C x 5%) 2.0 150 kg/m
from the nipple) Staggered. 8 - 23 m (plan for 1992) pozzolan No. 8: 0.25% Desired value after
dam and the W/C (C+B) = 10 ~ 1 the improvement: 5
foundation Lu (plan)

59
4-3 Design of facilities of dams
4-3-1 Slope protection
(1) Protection of upstream slope
The upstream slope of an embankment should be protected by laying riprap,
stone pitching, or concrete blocks starting from the 1/2 level of the storage capacity
to the design flood stage (H.W.L)+ wind-wave height. It may be necessary to
protect the slope to the crest or to the toe.
(2) Protection of downstream slope
When the downstream slope of an embankment is composed of fine soil
particles, erosion should be prevented by sodding or by building steps and drainage
canals.

Protection of an upstream slope is shown in Figure 4-29. Slide and settlement

are prevented by building small steps or riprap at the lower part of the slope.
Protection may be applied to the toe of the slope for shallow reservoirs and for
earth dams which show large water level difference.
The profiles of foundation concrete in Figure 4-29 show standard values. These
values may be altered according to the thickness of blocks, inclination, safety against
collapse, ease of construction, and familiarity.

Figure 4-29 Protection of upstream slope

60
Chapter 5 Design of spillways
5-1 Spillways
Spillways should be able to safely discharge water at or under the design flood
discharge and prevent abnormal rise of water level of a reservoir. Energy dissipators
should also be constructed when it is necessary to reduce the energy of water that flows
down the spillways.
Spillways should not adversely affect the dam or foundation ground .

(1) Structure of a spillway

A spillway comprises an intake (approach channel, control section, and
intergrade section), a drawoff channel (sluice), and an energy dissipator. Spillways
should be designed to safely discharge water at or under the design flood discharge.
Spillways should be constructed on the base ground unless they must be
constructed in other sections due to the location of the downstream channels, etc.

Figure 5-1 Structure of a spillway

61
(2) Types of spillways
Spillways may be classified into the three types shown in Figure 5-2 according to
the structure of the intake (the structure of overflow weir at the control section).

(1) Chute spillway

(2) Overflow spillway

(3) Side spillway

Figure 5-2 Types of spillways

The type of spillway appropriate for each reservoir should be selected by

considering the economy, safety, and the conditions of the site, and referring to Table
5-1.

Table 5-1 Comparison of spillways

Type of spillway Comparison of spillways
Location of spillway Amount of water Capacity to
discharged discharge water
Chute spillway Base ground, dam Very small Low
Overflow spillway Base ground, dam Small to medium Approximately 1.5
of the
chute-spillway
type
Side spillway Hard base ground Medium to large Approximately 1.5
of the
chute-spillway
type

62
 The types of spillways shown in Figure 5-3 are also used for reservoirs.
Straight drop spillways*1 (Figure 5-4), step spillways, labyrinth spillway*2 , or other
types may be used when the design flood discharge and the level difference are both
small.

Figure 5-3 Types of spillways

Figure 5-4 Straight drop spillways (unit: feet)

*1 Bureau of Reclamation Design of Small Dams, p. 405, (1987)

*2 Kashiwai, J. and Nakanishi, T. Rabirinsu-gata etsuryu-bu no horyu tokusei (Discharge properties of
labyrinth-type spillways), Doboku gijyutu shiryo (Technical data for civil works), 301-, pp. 14-19,
(1988)
Utsumi, M.: Tokusyu keijyo (rabirinsu seki) wo saiyo sita Gongen damu kozuito ni tuite (Labyrinth
spillway of Gongen Dam), Damu nippon (Dams in Japan), no. 556, pp. 61-77
63
5-2 Approach channels
Water should flow gently, at a speed of 4 m/sec or under, without turbulence,
through an approach channel of a spillway.
The level difference between an overflow weir and the bottom of an approach channel
should be over 1/5 of the head of overflow (total head including the speed head).

Approach channels of spillways should be designed by referring to Figure 5-5

and by determining the flow speed with equation (5-1).

Figure 5-5 Approach channel of a spillway

Method for calculating the flow speed

V = Q /A ( 4 m/sec) (5-1)
A = dL
d = (H + W)
V: Speed of water flowing through the approach channel (m/sec)
A: Cross sectional area of the flow in the approach channel (m2)
d: Depth of water in the approach channel (m)
Q:Design Flood discharge (m3/sec)
L: Width of the approach channel (m)
H: Total head of overflow (including the speed head raised by the weir) (m)
W: Height of the weir (m)

64
5-3 Control section
The control section of a spillway should be linear and plane and should have a
sectional configuration that is most efficient. The configuration is determined with the
following equations:
(1) Chute spillway
Q
B= (rectangular cross section) (5-2)
1.704 C H 3/2
B: Width of the channel (m)
Q: Design flood discharge (m3/sec)
C: Inflow factor 1.00 when funnel-shaped
0.82 when square-shaped
H: Total head of overflow (including the speed head) (m)

(2) Overflow spillway

Q
B= (5-3)
C H3/2
B: Effective length of the weir (m)
Q: Design flood discharge (m3/sec)
C: Flow factor 2.0 - 2.1 (complete overflow)
H: Total head of overflow (including the speed head) (m)

Figure 5-6 Chute spillway

65
 Figure 5-7 Overflow spillway

(1) Longitudinal section of an overflow spillway

An overflow spillway should have a longitudinal configuration that keeps flow
factors large during free overflow and that does not generate dangerous negative
pressure at the overflow surface. To satisfy these conditions, the profile should match
with the lower surface of water that flows over a sharp crested weir, i.e. a standard
overflow weir.
There are various methods for determining the profile of a standard overflow
weir. This data book describes the method by Harold.
When upstream water flows straight with an approach speed of 0, the profile of a
weir from its crest downstream is determined with equation 5-4.
Profile of a weir from its crest downstream
1.85
1 X
Y = 0.35 (Harold curve) (5-4)
2 H
Y: Horizontal distance from the weir crest
X: Vertical distance from the weir crest
H: Total head of overflow (including the speed head)
The profile of the section lower than a certain point at the downstream side
should have a constant gradient to secure the safety of the weir. The point P from
which the constant inclination begins is determined with equation (5-5).
1.176
1
Xp = 1.096 (5-5)
n
1
: Inclination of the tangent to the Harold curve at point P
n
(n is usually 0.7)

66
 Xp: X coordinate of point P

Profile for the upstream side of the weir crest

a = 0.282 H
b = 0.175 H

c = 0.126 H
d = 0.032 H (5-6)
r1 = 0.5 H
r2 = 0.2 H
H: Total head of overflow (including the speed head)

Figure 5-8 Profile by the Harold curve

(2) Flow factors of an overflow weir

Flow factors should be separately determined for low and high weirs. Low
weirs are those that are greatly affected by the hydraulic conditions of the flow over
and downstream from the weirs. High weirs are those that show H/W < 0.75 at the
approach channels and that the flow downstream of the weirs is mixed.

Flow factor for a low overflow weir

The flow factor of a low weir is determined by the depth of the approach channel,
the degree of drowning, and the shape of the weir crest. To eliminate the adverse
effect of drowning and to make the overflow complete, the following conditions must
be satisfied (see Figure 5-9):

67
 hd + d hd
> 1.7 and > 0.6 (5-7)
H H

Figure 5-9 Effect of drowning

Flow factors for standard overflow weirs that are not affected by drowning can
be determined from Figure 5-10.

Figure 5-10 Flow factor of a low weir

Flow factor for a high overflow weir

The ratio of the overflow head to the dam height is always smaller than 0.75
within an approach channel of a spillway (Figure 5-5). Flow factors may be
determined with the following equation for high overflow weirs for which the
downstream flow is critical.
Equation of Iwasaki
0.990
Hd
Cd = 2.200 0.0416 (5-8)
W
H
1 + 2a
Hd
C = 1.60 (5-9)
H
1 + a
Hd

68
H: Height of the overflow head from the crest (m)
Hd: Design head (m), Hd = H + V2/2g (The approaching speed and head, which are
both small in an overflow weir, are neglected.)
V: Flow speed within the approach channel (m/sec)
W: Weir height
C: Flow factor
Cd: Flow factor for H = Hd
a: The constant a is determined by substituting Cd, i.e. the C value at H = Hd, into
equation (5-9).

69
5-4 Intergrade section
The intergrade section of a spillway should discharge water that flows from the
control section without causing dam-up or drop-down in the upstream control section,
nor should it invite an undesirable drop in water level or turbulence in the intergrade
section.

(1) Planar configuration

Intergrade sections, which may limit the drawoff capacity of the spillways,
should be constructed bilaterally to prevent polarization of flow within and after
drawoff channels. The profile of an intergrade section may be determined by
referring to Figure 5-11 if water flows relatively slow.

Figure 5-11 Planar configuration of an intergrade section

(2) Hydraulic design

Vertical configuration, as well as planar configuration, is very important to
maintain the necessary hydraulic capacity.
Intergrade sections should not have planar or vertical configuration if the water
surface is reversely inclined or if it excessively reduces flow speed.
Usually, there are two types of intergrade sections: 1) flow is tranquil at the
entrance and critical at the exit and 2) flow is critical at both the entrance and exit.
Hydraulics should be calculated according to the following methods:

70
 For spillways whose flow is tranquil at the entrance of the intergrade section and
critical at its exit
The intergrade section should be designed in the following manner if it is
intended to cause hydraulic jump downstream of an overflow weir and to discharge
water to a drawoff channel.
(Case is appropriate for ordinary reservoirs with short intergrade sections.)

Figure 5-12 Spillway whose flow is critical at the end of the intergrade section

Q
V1 =
b1 h1
2
1 Q
2
v
hv1 = 1 = (5-10)
2g 2g b1 h1
2
1 Q
W + H = h 1 + hv1 = h1 +
2g b1 h 1

h1: depth of rapid flow before hydraulic jump (m)

V1: flow speed before hydraulic jump (m/sec)
b1: width of the intergrade section (m)
Q: design flood discharge (m3/sec)
hv1: speed head before hydraulic jump (m)
W: height of the weir (m)
H: depth of overflow (including speed head) (m)

Values of h1 and V1i are determined from equations (5-10).

71
 Fr1 = v1/ g h1 (flow is rapid if > 1.0)
h2 1
= ( 1 + 8Fr12 1)

h1 2 (5-11)
l = 4.5h 2
Q
vs =
b1 b 2
Fr1: Froude number before hydraulic jump
h2: depth of tranquil flow after hydraulic jump (m)
l1: height of hydraulic jump (m)
v2: flow speed after hydraulic jump (m/sec)
Values for h2, l1, and v2 are determined with equations (5-11). The elevation of the
channel bottom at the end of the intergrade section (point C) should be determined in
the following manner on the basis of the elevation at the beginning of the intergrade
section. (point B).
(Elevation of the channel bottom at point C)
v2 v 2 K(v23 v22 )
= (evaluation at point B) + h2 + 2 h3 3 hm (5-12)
2g g 2g
h2: water depth at point B (tranquil flow) (m)
v2: flow speed at point B (tranquil flow) (m/sec)
2
Q
h3: depth of water at point C (critical flow) = 3 (m)
gb 22
Q
v3: flow speed at point C (critical flow) = (m/sec)
h3 b2
K: head loss factor by profile change (Table 5-2)
hm: head loss by friction (m)
I2 + I3
hm = l2 (5-13)
2
n 2 v22
I2 =
R2 4/3
n 2 v32
I3 =
R 3 4/3
n: coefficient of roughness
R2: hydraulic mean depth at point B
R3: hydraulic mean depth at point C
Table 5-2 K values by profile change
Change in profile of intergrade section K for gradual K for gradual
reduction expansion
Linear (The width of a rectangular cross
section of an intergrade section is gradually 0.10 0.20
reduced. The intergrade section is
connected with a rectangular opening.)
note) K is the value when in Figure 5-11 is assumed to be 1230.

72
 For spillways whose flow is critical at the entrance and exit of the intergrade
section
The intergrade section should be designed in the following manner if it is
intended to receive critical flow from the control and to discharge critical flow to a
drawoff channel.
Note: Critical flow has unstable water surface and is not appropriate for a long
channel, but it is economical for intergrade sections of reservoir spillways, which are
usually short.

Figure 5-13 Spillways whose flow is critical at both the entrance and exit of the
intergrade section

The elevation of the channel bottom at the end of the intergrade section (point B)
should be determined, based on the elevation at its beginning (point A), from equation
(5-14).

(Elevation of the channel bottom at point B)

v2 v2
= (evaluation at point A) + d1 + 1 d2 2
2g 2g
k(v22 ~ v12 )
hm (5 - 14)
2g

d1: critical water depth at point A = 3 Q2 /(g b21 )

v1: critical flow velocity at point A =Q/(d1b1)
d2: critical water depth at point B = 3 Q2 /(g b22 )
v2: critical flow velocity at point B =Q/(d2b2)
K: head loss factor by profile change (Table 5-2)
hm: head loss by friction (equation (5-13))

73
5-5 Drawoff channel
Drawoff channels of spillways are established to smoothly discharge flood water
that flows from the control sections.
Drawoff channels should be as straight as possible and have a rectangular cross
section.

The hydraulics of a drawoff channel should be calculated in the following

manner, starting from the critical water surface at the hydraulic specified point (the
beginning of the drawoff channel) to a section further downstream.

Figure 5-14 Basic figure for tracing the water surface

v21 v 22
d1 + + hs = d2 + + hm (5-15)
2g 2g

d1: water depth at the beginning of the section (point A) (m)

v1: flow speed at the beginning of the section (point A) (m/sec)
d2: water depth at the end of the section (point B) (m)
v2: flow speed at the end of the section (point B) (m/sec)
hs: difference in elevation of channel bottom between points A and B (m)
hm: head loss by friction within the section (m)
n2 Vm2 Dl
hm =
R 4/3
m

V1 + V2
Vm =
2
R + R2
Rm = 1
2
n: coefficient of roughness
R1: hydraulic mean depth at point A
R2: hydraulic mean depth at point B
l: length of the section (m)
Note 1: Head losses by change in profile of the drawoff channel can be
neglected.
Note 2: The width of a drawoff channel at its end should be carefully
determined since it affects the length of an energy dissipator.

74
5-6 Energy dissipator
Energy dissipators are established at the downstream ends of spillways to prevent
destruction or erosion of dams, spillway facilities, downstream channels, and other
facilities by high energy flow.
The design discharge of an energy dissipator should be the flood discharge that is
estimated to occur once every 100 years (100-year probability flood flow).

The design discharge of an energy dissipator should be the flood discharge that is
estimated to occur once every 100 years. If the design flood discharge of the spillway
is 1.4 - 1.5 times larger than the design discharge of the dissipator, it is necessary to
check whether the dissipator sufficiently dissipates energy.

(1) Types of dissipators

Ordinary types of energy dissipators are listed in Table 5-3. The type of energy
dissipator to be constructed should be selected by considering the following factors:
a. hydraulic properties of the energy dissipator to be constructed,
b. position of the dissipator in relation to the dam (distance, elevation),
c. hydraulic and structural properties of the spillway,
d. topography, geology and hydraulic properties of the surrounding area
(downstream water level, flow duration, etc.), and
e. position and importance of downstream rivers (channels), farm land,
residential land, and other facilities (distances and elevation).

Table 5-3 Types of energy dissipators

Type Method for dissipating energy Utilization
Hydraulic It dissipates energy by utilizing Is is used when the water depth at the
jump basin hydraulic jump. downstream side is almost equal to the
water depth for hydraulic jump.
Is is the most hydraulically safe
method.
Roller It dissipates energy by inserting a It is used when the downstream side is
bucket stream of water along a slope into deep.
basin pool and rolling the stream within
the pool to cause a rolling stream
at the downstream side.
Impact It dissipates energy by striking It is used when discharge is relatively
basin flow against a baffle wall and small.
causing turbulent flow.

75
(2) Hydraulic jump basin
Energy dissipators listed in Table 5-3 are used in spillways of reservoirs. This
section describes hydraulic jump basins which effectively dissipate energy.
There are many types of hydraulic jump basins, among which appropriate types
for reservoirs are listed in Table 5-4. Basins with hydraulics and structures
appropriate for the conditions of the site should be used.

Table 5-4 Types of hydraulic jump basins

Type Structure and characteristics Conditions for utilization
Basin with an An auxiliary dam secures the The basin cannot serve as an
auxiliary dam conjugate water depth for energy dissipator when flow is
hydraulic jump. The structure is more than 1.3 times larger than the
simple. design discharge of the dissipator.
USBR Type III The length of the basin is reduced Flow per unit width should be at or
stilling basin by forcing and stabilizing under 18.5 m3/S/m.
hydraulic jump with shoot blocks, Flow speed should be at or under
baffle piers, and sills. 18.0 m3/S.
Froude number should be at or
over 4.5.
USBR Type IV Energy is dissipated by It is appropriate for low head and
stilling basin establishing shoot blocks and sills. large flow per unit width, i.e. for a
large Froude number (2.5 ~ 4.5).

76
 Stilling basin with an auxiliary dam
This type of stilling basin secures artificially the conjugate water depth of
hydraulic jump against the depth of rapid flow at the beginning of the apron. Usually,
the water depth immediately before the auxiliary dam at the design discharge of the
dissipator is matched to the height of hydraulic jump d2 (Figure 5-15). The height of
the auxiliary dam is determined with the formula by Iwasaki (equation 5-17).
d2 1
= ( 1 + 8F1 1)
2
(5-16)
d1 2
d1: depth of water at the beginning of hydraulic jump
d2: depth of water at the end of hydraulic jump
F1: Froude number ( v1 / g d1 )
v1: flow speed at the beginning of hydraulic jump

Figure 5-15 Stilling basin with an auxiliary dam

W (1+ 2F1 ) 1 + 8F1 1 5F1 3 2 / 3

2 2 2

= F2 (5-17)
1+ 4F1 1+ 8F1
2 2
d1 2
W: height of the auxiliary dam
F1: Froude number before hydraulic jump
d1: depth of water before hydraulic jump
v1: flow speed before hydraulic jump

The distance from the beginning of the apron to the auxiliary dam should be 6.0
d2 to naturally cause hydraulic jump. A shorter distance cannot result in stable
hydraulic jump even with a higher auxiliary dam. When flow is over the design
discharge of the dissipator, the dissipator cannot dam water up to a sufficient level,
causing unstable flow. When flow is about 1.3 times larger than the design discharge,
water is sprayed, and the basin cannot function as an energy dissipator. This type of
basin may require secondary energy dissipators in some rivers since water that
overflows the auxiliary dam is relatively fast.
A stilling pool that is constructed by excavating the river bed and lowering the
apron surface uses the same principle. These two should be compared in terms of
construction cost and maintenance.

77
 USBR Type stilling basin
In this type of basin, blocks are installed at the beginning of hydraulic jump,
baffle piers in the middle of the stilling basin, and sills at the end of the basin. It is
appropriate for a low head and small discharge. Shoot blocks, baffle piers and sills
enhance and stabilize hydraulic jump and reduce the necessary length of the basin.
The length of the basin is usually about 3d2. The sizes of baffle piers and sill
vary by Froude number and are given in Figure 5-17. The size of shoot blocks are
shown in Table 5-5.

Figure 5-16 Specifications of a Type III stilling basin

Figure 5-17 Height of baffle piers and sills for Types III and IV basins

78
 Table 5-5 Shoot blocks for Type basins
Shoot block
Height (h) d1
Width (W) d1
Space (S) d1
Width of crest -
Distance from the lateral wall d1/2
Inclination -
d1: Water depth before hydraulic jump
(the water depth at the end of the drawoff channel)

USBR Type stilling basin

This type of basin is installed with widely-spread shoot blocks at the beginning
of hydraulic jump and sills at the downstream end of the basin. It is appropriate for
dissipating energy of rapid flow of low head, large discharge per unit width, and a
small Froude number (2.5 - 4.5). For a horizontal basin, the downstream water level
after hydraulic jump should be 10% larger than d2, and the length of the basin should
be 6d2.
The heights of sills are given in Figure 5-17, and the sizes of shoot blocks are
listed in Table 5-6.

Figure 5-18 Specifications of a Type stilling basin

Table 5-6 Shoot blocks for Type stilling basin

Shoot block
Height (h) 2d1 (The top of a block should incline 5o toward the
downstream side)
Width (W) d1
Space (S) 2.5W
Length of the top surface 2d1
Distance form the side wall Leave space
d1: Water depth before hydraulic jump

79
(3) Impact basin
Impact basins dissipate energy by striking and disturbing flow and are effective
when flow is about 10 m3/s and flow velocity is over 10 m/s.

Figure 5-19 Impact basin

80
5-7 Freeboard
A spillway should have a freeboard that is high enough to accommodate a rise in
water level by air-entrained or curved flow at the design flood discharge and for
fluctuation of water level by waves.
The freeboard of a spillway is determined by the following methods:

(1) Freeboard for sections where flow is tranquil

The freeboard for sections where flow is tranquil is determined with the
following equation:
v2
Fb = 0.07d + + 0.10 (5-18)
2g
Fb: freeboard (m)
V2/2g: speed head (m)
d: water depth (m)

(2) Freeboard for sections where flow is rapid

The freeboard for sections where water flows rapidly is determined with the
following equation:
Fb=cVd1/2 (5-19)
Fb: freeboard (m)
C: coefficient 0.10 for rectangular channel
0.13 for trapezoid channel
V: flow speed (m/sec)
d: water depth (m)
The minimum height of a channel is 0.5 m.

(3) Freeboard for energy dissipator

The freeboard of an energy dissipator is determined with the following equation:
Fb=0.1(v1+d2) (5-20)
Fb: freeboard (m)
v1: flow speed at the end of a drawoff channel (m/sec)
d2: water depth at the end of hydraulic jump (m)

Note: Water depth and freeboard are measured perpendicular to the inclined surface of
the channel bed.

81
5-8 Side canal spillways
A side spillway should be designed so that no part of the weir crest sinks even during its
design flood discharge.
Water should flow tranquilly within side channels to discharge water safely and smoothly.

The configuration of the weirs of side spillways should be the standard type.
The size should be determined with equation 5-3.
The Froude numbers at the ends of side channels are important for stabilizing
flow. A design method based on the Froude numbers is shown in the following
paragraphs. In some reservoirs, side channels also serve as outlets.

(1) Design of the profile of a side channel

The profile of a side channel should satisfy the following conditions:
The inclination of the bank at the reservoir side should be 1:0.7. The other side
(usually, the base ground) should be perpendicular.
The inclination of the bottom of a side channel should be i1 1/13.
The ratio between the channel width (B) and water depth (d) at the end of the side
channel should be about d/B = 0.5.
The Froude number at the end of the side channel should be Fr < 0.5. Usually,
0.44 is the best value.
Fr = V / g D
D = (A/T): hydraulic water depth
A: cross sectional area T: width of water surface
The water level at the upstream end of the side channel (crest standard) should be
less than 2/5 of the overflow depth.
A drawoff channel adjacent to a side channel should have a gentle inclination that
satisfies the condition given in 4.
An overflow weir should be installed at the end of the drawoff channel to connect
side channels and a steep channel.
The side wall at the junction of the side channel and gentle drawoff channel may be
either gradually or rapidly shrinking.
Equations: (Fig.5-20)
From the Froude number at the end of a side channel
Fr = V / g D ,

82
 3
m d
d 3 B2 1 +
2 B Q
2

= (5-21).
(1+ m d / B) gFr 2
If m = 0.7 and d/B = 0.5,
d=0.463(Q/Fr)2/5 (m sec) (5-22).
If the Froude number is 0.44 ~ 0.5,
d=(0.643~0.61) Q2/5 (m sec) (5-23).
Therefore, the width of channel bottom B is
B = 2d. (5-24)
The cross sectional area A is
A = (B + 0.7 d/2) d. (5-25)

The width (Bx) and elevation (Zx) of channel bottom at a distance X from the end of the
side channel are determined with the following equations:
Bx=B{1-(1-)X/L} (5-26)
Bx: width of the bottom of the side channel at a distance X from its end (m)
B: width of the bottom at the end of the side channel (m)
L: length of the side channel (m)
X: distance from the end of the side channel to the upstream direction (m)
: B/B. Usually, B/B = 0.5 (B: width of channel bottom at the upstream
end of the side channel)

Zx=i1X (5-27)
Zx: elevation of the channel bottom at a distance X from the end of the side
channel (m) (in relation to the elevation at the end of the side channel)
i1: inclination of the bottom of the side channel ( 1/13)

The length (l) of a gentle drawoff channel adjacent to the side channel is
l 4d (5-28)
d: water depth at the end of the side channel
The inclination (i2) of the bottom of the gentle drawoff channel is determined with the
following equation by assuming that it has a rectangular cross section.
e 4/ 3
1+2
B
i 2 = g n 2 Fr 2 1/ 3
(5-29)
d

83
 Figure 5-20 Profile of a side channel

The size of an overflow weir at the end of a gentle drawoff channel should be
determined so as not to cause dam-up or drop-down against flow within the side
channel or the gentle drawoff channel.
Z1+d+V22/2g=Z2+W+de+Vc2/2g (5-30)

Figure 5-21 Height of the weir at the end of a gentle drawoff channel

84
(2) Tracking of water surface in a side channel
The water surface within a side channel is tracked with the equation of motion.

Figure 5-22 Basic diagram for tracking of water surface

The momentum should be equal for cross sections a1 and a2 of the X section.
If the rise of water surface is h,
Q (V + V2 ) q V2 X
h = 1 1 V + (5-31)
g(Q1 + Q2 ) Q
h: rise of water level in the X section
Q1: flow at the downstream cross section (a1)
Q2: flow at the upstream cross section (a2)
V1: mean speed of flow at the downstream cross section (a1)
V2: mean speed of flow at the upstream cross section (a2)
q: inflow per unit width (overflow in this case)
V: V1 - V2
g: gravitational acceleration
Calculations should be conducted from downstream to upstream.
Equation 5-31 neglects the head loss by friction, which is minute compared to
strong vibration of the water surface within the side channel.

85
 <Procedure for calculation>
a. The elevation of the channel bottom, in relation to the end of the side channel, the
width of the channel bottom, and flow for each point are determined from Table 5-7.

Table 5-7 Table for calculating profiles of side channels

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
x 0.5x/L 1.0-(2) Bx=B(3) Zx=ixx Q
(m) (m) (m3/s)
0 0 0 B 0 0

L B/2 0

b. Calculation is conducted starting from the end of the side channel toward the
upstream section.

Table 5-8 Table for tracking water surface in a side channel

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Dis- Dis- Eleva- h Eleva-t Water Width Cross Q v Q1+Q2 Q1/g11 v1+v2 v= qv2x/ 14+15 h=12,
tance tance tion of (m) ion of depth of the sec-tio (m3/s) (m/sec) Q1 13,16
added from the the d (m) channe nal area v1+v2
(m) the channe water l Ax
end of l surface bottom (m2)
the bottom EL (m) Bx (m)
channe (m)
l X
(m)

86
1. Read the values for , , , , and 9 from Table 5-8.
2. Assume a rise of water surface h at X distance.
3. = (previous ) +
4. = -, = (md + 2Bx) d/2
m: inclination of the side wall at the reservoir side 1:m
5. = /, = (previous ) +
6. = qv2x / Q1= v2 (Q1 - Q2) / Q1
7. Repeat calculations until the value h becomes equal to the value 4 h that
was initially assumed ( = ).
8. Repeat the above procedure to the upstream end of the side channel. Determine the
elevation of the bottom of the side channel so that the maximum elevation of the
water surface satisfies the conditions for total overflow.
(maximum elevation of water surface - elevation of crest) / depth of overflow 1/2.5
9. If the values so determined do not satisfy the conditions of the site, the channel
width B, length L, and inclination i should be changed to satisfy these conditions.

(3) Steep drawoff channel

Steep drawoff channels should be designed according to Section 5-5 (Drawoff
Channels).

(4) Energy dissipators

Energy dissipators should be designed according to Section 5-6 (Energy
Dissipators).

87
5-9 Design of detail structures

The detail structures of a spillway should be designed in the following manner:

(1) Back inclination of side walls
The rear surface of a side wall should have a gradient of 1: 0.05 ~ 1: 0.10 to
conform with the settlement of soil, banked or backfilled.
(2) Cut-off wall at the inlet
A cut-off should be established at the entrance of a spillway to prevent seepage.
(3) Water barrier
A water barrier should be established at the junction of a spillway wall and a dam
to prevent seepage.
(4) Location of an overflow weir
An overflow weir should be established at a hydraulically appropriate position
with consideration of the effects of waves.
(5) Joints
Expansion joints should be installed at points where the profile of a spillway
changes.

The above detail structures should be determined by referring to the following

standard diagrams.

(1) Back inclination of side walls

The rear surfaces of side walls should have a gradient of 1:0.05 ~ 1:0.10 to
conform with the settlement of soil, either banked or backfilled.

Figure 5-23 Cross section of a spillway and back gradient

88
(2) Cut-off wall at the entrance of a spillway

Figure 5-24 Cut-off at the entrance of a spillway

(3) Water barrier

A water barrier should be installed within a core at such a position that it does
not adversely affect the core.

Figure 5-25 Location of water barrier

When a water barrier cannot be installed within a core, the core should be
expanded as shown in Figure 5-26. A covering of approximately 1.0 m or more in
thickness should be installed under the water barrier to prevent adverse effects (cracks)
in the core.

Figure 5-26 Expansion of a core

89
 Figure 5-27 Structure of a water barrier

(4) Position of an overflow weir

Figure 5-28 Position of an overflow weir

(5) Joints
Joints of spillways should be determined by referring to Figures 5-29, 5-30, and
5-31. Expansion joints should be installed at points where the profile changes. Joint
filler is usually elastic filler of 20 mm in thickness. The intervals between contraction
joints are usually 27 m. The width of stop plates is listed in Table 5-9.

Figure 5-29 Installation of joints

90
 Figure 5-30 Contraction and expansion joints

Table 5-9 Width of stop plate

Thickness of concrete (mm) Width of a stop plate (mm)
under 200 150~230
200~300 200~250
300~400 230~300
over 400 over 300

To prevent grade differences in channel walls, either by lateral pressure or

uneven settlement, joints should be installed at joints of the inlet, control section,
drawoff channel, and stilling pool, and Dowel bars should be staggered at intervals of
20 ~ 30 cm.

Table 5-10 Standards for Dowel bars and vinyl chloride pipes
Lateral reinforcing bar Round bar, deformed bars Vinyl chloride pipes
(VP)
under D 13 mm 16 mm, D 16 mm 20 mm, L=500 mm
D 16, 19 mm 19 mm, D 19 mm 25 mm, L=500 mm
over D 22 mm 25 mm, D 25 mm 30 mm, L=500mm

Figure 5-31 Dowel bar

91
(6) Side drain and under drain
Side and under drains should be installed when there is water seeping from the
ground into a drawoff channel or stilling pool.

Figure 5-32 Side drain and under drain

(7) Clearance under an inspection bridge

An inspection bridge, if there is any, should be constructed with a clearance of
over 1.0 m as in Figure 5-33 to prevent stagnation of water during floods.

Figure 5-33 Clearance under an inspection bridge

92
Chapter 6 Design of intakes

6-1 Intakes
Intakes should be designed to safely intake or discharge the maximum amount of
water that flows in or out during construction. Energy dissipators should be installed
when it is necessary to dissipate the energy of flow.

The intake facilities consists of intake section, regulating sections, and guiding
canal. The most adequate arrangement of facilities should be made in order to facilitate
intake water of required volume for any situation.
The intake facilities consists of inclined ducts and an intake tower to draw off
water from a reservoir and may be installed with gates and valves to control the amount
of flow.
The driving portion Headraces comprise bottom conducts, intake tunnels, and
energy dissipators, which are facilities to divert intake water to the outside out of
dams.
A type of intake facility that allows easy control of the amount of water and is
economical should be selected by referring Tables 6-1 and 6-2. The type shown in
Figure 6-1 with an inclined and bottom conducts is most widely used. The type
shown in Figure 6-2 has an intake tower and also serves as a spillway.
If it is necessary to dissipate energy, impact boxes or catch basins should be
installed.
The following sections describe inclined and bottom conducts of intake facilities.

93
 Table 6-1 Characteristics of intakes
Section Facility Advantages Disadvantages
Intakes Inclined The construction cost is lower A long conduct should be
conduct than an intake tower. constructed if the ground is gently
It is easy to construct, and does inclined. It frequently breaks
not require a ground of a large down when it is controlled with a
bearing capacity. shaft tube.
It has a stable structure. It is
easy to maintain.
Intake It is easy to operate the water The construction cost is higher
tower gate. than with inclined conducts.
There are only a few Maintenance is slightly more
restrictions on the location for difficult than inclined conducts.
constructing the tower The foundation ground should be
It is easy to intake warm hard.
water.. For iron towers, additional cost is
necessary for repainting the towers.
Headrace Drawoff It is safe against seepage of It is difficult to construct tunnels
tunnel stored water. with a small cross section.
It is safe against soil pressure Construction cost of a small-scale
and earthquakes. tunnel is usually higher than
It is easy to maintain. bottom conducts.
Bottom Construction cost is lower than It is vulnerable to seepage of stored
conducts a drawoff tunnel. water.
It is vulnerable to the pressure of
banking, soil pressure, and
earthquakes.
It is difficult to maintain.

Table 6-2 Conditions of the ground for intake facilities

Structure Conditions of the foundation ground
Inclined conduct The ground should be rock mass. If it is not a rock mass, the ground
should be hard and must not collapse or lose the necessary bearing
capacity even it is saturated with water.
Intake tower The ground should be rock mass that is resistant to saturation and that
does not lose the necessary bearing capacity.
Drawoff tunnel The ground should be stable and largely covered by the reservoir
water.
Access box The ground conditions should be the same as those listed for an intake
tower for a large dam. For a small-scale dam, the ground may be
other than rock mass but should not subside or move, should have a
sufficient bearing capacity, and should be stable against vibration by
flow.
Bottom conduct The ground should be hard.
No part of the ground may be embanked.
The ground for a large dam should be rock mass.

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Figure 6-1 Intake facility (inclined conduct)

Figure 6-2 Intake tower (vertical conduct)

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6-2 Design of inclined conduits
Inclined conduits should be designed to drawoff a necessary amount of water
with sufficient consideration of the conditions of the site.

(1) Location of an intake

The location of an intake should be determined by referring to the location of the
existing intakes. If intakes for upper and middle conducts are to be separately
installed for water utilization, the location of old intakes should be considered.

(2) Diameter of an intake

The diameter of an intake should be determined by referring to the diameter of
the existing intake.
The diameter of an intake may be determined with the following equation.
Q
A= (6-1)
C 2gH
A: cross sectional area of an opening (m2)
Q: amount of water to intake (m2/sec)
C: flow coefficient (usually 0.62)
g: gravitational acceleration (9.8 m /sec2)
H: mean water depth to the center of the opening (Figure 6-3) (m)

Q is the maximum amount of water to intake. Usually, the amount of water

intook is maximum on the last day of soil puddling. Therefore, the amount of water
to intake is the proconduct of the amount of water necessary on the last day of soil
puddling (Qc) determined by water balance and the loss by discharge control, i.e. Q =
Qc100/85.

Figure 6-3 Determination of H

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(3) Inclined conducts
Inclined conducts should be installed on hard base ground. If inclined conducts
must be established on the slope of a dam, the conducts should be designed with joint
structures that are not adversely affected by consolidation settlement of the bank.
Inclined conducts
The cross sectional area of flow through an inclined conduct should not hinder
the flow from an intake opening and should be appropriate for establishing an opening.
Therefore, the cross sectional area of an inclined conduct should be about 2 times
larger than the cross section of the opening and should be determined by referring to
Table 6-3.

Table 6-3 Diameter of an opening and the diameter of an inclined conduct (standard)
(unit: mm)
Diameter of an 100 125 150 200 250 300
opening
Diameter of an 200 200 250 300 400 500
inclined conduct

Sizes of the profile

A conduct should be safe against water pressure, buoyancy, and other external
forces. Standard sizes of a conduct profile are shown in Figure 6-4 and Table 6-4.

Figure 6-4 Profile of an inclined conduct

Table 6-4 Sizes for lining an inclined conduct

Diameter of an inclined 200 250 300 400 500
conduct (unit: mm)
a 550 600 650 800 1000
b 550 600 650 800 1000

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(4) Accessories of inclined conducts
Inclined conducts should be lined with reinforced concrete and should be
equipped with inspection stairs and air vents. Long conducts should be stabilized by
installing anchors. Inclined conducts and accessories should be designed without
affecting core profiles.

Air vents
The size of an air vent should be determined from the amount of air required and
the speed of air that passes through the hole. A pipe of a diameter that corresponds to
the so determined size should be used.
Necessary amount of air: 15% of the design maximum water
intake
Velocity of air within the hole: 45 m/sec
Minimum diameter of an air vent: 50 mm
Q = AV /0.15 (6-2)
= (0.025)2 45 / 0.15
= 0.588 m2/sec
Q: maximum water intake
A: diameter of the air vent
V: velocity of air flow
Therefore, the diameter of an air vent for a maximum water intake of 0.6 m3/sec is 50
mm. Pipes for air vents are usually (white) carbon steel.

Figure 6-5 Air vent

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 Inspection stairs
A step of an inspection staircase is usually 0.15 - 0.20 in height and 0.60 m in
width.

Figure 6-6 Inspection stairs

Anchor works
Pipes installed along steep slopes should be stabilized by establishing steps to
prevent sliding.
Joints should be spaced at intervals of about 9m and should have filler structures
that will not break by the consolidation settlement of the bank. Pedestals of joints and
steps for preventing slide should be uniblocks to enhance stabilization.
These pedestals and steps should be designed so as not to affect the profiles of
cores.

Figure 6-7 Anchor works

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6-3 Design of bottom conduits
Bottom conduits should safely draw off the design water intake and flood
discharge during construction. The foundation of a bottom conduit should be
installed on a base ground of a sufficient bearing capacity to prevent settlement.

A. Structure of bottom conduits

A bottom conduit should have a structure that is watertight, durable and safe
against the inside water pressure and external forces. Conduits are usually reinforced
concrete. To design a composite conduit by using prepared pipes as the inside frame,
stress concentration and watertightness should be studied. Prepared pipes that are
watertight and resistant to uneven settlement may be used alone.
The unit length to the lateral direction is about 6.
Bottom conduits should be installed on hard base ground. It is especially
important that the stability along the longitudinal direction, bearing capacity, and
resistance to uneven settlement be thoroughly investigated.
Pile foundations for soft ground should distribute the necessary bearing capacity
evenly along the longitudinal direction so as not to adversely affect the lateral stability
of bottom conduits. Since piles prevent only the settlement of the surrounding soil,
pile foundations on very soft ground should be extended laterally and should avoid
piles on hard ground sections to prevent discontinuity of and voids within the dam.

Figure 6-8 Foundation ground and longitudinal installation of bottom conducts

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(2) Determination of the diameter of a bottom conduit
Bottom conducts should be able to safely draw off the design water intake and
flood discharge during construction. The flood discharge during construction is the
flood discharge that may occur once every 10 years (10-year probability flood
discharge). If construction is conconducted during a non-irrigating period, the
10-year probability flood discharge of the season is used.
The diameter of a bottom conduit should be over 600 mm to facilitate
maintenance.
Determination of Qp (flood discharge that may occur once every 10 years)
The flood discharge that may occur once every 10 years should be determined by
the rational formula in Section 3-2-1 in Chapter 3.

Determination of the diameter of a bottom conduit.

The diameter of a bottom conduit should satisfy the condition that the flow
capacity of the conduit (Qe) determined by the following equation is over the design
water intake and the flood discharge that may occur once every 10 years.
1
Qe = R 2 / 3 I1 / 2 A (6-3)
n
Qe: Flow capacity of the bottom conduct (m3/sec)
n: Coefficient of roughness
(n = 0.013 for Hume, conductile cast iron, or steel pipes)
R: Hydraulic mean depth (m)
I: Inclination
A: Cross sectional area through which water passes (m2)

Figure 6-9 Flow within a conduct

R, A and water depth (h) are expressed in the following manner from Figure 6-9.

101
 D
h= 1 cos
2 2
1
A = D2 ( sin ) (6-4)
8

1 sin
R = D 1
4
For pipes, the maximum flow occurs when h = 0.938 D. The values for A and
R when h = 0.938 are listed in Table 6-5.

Table 6-5 h A R R2/3

Diameter of the h=0.938D A R R2/3
conduct (mm) (m) (m2) (m)
600 0.56 0.275 0.174 0.312
700 0.66 0.375 0.203 0.345
800 0.75 0.490 0.232 0.378
900 0.84 0.620 0.261 0.408
1000 0.94 0.765 0.290 0.438
1100 1.03 0.926 0.319 0.467
1200 1.13 1.102 0.348 0.495
1350 1.27 1.395 0.392 0.535
1500 1.41 1.722 0.435 0.574

(3) Methods for repairing bottom conduits

Bottom conduits should be improved or repaired by the open-cut and back-fill
method. If the conduit is sufficiently watertight along the longitudinal direction, the
jacking method may be used.

(4) Repairing plans for the open-cut and back-fill method

Section of a dam to be open-cut
The section of a dam to be cut open should be determined by referring to Figure
6-10 and the soil conditions at the site.

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 Figure 6-10 Open-cut section of a dam

Detail structures of a bottom conduit

To construct a bottom conduit with reinforced concrete, prepared pipes may be
used as the inside frame to shorten the time necessary for installing and removing
inside frames. Usually, the following conditions should be met:
a. The unit length to the longitudinal direction should be about 6 m.
b. The joints of reinforced concrete should meet with the joints of the prepared
pipes used for the inside frame. The prepared pipes used for inside frames
should be prevented from floating during the application of concrete.
c. Joints of a bottom conduit should have a structure that absorbs uneven
longitudinal settlement of the bottom conduit.
d. The foundation and concrete should be thoroughly rolling compacted to
prevent voids and to prevent seepage at the bottom of the conduit.

To use prepared pipes alone, it is necessary to confirm that the pipes have not
been separated by uneven settlement by the dam load and that they are sufficiently
water tight. Ceramic pipes should be rigid and have a flexibility of 1% or less. The
foundation work within a conduct should secure the watertightness at the bottom of the
conduit.
A bottom conduit that uses reinforced concrete pipes for the inside frame is
shown in Figures 6-11 and 6-12.

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 Figure 6-11 Bottom conduit

Figure 6-12 Joints in a bottom conduit

Table 6-7 Sizes of bottom conduit pipes

D (mm) Hume pipe
a1 (m) a2 (m)
600 1.10 1.32
700 1.20 1.44
800 1.35 1.62
900 1.45 1.74
1000 1.55 1.86
1100 1.70 2.04
1200 1.80 2.16
1350 2.00 2.40
1500 2.15 2.58

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 Cut-off wall
A cut-off wall should be constructed along a bottom conduct to prevent seepage.
If a bottom conduct traverses an impermeable zone, cut-off walls should be constructed
within permeable zones. If a cut-off wall is constructed outside the impermeable zone
to keep a cover in front of the impermeable zone, the construction should be conducted
by replacing the bank with the same materials. If a bottom conduct does not traverse
an impermeable zone, or the dam is homogeneous, a cut-off wall should be constructed
with impermeable soil
One or two cut-off walls may be constructed within the random fill behind the
impermeable zone, with which water is permanently stopped.
Cut-off walls should be constructed with appropriate materials and construction
methods.

Figure 6-13 Position of a cut-off wall

Figure 6-14 Structure of a cut-off wall

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(5) Design of a sand trap
Sand traps should be installed to discharge sand that accumulates at the entrance
of bottom conducts while water is stored. Sand traps should be located at the entrance
of temporary drawoff channels used during construction. Sand trap gates should be
installed slightly higher than the lowest inlet and also the closing gate that is used
before water is stored. Sand trap gates should be installed with connecting bridges.

Figure 6-15 Sand trap works

(6) Design of gates and valves

Gates and valves should be watertight, durable, and resistant against estimated
load and should infallibly open and close.

(7) Jacking method

The jacking method may be effective for repairing high dams in which the
open-cut method would process a large amount of soil, or 8 -10 m or greater in
thickness. Sufficient geological surveys must be conducted and the watertightness of
the press-fit pipe and the surrounding soil should be investigated before using the
jacking method. Old bottom pipes should be completely closed or may be used for
drains by adding safety features.
The jacking method press fits a jacking pipe of 800 mm or larger in diameter
with a hydraulic equipment. Then, grout is applied from the pipe to the periphery of
the pipe.

106
 a. The jacking method is roughly classified into the cutting-edge type and the
semi-sealed type. Bottom conducts are usually installed with the cutting-edge
method due to its minimum inner diameter and length.
b. The jacking method press fits a Hume pipe (of 800 mm or larger in diameter)
with hydraulic equipment (the pressure inside the pipe is 2kg/cm2). Grout is
then applied from the inside of the pipe.
c. Normalized jacking pipes are JSWAS A-2 reinforced concrete pipes for sewage
works, JSWAS G-2 ductile cast iron pipes for sewage works, and WSP 017 steel
pipes for water lines.

(8) Closing of old bottom conduits

Unnecessary old bottom conducts should be closed according to the method
shown in Figure 6-16 when new bottom conduits are constructed.
a. Sludge within an old conduit should be washed out with water before sealing
both ends of the conduit with concrete.
b. A grout pipe (46 mm) should be installed at the bottom of the downstream end,
and an air vent (46 mm)should be established at the ceiling of the upstream end
before sealing the conduct with concrete.
c. Mortar grout (1:3) should be injected from the downstream end until the grout
overflows from the air vent at the upstream end.

Figure 6-16 Closing of an old bottom conduit

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