ACOUSTICS
Principles and Design
Madan Mehta
University of Texas at Arlington
.James Johnson
WJHW Acoustical Consultants, Dallas, Texas
.Jorge Rocafort
University of Puerto Rico, San Juan
Prentice Hall
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey Columbus, Ohio
-~--------------------
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Mehta, Madan.
Architectural acoustics : principles and design I Madan Mehta,
James Johnson, Jorge Rocafort.
p. cm.
Tiris book was printed and bound byCourier Kendallville, Inc. The cover was printed by Phoenix
Co1orCorp.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means. without
permission in writing from the publisher.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN: 0-13-793795-4
ii
Contents
Preface ix
1 1
1.1 Wave motion 1
The Physics of Sound
1.2 Sound Frequency 4
1.3 Sound Velocity, Particle Velocity and Wavelength 8
1.4 The Decibel Scale 11
1.5 Combining Sound Levels 14
1.6 Sound Attenuation by Distance 17
1.7 Sound Fields 20
2 2.1
25
Sound Level Meter 25
Sound Measurement and 2.2 The Ear's Sensitivity 28
Hearing 2.3 The Haas Effect 31
2.4 Sound Masking 35
2.5 Binaural Hearing 36
3 37
3.1 The Boundary Phenomena 37
Sound Reflection,
3.2 Absorption Coefficient of Sound 39
Diffraction and Diffusion
3.3 Sound Diffraction 39
3.4 The Relevance of Acoustical Shadows 41
3.5 Acoustical Transparency of a Screen 44
3.6 Diffuse and Specular Reflections 48
3.7 Sound Diffusion 49
iii
3.8 Sound Diffusers 52
3.9 Source-Image Relationship in Specular Reflection 57
3.10 Flutter Echo 58
4 61
4.1 Rating of Sound Absorbing Materials 61
Sound Absorbing Materials Types of Sound Absorbing Materials 63
4.2
4.3 Porous Absorbers 64
4.4 Applications of Porous Absorbers 68
4.5 Panel Absorbers 73
4.6 Volume Absorbers 76
4.7 Screens and Perforated Panels as Absorbers 80
4.8 Mounting Conditions 81
4.9 Acoustical Tile Ceiling 82
4.10 Acoustical Plaster and Draperies 83
4.11 Audience and Air Absorption in Halls 84
5 5.1
87
Airborne and Structure-borne Sounds 87
Principles of Airborne 5.2 Sound Transmission Loss 90
Sound Insulation 5.3 Sound Absorption and Sound Insulation 91
5.4 Single-Leaf Panel- The Mass Law 92
5.5 Single-Leaf Panel - The Coincidence Effect 93
5.6 Transmission Loss of a Two-Leaf Panel 97
5.7 Panels of Three or More Leaves 100
5.8 Sound Transmission Class 101
5.9 Overall Transmission Loss of an Assembly 103
5.10 Sound Leaks and Flanking Transmission 105
5.11 Laboratory STC Versus Field STC 108
5.12 Ceiling Sound Transmission Class 108
5.13 Outdoor-Indoor Transmission Class 109
6 115
6.1 Concrete Walls and Slabs 117
Airborne Sound Insulation
6.2 Single-Leaf Masonry Walls 118
Practice
6.3 Masonry Cavity Walls 120
6.4 Furred Masonry Walls 122
6.5 Lightweight Gypsum Board Assemblies 124
6.6 Sound Leaks and the Control of Flanking Paths 129
6.7 Sound Insulating Windows 134
6.8 Sound Insulating Doors 138
iv
7 7.1
143
Impact Insulation Class (llC) 144
Structure-borne Sound 7.2 Strategies to Increase Impact Insulation 146
Insulation 7.3 Soft or Resilient Floor Covering 146
(Impact Isolation) 7.4 Floating Floor 147
7.5 Resiliently Attached Ceiling 154
7.6 Discontinuity in Floor and Ceiling 154
8 8.1
159
Interior Noise Criteria 161
Noise Control in Buildings 8.2 Interior Noise Legislation 169
8.3 Interior Noise Control Through Architectural Design 170
8.4 Interior Noise Control Through Sound Absorptive Treatment 172
8.5 Interior Noise Control Through Barriers 175
8 .6 Exterior Noise Criteria 179
8.7 Exterior Noise Control Through Site Planning 180
8.8 Exterior Noise Control Through Barriers 182
9 9.1
189
HVAC Systems 189
Control ofHVAC Noise 9.2 Noise Attenuation in Ducts 193
9.3 Noise Generated by Air Flow 197
9.4 Sound Radiation by Duct Walls 199
9.5 Cross Transmission in Ducts 201
9.6 Estimating HVAC Noise Levels 202
9.7 Active Noise Control in HVAC Systems 205
10 10.1
207
Impulse Response of a Room 207
The Behavior of Sound in 10.2 Impplse Diagram and Sound Diffusion 210
Rooms 10.3 Reverberation Time 212
10.4 Significance of Reverberation Time 214
10.5 Reverberation Time Calculations 216
10.6 Optimum Reverberation Times 217
10.7 Coupled Rooms 220
10.8 Behavior of Sound in a Small Room 222
11 11.1
229
Speaker Listener Distance
- 230
Design of Rooms for Speech 11.2 Balcony and Hall Depth 232
11.3 Room Shape 236
11.4 Room Volume 238
11.5 Reflecting and Absorbing Parts of a Room 239
11.6 Floor Rake 242
11.7 Ceiling Reflections 248
V
11.8 Ambient Noise 254
11.9 Sound Reinforcement Systems 254
11.10 Special Considerations for Classrooms 254
12 12.1
259
Musical Attributes and Acoustical Phenomena 260
Design of Rooms for Music- 12.2 Early Decay Tune and Clarity 261
Concert Halls and Music 12.3 Intimacy 266
Practice Rooms 12.4 Spaciousness 268
12.5 Warmth and Brilliance 275
12.6 Loudness 276
12.7 Concert Hall Design Procedure 278
12.8 Preliminary Design of a Concert Hall 279
12.9 Music Practice Rooms 283
13 13.1
289
Drama Theaters 289
Tbeaters, Multipurpose 13.2 Multipurpose Halls 294
Halls, Cinema Halls and 13.3 Cinema Halls 296
Studios 13.4 Recording and Broadcasting Studios 301
14 307
307
14.1 Speech Intelligibility
Speech Intelligibility, Speech 14.2 Speech Privacy 313
Privacy and Open-Plan 14.3 Acoustical Design Principles of Open-Plan Offices 317
Offices 14.4 Speech Privacy in an Open-Plan Office 320
15 327
15.1 Vibration Control Strategies 328
Vibration Isolation 15.2 Fundamentals of Vibration Isolation 329
15.3 Types of Isolators 334
15.4 Isolator Bases 337
15.5 Isolation System Design 339
16 341
16.1 Loudspeakers 343
Sound Reinforcement
16.2 Microphones 348
Systems
16.3 Amplifiers 349
16.4 Fundamentals of Sound Reinforcement 350
16.5 Loudspeaker Location 355
16.6 Computer-aided Sound System Design 360
16.7 Electronic Architecture 360
vi
Review Questions 363
Index 443
vii
Preface
ANOTETO THE Although our expertise is different- two of the authors are university
professors and one, an acoustical consultant - all three of us have
READER taught acoustics for several years. Over these years, we have observed
a growing diversity in the backgrounds of students entering
architecture and interior design programs. For some students,
architecture and interior design is a second career. Consequently,
such students have excellent preparation in science and mathematics.
We believe that a growing number will specialize in acoustics or
other technological disciplines in their working lives.
On the other hand, most students enter architecture with a high
school preparation in science and mathematics. 'fP.ese students will
work in the traditional roles of architects and interior designers, who
need a basic understanding of acoustical principles and practice -
not a comprehensive knowledge of the subject.
Architectural Acoustics - Principles and Design has been
written with the above diversity in mind. The text portion of the
book will satisfy a reader who desires an exhaustive coverage of the
subject, while the illustrations - over 500 in number - are aimed
at a reader who does not have the time pr the desire to go through
long descriptions of complex acoustical phenomena.
The text and illustrations are fully integrated with each other.
However, an attempt has been made to lrthe illustrations stand alone
so that the reader can obtain a good working knowledge of the subject
by studying the illustrations along with a cursory reading of the text.
Our teaching experience indicates that an inaqequately illustrated
book is as frustrating as one with numerous illustrations, but with an
insufficient explanatory text.
ix
To improve the book ' s reader friendliness, topics that do not
require a detailed study during its first reading, such as the numerical
examples, description of acoustical standards etc . , have been
separated from the main text by enclosing them in a box with a gray
screen. Although references are given at the end of each chapter,
review questions are placed at the end of the book.
The primary aim of the book is to serve as a text during the
college years of an architect, interior designer, or engineer. However,
we have been able to synthesize academic rigor with practical details.
Therefore, the book should remain useful to the readers during their
working careers also.
A special feature of interest to practicing architects, interior
designers, and acoustical consultants is a large body of acoustical
data gathered by us over the years, and presented in Appendixes H
through J. Additionally, a glossary of acoustical terms and a
comprehensive listing of important formulas in architectural acoustics
should make the book attractive as a reference source.
The book contains more than adequate material for one
semester ' s course in acoustics in architecture, interior design, and
engineering programs. However, it can also be adapted for a half
semester course. In that case, we suggest that the instructor cover
mainly the principles, leaving the practical aspects for self study by
the reader. A suggested list of chapters for a half semester course is:
Chapters 1 to 5, 7, 10, 1 1 and 12.
Since the Imperial system is being phased out in the United
States, we have used the SI system of units as the primary system,
and the Imperial system as the secondary system. This format
corresponds with most contemporary U.S. publications in architecture
and engineering.
Although this is a joint and shared effort, the primary
responsibilities for various parts of the book are:
X
A special ack nowledgment is due to our editor, Ed Francis of
Prentice Hall, who was always available to answer questions and
provide the necessary help.
DISCLAIMER The information in this book has been derived from several sources,
such as the reference book s, journals, manufacturers' literature,
authors' professional experience, etc. It is presented in good faith,
and although the authors and the publisher have made every
reasonable effort to present the information accurately, they do not
warrant or assume any liability for its accuracy, its completeness, or
its suitability for any specific purpose. It is the responsibility of the
user of this book to apply his/her professional k nowledge in the use
of the information presented here, and to consult original sources
for detailed information as needed.
Madan Mehta
James Johnson
Jorge Rocafort
xi
The Physics of
Sound
1.1 WAVE MOTION Sound is the human ear ' s response to pressure fluctuations in the air
caused by vibrating objects. For example, a tap on a wall produces
sound because the tap makes the wall vibrate. The vibrating wall
produces pressure fluctuations in the air. The same phenomenon
occurs from the vibrations of a guitar string when the string is plucked.
Although most sounds in our environment are produced by
vibrating objects, some sounds do not involve mechanical vibrations.
They are produced by a sudden increase in air velocity, through
turbulence in air flow. Thus, sound is produced when air escapes
out of a compressed air line. Similarly, air escaping out of air
conditioning outlets produces sound because the area of outlets is
smaller than the area of the duct, which increases the velocity of air
at the outlets.
Sound travels in space by a phenomenon called wave motion.
Wave motion in air is similar to the motion of a ripple produced by
dropping a pebble into a pond. Consider a water pond, which is
undisturbed by any air movement so that the surface of water is calm
and free from all motion, and a pebble is dropped into the pond. As
soon as the pebble strikes the surface, a ripple radiates out from the
point of impact in an ever increasing circular ring.
1
2 Chapter 1
c =fA. (1.1)
- !..
,;;=----.-- ... \ \ \
(a) lnetsnt when the flret pebble hlte the (b) lnetant when the eec;ond pebble hlte the
water (time zero) water (time 12 eec)
Wavelength
(c;) Instant when third pebble hlte the water (d) lnetsnt when the fourth pebble hlte the
(time 24 eec) water (time 36 eec;).
1.2 SOUND FREQUENCY It is the succession of compression and rarefaction waves traveling
away from a vibrating source that we refer to as the sound wave. A
compression and rarefaction wave creates vibration (back-and-forth
motion) of air particles. One back-and-forth motion of an air particle
is called a cycle. Thus in one cycle, the particle starts from its original
position of rest (shown by the black dot in Figure 1.3a), moves to
the extreme right, back to the particle's original position, to the
extreme left, and finally back to its original position.
The above process repeats itself in the second and subsequent
cycles. Note that the velocity of the particle in a cycle is maximum
at its central position, and zero at extreme left and right, in the same
way as the velocity of a pendulum is zero at extreme positions and
maximum at the pendulum's central position, Figure 1.3(b). The
maximum velocity of the particle is called its velocity amplitude,
and the maximum displacement of the particle from its rest position
is called the displacement amplitude.
The number of cycles that the air particles move back and forth
in one second in a sound wave is called the frequency of the wave.
Its unit is cycles per second (c/s) which is also termed Hertz (Hz)
after the Austrian physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857 -94). Subjectively,
the frequency of a sound wave is perceived as its pitch. A high
pitched sound means that it has a high frequency. The female voice
is slightly higher pitched than the male voice.
Frequency of sound is an important acoustical concept since the
properties of building materials and construction assemblies vary
with the frequency of sound. Additionally, the behavior of sound in
an enclosure is also dependent on its frequency.
A normal young adult is capable of hearing sounds ranging from
20 Hz to 20 kHz (1 kHz= 1 kilo Hertz= 1 ,000 Hz). Frequencies
below 20 Hz are called infrasonic frequencies. They are not heard
but are perceived by humans as vibrations. Frequencies above 20
kHz, referred to as ultrasonic frequencies, are also not heard by
humans, although some animals can hear them. Dogs can detect
frequencies up to 30 kHz, and bats up to 90 kHz. In fact, bats produce
high frequency signals and use them as an "acoustic radar" to detect
obstacles at night.
Sounds in our environment do not generally consist of individual
frequencies (a single note or pure tone) such as that produced by a
tuning fork. If the frequency is represented on the horizontal axis
The Physics of Sound 5
>
(----E--
<
)
--
------7
- - - - - - - - - - - -8
---
G
Zero particle Maximum particle Zero particle
Maximum
velocity velocity velocity Zero velocity
velocity
l
Dleplacement amplitude
(a)
(1-J)
1.3 Three cardinal positions of a vibrating particle and the corresponding particle velocities.
(a) (1-J)
1.4 Sound spectrum of (a) 500Hz tuning fork, (b) 250Hz and 500
Hz tuning forks sounding simultaneously.
6 Chapter 1
1 The ear's perception of the interval between two frequencies is based on their
ratio, not on the arithmetic difference between them. For instance, the interval
between 200 and 300Hz is not perceived to be the same as that between 100 and
200Hz, although both pairs of frequencies are 100Hz apart. In fact, the interval
between 200 and 300Hz appears to be smaller than the interval between 100 and
200Hz. To obtain the same interval sensation as that between 100 and 200Hz (a
ratio of 1 :2), the other pair must also be in the ratio of 1:2. Thus, the interval
between 100 and 200Hz is perceived to be the same as that between 200 and 400
Hz, or between 1,000 and 2,000Hz, or beween 5,000 and 10,000Hz.
When equal interval sensations between two magnitudes of a quantity are
obtained by the same ratio, we say that the quantity follows a logarithmic scale.
Thus, frequency perception follows a logarithmic scale. In fact, as we shall see
later in this chapter, the subjective perception of most acoustical quantities follows
a logarithmic scale. A brief review of logarithms is given at the end of this chapter.
The Physics of Sound 7
fu = fc (J2 ) = 1.414 fc
= 0.707 fc
Table 1. 1 Center the center frequency of a one-third octave by 2113 to obtain the center
Frequencies of One-third frequency of the next higher one-third octave. Dividing by 2113 gives
the center frequency of the next lower one-third octave.
Octave Bands
For instance, when the octave centered at 125 Hz is divided in
50 800 three one-third octaves, the center frequencies are: 100Hz (obtained
63 1,000 by dividing 125 by 1.26), 125Hz and 160Hz (obtained by multiplying
80 1,250 125 by 1.26). The center frequencies of various one-third octave
bands are shown in Table 1.1. Note that 2113 = 1.26.
lOO 1,600
125 2,000
160 2,500 1.2.3 Frequency Ranges of Speech and Music
200 3,150 As indicated in Figure 1.5, the frequency range of speech extends
250 4,000 from nearly 100 Hz to 5 KHz, covering nearly 5 octaves.
315 5,000 Approximately 75% of sound energy in speech is contained in vowels,
which are low frequency components of speech. It is the sound in
400 6,300 vowels that accounts for the distinguishing quality of an individual's
500 8,000 speech.
630 10,000 The consonants are the high frequency components of speech.
The energy contained in consonants is relatively small, but it is the
consonants that provide intelligibility in human speech. Frequencies
below 500 Hz contribute negligibly to speech intelligibility. The
frequency range of speech is shown in Figure 1.8, which also gives
frequency ranges for music and acoustical laboratory tests.
1.8 Frequency ranges of :31 6:3 125 250 500 1.000 2,000 4,000 8,000 16,000
acoustical laboratory tests, Frequency (Hz)
human speech, and m usic.
1.3 SOUND VELOCITY, The speed of sound in air has been measured as 344 m/sec (1,130 ft/
sec). This corresponds to 1240 km/hr (770 milhr) which is extremely
PARTICLE VELOCITY small as compared to the speed of light (300,000 km/sec). An object
AND WAVELENGTH traveling at a speed greater than the speed of sound is said to be
traveling at supersonic speed.
The speed of sound in air does not vary with the frequency of
sound or its loudness. In other words, sounds at all audible
frequencies, regardless of their loudness, travel at the same speed.
The Physics of Sound 9
Table 1.2 Wavelength of Note that unlike light, which does not require a medium in which
So und at Center to travel, sound energy, being vibrational energy of the particles of
medium, requires a medium in which to travel - from one point in
Frequencies of Octaves
the medium to another. Thus, sound cannot travel in a vacuum, while
Frequency Wavelength
light can.
(ft)
In solids, the speed of sound (that is, the speed of travel of
(Hz) (m)
vibrational energy) is considerably greater than in gases or liquids.
For instance, the speed of sound in steel is nearly fifteen times greater
63 1 8.0 5.46
than that in air. This explains why we are able to hear the vibrations
125 9.0 2.75
of railroad tracks well before we receive the sound from the arriving
250 4.5 1.38 train, which reaches us by traveling through the air.
500 2.3 0.69
1,000 1.1 0.34
2,000 0.6 0.17 1.3.1 Wavelength of Sound
4,000 0.3 0.09
8,000 0.15 0.04 As stated in Section 1.2, the wavelength and the frequency of sound
are related to each other according to Equation ( 1 . 1 ). The greater
the frequency of sound, the smaller its wavelength. Thus, the
wavelength of sound at 20 Hz is 344/20 = 17.2 m (56.5 ft). At 20
kHz, the wavelength is 1 .72 cm (0.7 in.). ['he wavelength of sound
corresponding to the center frequencies of various octaves is shown
in Table 1.2.
Although the velocity of sound is 344 m/sec (1,130 ft/sec), for
most practical purposes we may regard it as 3 00 m/sec (or 1 ,000 ft/
sec). With that approximation, the wavelength of sound at 100 Hz is
nearly 3 m (10 ft), at 1 kHz the wavelength is nearly 0.3 m, or 30 cm
(1 ft), at 2 kHz, the wavelength is 15 cm (6 in.), and so on.
Physically, the wavelength of a sound wave is the distance
between adjacent compression peaks or adjacent rarefaction peaks,
Figure 1.9. In fact, the wavelength of sound is the distance between
two air particles that are in exactly the same vibrational situation.
1.4 THE DECIBEL The physical quantity associated with the loudness of sound i s its
intensity, which is defined as the amount of sound power falling on
SCALE (or passing through, or crossing) a unit area. Since the unit of power
is watt, the unit of sound intensity is watts per square meter (W/m2).
! sound intensity whih is just adible, called the threshold o,j
audzbzhty, has been determmed expenmentally to be 10-12 W/m ,
and the intensity that corresponds to the sensation of pain in the
human ear4 is approximately 10 W/m2. Thus, the ear responds to a
very large range of intensities since the loudest sound is
10,000,000,000,000 times (1013 times) louder than the faintest sound.
In a situation where one has to deal with a large range of
magnitudes of a given quantity, it is more convenient to express the
magnitude as a ratio of a reference magnitude. In the case of sound
intensity, the reference intensity is assumed to be 10-12 W/m2 and a
given sound intensity is expressed as a multiple of this reference
intensity. The multiple is obtained by dividing the given intensity
(I) by the reference intensity (lref), i.e., the multiple is given by the
ratio: (1/Iref).
For instance, a sound intensity of 10-10 W1m2 is expressed as
100, since 10-10 W/m2 is 100 times the reference sound intensity of
10-12wtm2. Similarly, 10-9W/m2 is 1,000, and 10-8W/m2 is 10,000,
and so on.
Dealing with a large range of magnitudes is further simplified if
we express them as the logarithm of the above ratio (a review of
logarithms i given at the end of this chapter). Thus, the intensity of
a given sound can be expressed as:
I
log where, I
ref 10 -12 W/m2
I ref
--
=
I
IL = 10 log (1.2)
I ref
-
4 The sound that produces pain in the human ear is not the loudest possible
sound. The sound inteJlsity in the neighborhood of a space rocket during its
2
lift-off exceeds 108 W/m , which is equivalent to 200 dB.
Sound lntenelty
Sound preeeur: Sound lntenelty level or e;ound Nolee In the
(Pa) (W J m2) preeeure level environment
(dB)
63.2 10 - 130 -
Threehold of pain
20 1 120
- Near a jet aircraft at take-off
0.632 0.001 90
-
Dleeel truck at (15 m) 50 ft
0.2 0.0001 80 Shouting at 1 m (3 ft)
0.0632 0.00,001 - 70 -
Buey office
0.000632 0.000,000,001 30
- Quiet eullurllan area at night
1.10 Some typical noises in our environment and their sound intensifies and sound
intensity levels.
The Physics of Sound 13
Determine the sound intensity (I) of a sound whose sound intensity level (IL) is 83 dB.
I I
83 = 10 log or, 8.3 = log or,
-12
--
Iref
10
Thus, I = 10-37 = 0.0001995 W/m2.
Determine the sound intensity level (IL) of a sound whose intensity is (i) 0.0025 W/m2, and (ii) 4.5 W/
m2 .
Solution: (i) From Equation 1.2, IL = 10 lo. (0.0025/ l 0-12) = 10 log (2.5 x 109) = 94 dB.
1.5 COMBINING SOUND It is often necessary to determine the overall sound level from several
sound level measurements. For example, we may need to know the
LEVELS combined sound level in an environment where the sound levels of
individual noise sources are known. The converse of the above would
be to determine the resultant sound level in an environment when
one or more noise sources of known sound levels are removed.
The addition or subtraction of sound levels cannot be done in
the same way as the addition or subtraction of ordinary numbers
(arithmetic addition and subtraction). Sound levels, being logarithmic
quantities, must be added or subtracted logarithmically. For instance,
the resultant sound level of two noise sources, each producing a sound
level of 80 dB, is not 160 dB. In fact, as explained below, the
combined sound level of these two sources is 83 dB. In other words,
80 dB+ 80 dB= 83 dB.
Two procedures exist to obtain the sum of two sound levels: the
exact procedure and the approximate procedure. The exact procedure
is explained in Appendix B. According to this procedure, we first
determine the sound intensities corresponding to the given sound
levels. These sound intensities are then added (arithmetically), and
the resultant sound level determined by calculating the logarithm of
the sum of sound intensities.
The approximate procedure is more commonly used because of
its simplicity. It is a two-step procedure as given below:
Table 1.4 Approximate Decibel
Step 1: Determine the difference between the two sound
Addition levels to be added.
Step 2 : Determine the amount to be added to the higher
Difference between Decibels to be level from Table 1.4. This gives the resultant sound level.
two levels to be added to higher
added (dB) level For example, let us determine the resultant sound level of 80 dB
and 84 dB. The difference between the two levels is 4 dB. Therefore,
from Table 1.41 we will add 2 dB to the 84 dB level to give us the
0 or 1 3
resultant sound level of 86 dB. Thus, 80 dB+ 84 dB= 86 dB. If the
2 to 4 2
two sound levels are equal (a difference of zero), we will add 3 dB to
5 to 9 1
the sound level to obtain the resultant sound level. Thus, 80 dB+ 80
10 or more 0
dB= 83 dB.
The Physics of Sound 15
70 d6 + 72 d6 + 75 d6 + 00 d6
4 6
5 7
6 8
7 8
8 9
10 10
15 12
20 13
50 17
100 20
(c) Nolee from 4 Identical vacuum cleanere = (x + 6) d6
Decibels in dB Decibels to be
between the overall subtracted from
level and the level the (earlier) 1.5.3 Subtracting Sound Levels
of source to be overall level
subtracted to obtain the The subtraction of sound levels can be obtained from Table 1.4 by
resultant level reversing the steps needed for addition. However, the work is
simplified through the use of Table 1.6. For example, assume that
the overall sound level in a space is 85 dB and we wish to eliminate
0 10 or more a source whose level is 80 dB. What will be the resultant sound
1 7 level in the space?. In other words, what is 85 dB - 80 dB? From
2 4 Table 1.6, the resulting sound level is 85 - 2 = 83 dB (see also Example
3 3 1.5).
4 or 5 2 Although the answers obtained from the use of Tables 1.4
6 to 9 1 through 1.6 are approximate, they are reasonably accurate for all
10 or more 0 architectural acoustics work since the error in the final answer seldom
exceeds 1 dB, which is insignificant from the point of view of human
perception (see Table 1.3).
Determine the overall sound level of a noise whose octave band levels are given in the following table.
Solution: The octave band noise levels can be added as shown in the adjacent diagram, giving an
overall sound level of 97 dB.
Octave (Hz)
SPL(dB)
63
95
125
93
250
70
500
70
1,000
70
2,000
60
4,000
62
8,000
60
95
93
> 97
70 >
70
73
>
97 >
70
60
> 70 )
.. 71
97
62 > 64
60
The existing noise level in a manufacturing space is 90 dB. It is proposed to add 10 machines in this
space, each producing 80 dB. Will the resulting noise level be excessive as compared to the existing
level?
Solution: From Table 1.5, the combined noise level of 10 machines, each producing 80 dB, is 80 + 10
= 90 dB . Since the existing noise level in the space is 90 dB, the final noise level in the space is 93 dB
(from Table 1.5). Thus, the additional! 0 machines increase the noise level by 3 dB. From Table 1.3, an
increase of 3 dB is small since it is only just perceptible.
The Physics of Sound 17
The noise level on an urban road (Road A) during rush hour is 90 dB, which has been determined to be
excessive. As a solution to the noise problem, it has been proposed to build another road (Road B) in
the neighborhood, which will reduce the traffic on the existing road by 50 percent. What is your
assessment of this proposal from the point of view of noise reduction?
Solution: Since the construction of Road B will reduce traffic on road A by half, the noise reduction
will be only 3 dB, giving a noise level of 87 dB on Road A. From Table 1 .3, we note that a minimum
of 5 dB reduction is necessary to be perceived as a noticeable difference. Thus, constructing Road B,
to carry 50 percent of the traffic, will not make a noticeable difference to noise level on Road A.
From Table 1.6, we observe that to achieve a 5 dB reduction, the traffic on Road A must be reduced
to one-third of its original value. In other words, Road B must carry two-thirds of the traffic. With two
thirds traffic on Road B, the noise level on Road B will be 88 dB, which is not much less than 90 dB on
Road A. Therefore, the proposal is acoustically not justified.
SOUND
1.6 One of the ways in which acousticians classify noise sources is by
the size of the source relative to the distance at which the effect of
ATTENU ATION BY the source is considered. According to this classification a noise
DISTANCE source is classified as: (i) a point source, or (ii) a line source.
Theoretically, a third classification could be an area source. In
practice, however, only the point source and line source are important.
A point source is one whose dimensions are much smaller than the
distance at which we wish to determine the sound level produced by
it. As a rough guide, at a distance greater than or equal to five times
the largest dimension of the source, the source behaves as a point
source. Thus, if the largest dimension of a sound source is 2 ft, it
will behave as a point source at a distance of 10 ft or greater from
the source. Indeed the greater the distance from the source, the closer
the behavior of the source to a point source. In fact, all sound sources,
regardless of size, behave as point sources at sufficient distance away
from the source.
More precisely, a point source is one which obeys the inverse
square law. To understand the inverse square law, imagine a point
source of sound which radiates sound equally in all directions. We
Arr:a of ephr:rr:
will assume that the source is hung in space (or is located in an
= 411:R2
6 Remember (from Section 1.4) that the intensity of sound is equal to the
sound power per unit area, i.e., I (sound power)/area.
=
18 Chapter 1
I = (1 .4)
ANECHOIC SPACE
'"""' lty = ..
7
l""" olty iI = (IL + 6) .0
2 ..
1.14 Sound intensifies and sound intensity levels in a free .field. The sound source
has been assumed to be non-directional, that is, it radiates equally in all directions.
The Physics of Sound 19
The sound level at lm away from a source in an open space (no reflections) is 80 dB. Calculate the
sound level due to the same source at a distance of 6 m from it. (Assume that the source is non
directional, that is, it radiates equally in all directions).
SPL6 + 20 log(6) = SPL 1 + 20 log( l ). Thus, SPL6 = 80 - 15.6 = 64.4 dB, say 64 dB.
7 Equations (1.5) and (1.6) assume that the source is nondirectional, that is, it
radiates equally in all directions. If not, the source's directivity must be considered.
20 Chapter 1
1.7 SOUND FIELDS In describing the inverse square law, we assumed the source to be
suspended in space so that there were no reflections from the ground
or other nearby surfaces. A space (or sound field) in which all sound
comes directly from the source (with complete absence of any
reflected sound) is called a free field, implying 'freedom' from
reflections. From Section 1 .6. 1 , we see that in a free field, sound
level drops by 6 dB for every doubling of distance.
In practice, a free field is obtained in a room specially constructed
for this purpose, called the anechoic chamber. In an anechoic
chamber all walls, the ceiling, and the floor are covered with wedge
shaped sound absorbers so that all sound that falls on them is
absorbed, Figure 1 . 1 5 . The absorbing material on the floor is
protected by a structural wire mesh above it. The structural mesh is
strong enough to support the loads of equipment and technicians,
but allows virtually all sound to go through it.
Thus, we observe that in an ideal free field all sound is direct
sound. There is no reflected sound at all. By contrast, a sound field
in which all sound consists of reflected sound is called a reverberant
field. In a (true) reverberant field, the sound level is constant
throughout the space.
The Physics of Sound 21
1.15 Anechoic chamber. Courtesy of 3M Corporation, St. Paul, Minnesota, with permission.
Near
field Far field
Sound lvl variation In a
r- room with a emall amount
of aueorptlon
Reverberant field
.. ___
decreaee l7y 6 dB for ry
douulln!! of dletanc from
t h eourc
Dle;tance from e;ource
..
.
.
. ..
.
REVIEW OF LOGARITHMS
Any number can be expressed in exponential form - in the form of 1 ox, where x is called the exponent
of 1 0. For instance, 1 00 can be expressed as 1 02, 1 ,000 as 103 , and 1 0,000 as 1 04 , and so on. Not only
can we express numbers such as 1 ,000 or 10,000 in exponential format, we can also express numbers
such as 264 or 4,669 jn the form of 10x. Using a modem calculator, it is fairly easy to see that 264 =
1 o2.422, and 4669 = 10 669. Before the advent of calculators, however, expressing numbers in exponential
formats could be done only through the use of logarithm tables, referred to as log tables.
A logarithm is simply an operator that changes a given number into another number. By definition,
log(1 0)x = x. Thus, log(100) = 2, log( l ,OOO) = 3, log ( 10,000) = 4, and so on. Similarly, log(264) =
1
2.4216 and log(4,669) = 3.6692, since 102 .42 6 = 264, and 1 0H>692 = 4,669.
The real advantage of log tables was not in expressing numbers in exponential format, but in the
multiplication and division of large numbers. Log tables simplified the multiplication and division of
large numbers by converting the multiplication into addition of numbers, and the division of numbers
into subtraction.
For example, let us determine the product: 264.59 x 4,669.72. Using a log table, we would find that
log(264.59) = 2.4226, and log(4669.72) = 3.66932. We now add 2.4226 and 3.6693, giving us 6.091 9.
Using log tables once again, we would find that 1 ,235,663 is the number whose logarithm is 6.09 19. In
other words, log(l ,235,663) = 6.09 19, or (264.59 x 4,669.72) is (approximately) equal to 1 ,235,663. In
doing this multiplication with the help of log tables, we simply added numbers.
Fortunately, we do not have to learn the use of log tables today. All that we need to learn is the use
of a calculator in determining the logarithm of a number. Scientific calculators have a function "log".
This function gives us the logarithm of a number in a one-step operation. The reader is advised to
practice determining the logarithms of a few numbers using a scientific calculator. As an exercise,
determine: log(2,399); log(345,95) ; log ( 1 3 .33); log( 109.3). From thse exercises, the reader will note
that:
log(1) = 0
log( a number between 1 and 1 0) = a number that lies between 0 and 1
log(a number between 10 and 1 00) = a number that lies between 1 and 2
log(a number between 100 and 1 ,000) = a number that lies between 2 and 3
log(a number between 1 ,000 and 1 0,000) = a number that lies between 3 and 4, . .. etc.
Similarly,
The above formulas are the only ones needed to solve any problem related to logarithms. A few
logarithms worth remembering are: log(2) = 0.3, log (3) = 0.48 and log 5 = 0.7. The reader should now
try to determine the following logarithms, using the above formulas, but not the calculator.
log(4); log(6); log( 1 5); log(20); log (60); log(200) ; log(800); log(2,000)
If the lofarithm of a number is given, that number can e determined. For instance, if log(n) = 3,
then n = 1 0 = 1 ,000. Similarly, if log(n) = 2.37 , n = 10 2 7 = 234.4. Using a calculator, the reader
should determine the value of n, given that log(n) is:
0.55, 1 .377, 3 .999
Sound
Measurement
and Hearing
2.1 SOUND LEVEL As stated in Section 1.4.1, the instrument used for measuring sound
pressure level (or sound intensity level) is called the sound level
METER meter. Various types of sound level meters are available depending
on their precision and versatility (which allow other accessories to
be attached to it). However, all of them consist of the following four
basic components: (i) a microphone, (ii) an input amplifier, (iii) an
output amplifier and (iv) a read-out device.
The microphone, through its diaphragm, converts the fluctuating
air pressure produced by a sound source into a fluctuating electrical
charge. The input amplifier converts this charge into a voltage signal
that is processed by the electronic circuitry of the instrument, and
converted into sound pressure level. The output amplifier increases
the extremely weak sound signal to a level that is adequate to display
25
26 Chapter 2
the signal on the meter's read-out panel. Most modem sound level
meters give sound pressure level reading in a digital format (using
light emitting diode, LED, or liquid crystal technology), as shown in
Figure 2.1. Some meters, however, include both a digital read-out
as well as analog (needle) read-out.
The sound level in an environment may either be virtually
constant or vary with time. For example, the noise in a transformer
room, or the noise created by air conditioning systems, electric motor
noise, etc., consists of a continuous noise of an almost constant leveL
On the other hand, noise in a manufacturing space, surface grinding,
welding, traffic noise, etc., varies with time.
The meter's display of the sound pressure level, whether digital
or the traditional needle type, cannot respond instantaneously to rapid
fluctuations of sound pressure levels. The meter's display mechanism
has a certain response time. Therefore, a typical sound level meter
is provided with three averaging speeds: slow, fast and impulse.
In the slow mode, the meter averages the sound level over one
second. In the fast mode, the averaging period is 1/8 second (125
milliseconds). The slow mode is most commonly used, particularly
if the noise level is changing rapidly. If the meter is set to the fast
mode for rapidly changing noise levels, the meter reading may vary
too fast for the eye to follow the changes. Thus, an assessment of
the average noise level may not be obtained.
The fast mode is used where we wish to obtain the peak levels in
a variable noise environment. The impulse mode, with an averaging
period of 35 milliseconds, is used to monitor impulse noises such as
noise from pneumatic drills, automatic presses and guillotines,
riveting machines, etc.
To obtain sound levels within octave bands or one-third octave
bands, a filter mechanism is either connected to the sound level meter
externally, or built into the meter. A filter mechanism consists of a
number of filters; each filter allows only the sound contained within
that particular frequency band to pass through, cutting off all sound
lying outside that band.
A sound level meter without the filter mechanism gives the
overall sound level (in frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to 20 kHz).
The overall sound level is also obtained when the filter mechanism
is connected but not switched on. On the other hand, if the filter
mechanism is switched on for a particular band, the meter reading
gives the sound level contained within that band. The filters are
switched manually so that successive sound pressure level readings
can be obtained for each octave or one-third octave band. Readings
so obtained give the breakdown (analysis) of sound levels in various
octave or one-third octave bands, commonly referred to as octave or
one-third octave analysis.
2.2 THE EAR'S The sound level measurements obtained from a sound level meter
refer to the physical phenomenon of sound. These measurements
SENSITIVITY do not bear a simple relationship with the sensation of loudness.
This lack of simplicity results from the human ear's unequal
sensitivity at various frequencies. For example,a given sound level,
of say 4 0 dB,at 1 00Hz does not sound as loud as 40dB at 1,000 Hz.
The unequal sensitivity of the human ear is shown in the curves
of Figure 2.3, which are known as equal loudness contours. These
contours have been obtained from extensive experimental data in
which the subjects were asked to compare the loudness of sounds at
different frequencies.
Each contour gives the sound level necessary to produce the
same loudness sensation at different frequencies. Contours are
labeled as 1 0, 20, 3 0,etc. - numbers that refer to the corresponding
sound levels at 1 kHz. Thus,in labeling these contours,the frequency
of 1 kHz has been taken as the reference frequency. A contour labeled
4 0 passes through the 4 0 dB point at 1 kHz frequency. Similarly, the
contour labeled 1 20 passes through 1 20 dB at 1 kHz frequency.
An arbitrary unit called the phon has been assigned to these
numbers, so that the contour labeled as 4 0 is a 4 0 phon contour, that
labeled as 5 0 is a 5 0 phon contour, and so on. Thus, we see that
phon is the unit of loudness. It is important to note the distinction
between phon and decibel: the decibel is the unit of (sound) stimulus
while phon is the unit of (sound) sensation.
Equal loudness contours indicate that the ear is most sensitive
between 4 to 5 kHz- the region where most information is contained
in human speech2 The sensitivity decreases in the low and high
frequency regions,the decrease in sensitivity being most pronounced
in the low frequency region. In fact, the ear is relatively deaf in
frequencies from 20 to 100 Hz. For example, examinipg the 3 0
phon contour,we see that to produce the same loudness sensation of
3 0 phons,we need a sound level of 87 dB at 20Hz,45 dB at 1 00Hz,
3 0 dB at 1 kHz, 23 dB at 4 kHz, and 4 0 dB at 1 0 kHz.
The contours tend to become flatter with greater loudness,
implying that the ear's sensitivity becomes more uniform at higher
sound leveis. The lowest (dashed) contour is the threshold of
audibility contour and the uppermost contour refers to the threshold
of pain.
Since the human ear is the ultimate judge of all sounds, efforts have
been made to develop a sound level meter that will simulate the
equal loudness contours. However, this has not been done because,
first, the complexity of the equal loudness contours is so great that
such a meter is economically unviable. Second, the equal loudness
contours have been obtained with reference to pure tones although
real life sounds have complex spectra. The correspondence between
loudness perception of pure tones and complex sounds is not well
established.
A partial cloning of the ear's characteristics is obtained through
frequency weighting networks provided in a sound level meter. A
frequency weighting network simulates the unequal sensitivity of
Thresh o Id of pa In
I
120 " r--
Ll_ 120
'-r-... r-.
r--. -..... I
-V
1I'-,
."'-..
"' f'-
r--
r-- I J
100 -
-...... 1-"
'\[',.'r-. !'---.. 90 !'-... I '-...J
....... -
..
8;;...!'-... ...YI
--
r--
Threehold of / r- 10r--.r--.1-./ I -I
/'
.../
1---r--
-- ......
...... -
audli:llllty curve
-- .....
0
Ill I
.. _ ...
20
Center frequency A-weighting
A
of octave (Hz) (dB) ] 0 c
!--'-
.......
/
63 -26
:::1
Ill
-10 B
/
/
Ill V
1 25 -16
I:>.. -20 /
V
250 -9 -.::5
s:
500 -3
0 -30
:::1
1 ,000 0 Ill
2,000 +1 -40
+S
4,000 +1 (q
8,000 -1 -50
63 250 1,000 4,000
125 500 2,000 8,000
Frequency (Hz)
Determine the overall dBA sound level for the noise source of Example 1.3.
Solution: The unweighted noise levels are shown in row 2 and the A-weighted levels in row 3 of the
following table. The overall A-weighted level is obtained by adding the levels given in row 3, which
works out to 79 dBA. The overall unweighted level is 97 dB, see Example 1.3.
2.3 THE HAAS EFFECT The nonuniform sensitivity of the human ear is not the only property
of the ear that is of interest to us. A few other characteristics of
hearing that are of interest are discussed in the following sections.
One of these characteristics is the ability of the ear to integrate
all (identical) sounds that follow within brief intervals of each other,
as if these sounds were not separate sounds but one sound. The
ear's property to integrate sounds was first discovered by Helmut
Haas through experiments conducted on a large number of listeners.
In this experiment, the listener was set equidistant from two
loudspeakers, loudspeakers A and B in an anechoic chamber, so that
each loudspeaker subtended an angle of 45 at the listener, Figure
2. 5.
Haas's experimental set-up included a time delay mechanism in
the circuitry from the sound generator to loudspeaker B, so that the
sound at the listener from loudspeaker B could be delayed with respect
to that from loudspeaker A by varying amounts. In addition to varying
the delay time, the level of sound from loudspeaker B with respect
to the sound level from A could also be varied. Thus, in Haas's
experiments, the listener received a sound from loudspeaker A and
an identical sound from loudspeaker B - delayed by a time interval
and of different sound level.
Haas discovered that when the delay time was zero and the level
of both sounds was the same, i.e., when both sounds arrived at the
listener's ears at the same time and were of equal loudness, the listener
perceived them as one sound coming from an imaginary loudspeaker
C located right in front of him. In other words, the ear integrated
both sounds into one sound, and had the illusion of receiving the
sound from a source equidistant from the two sources.
The integration effect occurs even if the sound from B is delayed
with respect to that from A, provided the delay is less than 40
milliseconds, and the level of sound from B is not more than 10 dB
above that from A. Stated differently, if the delay between two sounds
is up to 40 milliseconds and if the delayed sound is no more than 10
Delay
mechanism
Sound
generator
rb. c
:.-...:-:.
Imaginary speaker
'
o'
'
'
'
'
'
'
, -
, -
'
'
ANECHOIC
CHAMBER
dB above the level of the earlier sound, the ear does two things: (i)
it perceives both sounds as one sound, adding their loudness, and
(ii) it thinks that all the sound is coming from A - the loudspeaker
from which the sound came to the listener first.
In other words, the sound that arrives first at the listener
establishes the source of sound. The illusion of sound coming only
from the first (earlier) source is called the precedence effect.
Therefore, the Haas effect is also known as the integration and
precedence effect.
If the delayed sound is of the same level as the earlier sound (a
zero dB difference between the two sounds), the maximum delay
time during which integration and precedence effect occurs increases
to 50 milliseconds. If the delayed sound is 3 dB below the earlier
sound, the corresponding delay time for integration is increased
further to nearly 80 milliseconds. This is shown in Figure 2.6, in
which the integration zone has been indicated by the shaded area
the zone within which the blending of delayed sound occurs. Outside
this zone, the integration does not take place and the two sounds are
heard separately.
A sound that is heard separately from the earlier sound is referred
to as an echo. Echoes in listening spaces are disturbing. They
interfere with speech intelligibility and cause confused perception
of music, and therefore must be avoided.
10
8
2-
6
10
0
::::1-.::5
Ill
4 Echo zone
--
-.::5 ......
\)-.::5 2 \ --
\
S:
- 0
113 ::I
Ill 0
't=i -2 r--
L:
Integration .......
zone
-
:J -4 r-...
....._,
2-'t=i
-6 ['.,.
I I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 M 90 100
2.6 Integration and echo zones for Delay time (in millie;econde;)
a delayed sound.
The Haas effect is used in the design of auditoriums and in the design
of speech amplification systems. In an auditorium, the sound reaches
a listener in two ways: first the direct sound comes from the speaker,
and subsequently, the reflected sounds arrive at the listener after being
reflected from various surfaces of the room. Since the reflected
sounds travel through a longer path, they are delayed with respect to
the direct sound. The difference between the arrival times of direct
sound and a reflected sound is the delay time.
Sound Measurement and Hearing 33
3 Since the speed of sound is 344 m/s, a time gap of 50 milliseconds (0.050 s)
corresponds to a path length difference of 344 x 0.050 1 7 m (55 ft).
=
34 Chapter 2
3m
I
(a) (b)
The ability of the ear to blend sounds that follow at short intervals of
each other is similar to the ability of the eye to blend still
cinematographic pictures to give us an impression of motion. The
eye is able to blend discrete pictures into a continuous impression if
there are at least 16 pictures per second - an interval not exceeding
62 milliseconds between two still pictures. Therefore, some designers
assume the integration zone in acoustics to extend to 62 milliseconds,
although there is no known objective justification to assume similarity
between two distinct sensory perceptions.
4 Since the speed of sound is 344 rnls, it will travel 50 m in 0.145 seconds
( 145 milliseconds) - obtained by dividing 50 by 344.
5 The echo will be louder since the reflected sound will travel a smaller distance.
Remember, the sound level drops 6 dB for every doubling of distance in a free
field (see Section 1 .6).
Sound Measurement and Hearing 35
2.4 SOUND MASKING Another important aspect of hearing is masking. Masking of one
sound by another is an experience that we go through almost every
day. When we are unable to hear a speaker in an auditorium because
of high background noise, it is because the background noise is fully
or partially masking the sound of the speaker. When we have to
raise our voice to be heard in a noisy gathering, it is once again the
masking phenomenon that is in effect.
By definition, masking effect is measured by the number of
decibels a given sound must be raised above its normal threshold of
audibility to be heard in the presence of a masking sound. Masking
is related to the Haas effect, since the blending of a delayed sound
by the ear is a sort of masking- of delayed sound by the first arriving
sound.
Masking, however, is a more complex phenomenon than the Haas
effect, since masking has both neurological as well as sensory bases.
That is, masking is not simply the property of the ear but also of the
brain. For example, we are often able to hear distant conversations
of particular interest to us (or about us) in a noisy cocktail party. If
these conversations were not of interest to us, we might normally
not hear them.
Several studies have been reported on masking of pure tones by
pure tones, of pure tones by narrow band noise, of pure tones by
wide band noise, of noise by pure tones, etc. Only the following
conclusions from the above studies are of interest to us.
(i) A sound of a given frequency is more easily masked by a
sound of the same frequency. This means that the further away the
masking sound is in frequency from the frequency of the sound to be
masked, the greater the sound level of masking sound required. For
example, to fully mask a 65 dB, 400 Hz tone with another 400 Hz
tone requires a level of 80 dB. On the other hand, to completely
mask a 65 dB 1,000 Hz tone by a 400 Hz tone, a level far in excess
of 80 dB is required.
(ii) Low frequencies are generally more effective in masking
higher frequencies than vice versa, particularly if they are loud.
Excessive low frequency noises must, therefore, be avoided since
they constitute a serious source of interference for both speech and
music.
A certain amount of masking by background noise is necessary,
providing us with an "acoustical musk or aroma" since an extremely
quiet environment can be irksome and irritating. In an extremely
quiet environment, noises created by personal body movements and
breathing can be quite disturbing.
Excessive background noise levels are, however, undesirable
with one or two exceptions. For example, the masking phenomenon
is used to an advantage in open plan offices (large office areas with
low-height demountable partitions) where we intentionally provide
background noise with no information content to give speech privacy
at work stations, as discussed in Chapter 14.
36
2.5 BINAURAL Because we have two ears, human hearing is binaural. Binaural
hearing helps us locate a sound source in space, referred to as sound
HEARING localization. Specifically, it is because of our two ears that we are
able to qualitatively determine the angle that the direction of sound
makes with the line joining the two ears, Figure 2.9. In this respect,
our two-ear hearing mechanism is similar to our two-eye vision,
because of which we are able to perceive depth in space. One-eye
vision would not give us depth perception.
Studies indicate that the ears' ability to perceive the direction of
sound is due to: (i) different arrival times of sound at the two ears,
and (ii) different sound levels. Since the source-ear path lengths are
different for the two ears, the arrival times of sound at the two ears is
obviously different. The sound level differential is also caused by
the path length differential, but it is more due to the face and head
producing an acoustical shadow on the farther ear. Thus, in Figure
2.9, it is the left ear that is under acoustical shadow of the head, and
Sound consequently the sound level at the left ear is lower than at the right
ear. Because of the diffraction phenomenon6, acoustical shadows
are less pronounced at low frequencies.
Since sound localization is based on different arrival times and
sound levels, the ear has this ability only if the sound source is located
in the horizontal plane - the horizontal plane containing the sound
source and the two ears. In fact, the ear is able to localize the sound
source in the horizontal plane with an accuracy of 1 or 2 degrees.
If the sound source is located in the vertical plane - the vertical
plane passing through the center of the head and midway between
the ears - there is no difference between the arrival times of sound
to the two ears. Consequently, the ear cannot discriminate between
2.9 Direction localization by the ears. the direction of sounds in the vertical plane.
The inability of the ear to localize in the vertical plane is used to
advantage in establishing the location of loudspeakers in an
auditorium for sound amplification. The loudspeakers, which are
generally provided in the form of a loudspeaker cluster, are located
in the center of the proscenium. This locates the actual talker,
loudspeaker and the listener in a vertical plane. Therefore, the ears
are unable to distinguish between the directions of sound coming
from the talker and the loudspeaker.
If the ears were able to perceive directional differences in the
vertical plane, we would perceive two sounds, one from the talker
and the other from the loudspeaker, causing confusion. Sound
amplification systems are discussed in Chapter 16.
3.1 THE BOUNDARY When sound energy falls on the boundary of an enclosure, such as a
wall or a ceiling, a part of the energy is reflected back into the
PHENOMENA enclosure, a part is absorbed within the material of the boundary and
converted into heat, and a part is transmitted through the boundary
element. The reflected sound expressed as a fraction of the total
sound energy falling on a boundary element is called the reflection
Tranemitted and al:>eorl:>lld coefficient of the element, denoted by the Greek symbol rho (p).
eound (80 unite) Thus:
37
38 Chapter 3
Heavy weight
element t
Lightweight ---,
element
Reflected
eound
Incident
eound
/ ' ""''"""
eound
(a) REFLECTION FROM A HEAVY WEIGHT ELEMENT (11) REFLECTION FROM A LIGHTWEIGHT ELEMENT
p +a = 1.0
Reflected Reflected
eound 20% eound 20%
(/
Tranemltted eound 30% Tranemltted
eound 1'7.
Incident Incident
eound 100'7. eound 100%
(a) ( b)
3.4 Two assemblies with the same absorption coefficient (0.8) and reflection coefficient (0.2).
---t
t"
s::
is smaller than the optical shadow, Figure 3.5. Thus, it is because of
diffraction that we are able to hear a sound even when the sound
N
0
source is not visible to us.
s::
"
3: Diffraction is caused by the wave nature of sound, and although
0
-.:1
rce :;; 3: \IS we are representing sound to travel along straight line paths (or rays),
11) 0 ..1::
11)
=>-.:s
the reality is not exactly as shown in Figure 3.5. However, the straight
..,
0 \IS
"-'= Oi
< 11) line representation simplifies the discussion of the effects of
"R.
--+ 0 diffraction and is therefore a useful technique.
'
l 3.3.1 Wavelength of Sound and the Size of Reflector
3.5 Acoustical and optical shadows The degree of bending (diffraction) of sound around an obstacle is a
produced by a source. function of the sound's wavelength (or frequency, since wavelength
and frequency are related quantities). Low frequency (long
wavelength) sounds bend by a greater amount than high frequency
(short wavelength) sounds, Figure 3.6.
r OI:Ietacle
HIGH FREQUENCY
SOUND SOURCE
e LOW FREQUENCY
SOUND SOURCE
El:)
Acouetlcal ehadow
Sound
0
!lourct:
3.9 Section through an auditorium with
a deep balcony showing the acoustical
shadow of ceiling reflected sound.
(a) SECTION
==llll ROAD
11
Diffracted zone
Optical zone
Open In(!
Source
0:::::::::::_
o
Source .. _ .
Opening
Diffracted zone
3.11 Passage of sound of the same frequency through openings of three different sizes. As the
opening size decreases, an increasingly larger percentage ofsound passes through the opening by
diffraction.
D c
3.13 Three perforated panel screens of the same (30%) visual transparency but different acoustical
transparencies.
Peripheral eupport
frame
High denelty
fll7erglaee
-----1--- Fal7ric
covering
covered a17eorl71ng
panel
H u jj l n 11p 11
n n
Jlllll 11 11 11
Metal louver
ec;reen
3.22 Ceiling screen madefrom U-shaped metal louvers. Sample oflouver screen courtesy of Chicago Metallic,
Chicago, Illinois. Photos by Madan Mehta.
3.6 DIFFUSE AND As stated previously, to be a good sound reflector, a building element
must be sufficiently large in relation to the wavelength of sound and
SPECULAR also sufficiently stiff - of heavy weight construction. As we shall
REFLECTIONS see in Chapter 4, a good sound reflector must also be nonporous.
Sound reflection from a large, heavy and a nonporous surface can be
either:
specular reflection or
diffuse reflection.
Specular reflection is a mirror type reflection, similar to the reflection
-
of light from a mirror. In specular reflection, the incident sound
beam is reflected off the reflecting surface as per Snell 's law.
According to this law, the reflected beam makes the same angle with
orma (the normal to) the reflecting surface as the incident beam. In other
Incident eoun.:l
words, the angle of incidence (i) is equal to the angle of reflection
eoun.:l
(r), Figure 3.24.
Li = Lr For specular reflection to occur, the reflecting surface should be
"smooth". The word "smooth" here implies that surface texture and
3.24 Specular sound reflection. irregularities are much smaller than the wavelength of sound. Thus,
surfaces with recessed mortar joints in masonry walls and exposed
aggregates in a concrete wall behave as smooth walls, since their
irregularities are much smaller than the wavelength of sound of
interest to us.
0.3 m (1 ) t=
3.7 SOUND DIFFUSION It is obvious from the above discussion that if room boundaries consist
of sufficiently large surface irregularities, the sound field in such a
room will be diffuse. A perfectly diffuse sound field is defined as
one in which sound arrives at the listener from all possible directions
in equal strength, Figure 3 .27.
A perfectly diffuse sound field does not usually exist in a room
since the direct sound at most listeners' positions is stronger than the
reflected sound. However, an approximately diffuse sound field is
obtained in a room with highly reflecting surfaces at locations far
away from the source, because at these locations the reflected sound
predominates.
Sound diffusion is one of the important acoustical requirements
for rooms used for musical performances. A room with a few large
specularly reflecting surfaces, and which does not contain adequate
surface irregularities to diffuse sound, produces harsh reflections,
known as acoustic glare - an undesirable effect for music. On the
other hand, with adequate diffusion in the room, the listener receives
sound from various directions and has the feeling of being
"enveloped" by music - a desirable sensation for music (see Section
1 2.4.4).
Excessive diffusion, on the other hand, deprives the listener of
source localization, since in a diffuse field, the sound appears to
3.27 In a diffuse field, the sound arrives
come from all directions. Excessive diffusion is to be avoided in
at a listenerfrom all directions in equal rooms meant for speech, since in these rooms the sound must appear
strength. to come from the speaker.
50 Chapter 3
t l 5ound reft.,ctlng
!5urfac"
Pilasters, piers, balconies, exposed beams, coffered ceilings, and any
other surface ornamentation that scatters sound increase diffusion.
Sufficient diffusion, provided by extensive ornamentation and
ound alleorlllng maurlal
protruding balconies is considered to be one of the reasons for the
good acoustics of the some of the older symphony halls, such as
Symphony Hall in Boston, Figure 3.30.
3.29 Alternate application of sound
absorbing materals.
3.30 Symphony Hall, home of the Boston Symphony Orchestra. Courtesy of Boston Symphony Orchestra,
Boston, Massachusetts, with permission. Photo by Bradford Herzog.
52 Chapter 3
3.33 S o u n d foc us in g by a
concave surface.
3.8 SOUND DIFFUSERS When sufficient diffusion cannot be obtained by the methods
described previously, sound diffusers may be used to increase
diffusion in the room. A sound diffuser is a surface element that
produces diffuse reflection.
Any reflective surface with irregularities of size comparable to
the wavelength of sound will work as a diffuser. The greater the
randomness in surface irregularities and sizes, the better the diffuser.
Sound Reflection, Diffraction and Diffusion 53
3 Appendix D gives the reason for the term: quadratic residue diffuser.
54 Chapter 3
Thus, if two repetitions are used, the diffuser consists of two periods,
Figure 3.36. Each period4 consists of a certain number of wells
which must be a prime number5 (a number that is divisible only by 1
or itself). The diffuser can be designed to provide sound scattering
within any required frequency band.
Quadratic residue diffusers are commercially available, in wood
and masonry, and are commonly used to increase sound diffusion in
auditoriums, music halls and recording studios, Figures 3 . 37 and
3.38.
3.36 A horizontal cross-section through a 1 -d quadratic residue diffuser with two periods. Each
period consists of a number of wells of constant width but varying depths.
3.37 Quadratic residue diffuser (N 7) used in the control room of the recording studio
=
of Collin County Community College (Spring Creek Campus), Plano, Texas. The difuser
was supplied by RPG Diffusor Systems Inc., Upper Marlboro, Maryland. Acoustical
consultant: lames Johnson. Photo by Madan Mehta.
Sound Reflection, Diffraction and Diffusion 55
.. ...
...
...
..
3.38 Quadratic residue diffusers used in the rea wall ofthe orchestral platform ofFrits Philips Muziekcentrum,
Eindhoven, The Netherlands. Courtesy of RPG Diffusor Systems Inc., Upper Marlboro, Maryland, with
fermission.
5 Some examples of odd prime numbers are 3, 5, 7, 1 1 , 1 3 , 17, 23, 29, etc.
56 Chapter 3
Incident
IJI!il::::=-:'f-t4 Normal to
plane of
dlffueer
I -.,
I lmag: of eourc: \ 5R = RI
L Lletlln:r poeltlon \
5 5ourc: 900 \ 1 R:fl:ctor
1 \,
R
Rllfl:ctllel sound
Thus, to ensure that an echo does not occur, all that is necessary
is to check that (IL - SL) does not exceed 20 m at any listener position
in an auditorium.
Note that in locating the image of the source, it is not necessary
that the reflector must extend up to point R. In other words, point R
need not lie on the reflector for a source to produce its image behind
the reflector. The image of the source can be located by an imaginary
extension of the reflector up to point R, Figure 3.43.
Figure 3.43 also indicates the part of the reflector that will supply
reflected sound between two listener positions, L l and L2. Thus, we
3.43 Reflected soundfrom a reflector
see that it is reflector length PQ that is respons1ble for providing
that does not extend up to the source. reflected sound between listener positions L 1 and L2. If L 1 and L2
58 Chapter 3
3.10 FLUTTER ECHO If there are two parallel reflectors, we will obtain an infinite number
of images of the source since each image works as a source for the
other reflector. This may be confirmed by standing between two
parallel mirrors; an infinite number of images of the self will be seen.
The above fact implies that if a sound source is located between
two parallel reflecting walls, a listener will receive reflected sound
from an infinite number of images. This is simply another way of
stating that the sound will be reflected back and forth between two
parallel reflecting walls infinite number of times before exhausting
to inaudibility.
Now imagine a sound source (S) located between two reflective
parallel walls 1 5 m apart, as shown in Figure 3 .46. Obviously, this
situation produces an infinite number of images of the source. The
first-order images, images 11 and . are behind wall 1 and wall 2
respectively. The second order image, image 11 2, is the image of
image 11 and is formed behind wall 2. Image 121 is the image of
mage 12, behind wall l . Similarly, 1121 and 1212 represent third order
Images, and so on.
6 The image procedure for the study of reflected sounds is applicable only to a
planar reflector, not to a curved reflector. However, Snell's law is applicable to all
types of reflectors.
Sound Reflection, Diffraction and Diffusion 59
120 m
90 m
60 m
30 m
10 m 5m
+ +
1
0 0 0
1,2 12 s I,
Wall 2 Wall 1
4.1 RATING OF SOUND The standard method of rating the effectiveness of a sound absorbing
material is by its absorption coefficient, which has been defined in
ABSORBING Section 3 .1. The absorption coefficient of a material varies with the
MATERIALS angle of incidence of sound- the angle at which the sound strikes
the surface of the material. However in most rooms, the sound strikes
its surfaces from all angles with almost equal probability. Therefore,
we are usually interested in the random incidence absorption
coefficient1
61
62 Chapter 4
a a a
250 t.ooo 2.ooo
a +
+ 5 00 +
=
(4.1)
NRC
4
Frequency (Hz) a
125 0.16
250 0.31
500 0.52
1,000 0.83
2,000 0.9 1
4,000 0.97
(4.2)
(4.3)
where, S 1, S 2, S3, ... are the surface areas of the room, and a1, a2,
a , ... are their respective absorption coefficients (see also Section
3
1U.3).
LA (4.4)
=
St + Sz+ S3 +
LS
4.2 TYPES OF SOUND Sound absorbing materials may be classified under the following
ABSORBING
three types - a classification based on the mechanism by which
they absorb sound.
MATERIALS
Porous absorbers
Panel or membrane absorbers
Volume absorbers
64 Chapter 4
Solution: The area of walls= 2(25 x 6) + 2(20 x 6)= 540 m2. Therefore, the amount of sound absorption
provided by walls= (540)0.05 = 27.0 sabins.
Similarly the sound absorption provided by the ceiling= (25 x 20)0.6= 300 sabins, and that provided
by the floor = (25 x 20)0.1 = 50.0 sabins.
From Equation (4.3), the total absorption of the room= LA = 27.0 + 300.0 + 50.0 = 377.0 (metric)
sabins.
If the areas are expressed in square feet, the resulting absorption is in (ft) sabins. The reader may
confirm that this is equal to 377.0 x 10.76 = 4057 (ft) sabins.
Solution: From Example 4.1, LA= 377.0 sabins. The total surface area of room, LS= 540 + 500 + 500
= 1540.0 m2. Hence, from Equation (4.4),
377.0
= 0.25
1540.0
4.3 POROUS Almost any material whose surface is porous may be considered a
ABSORBERS
porous absorber. The porosity of the material may be either due to
the fibrous composition, or due to voids between granules or particles
of the material. Fiberglass and mineral wool2 are the most commonly
used porous absorbers. Other commonly used porous absorbers are
rigid mineral fiberboards with fissured or pierced surfaces - used
primarily as ceiling tiles in commercial interiors (see Section 4.9).
Wood fibers bonded with an inorganic hydraulic cement to form
rugged and high impact resistant boards is another type of porous
absorber (see Section 4.4.1).
A sound wave falling on a porous absorber causes the air in the
voids of the material to vibrate back and forth. As the air vibrates in
the voids, the vibrational energy of the air is converted into heat due
to friction between air particles and void walls.
For frictional losses to occur, it is important that the voids in the
material be interconnected and continuous so that the air can pump
back and forth within the material. Thus, only open-cell materials
can be good sound absorbers. Plastic foams such as expanded
2 Fiberglass and mineral wool are similar products, and are often used
interchangeably for sound absorption.
Sound Absorbing Materials 65
3 1 t
mt =
1/ 1,000 m.
.
66 Chapter 4
0.6
V
"i3
ii:
0
\) / Fll:>erglaee
I
u
s:::
0.4 I
0 Sul:>etrate ---j.,,....;;...,.
I:>.. I I
/ /
....
0
0.2
ID
< /
0 L_ _L__i__---L-
Frequency (Hz)
Part;lcle velocity
amplitude variation
Poroua abaorber
.... -
..
- 5ubatrate
.
.
.. .
. .. ..
.... . .
0.25A
5ubatrate
4.2 Particle velocity amplitude variation superimposed on a section through a wall covered with a porous
absorber.
Note from Figure 4.1 that for the commonly used thickness of
25 to 50 mm (1 to 2 in.), the absorption coefficient of a porous
absorber increases with frequency. For low frequencies, the absorber
thickness is small compared with 0.25A., giving a low value of a.
For high frequencies, the absorber thickness is comparable to 0.25A.,
Figure 4.3. At 100 mm (4 in.) thickness, a fiberglass blanket provides
fairly high values of a in both low and high frequency regions. A
200 mm (8 in.) thick fiberglass gives a virtually flat frequency-a
relationship.
The value of a may exceed 1.0. This apparent anomaly is due to
the diffraction of sound at the edges of the test sample- a peculiarity
of the test procedure for measuring the value of a. Values of a of up
to 1.3 may be obtained for thick porous absorbers. Since an a greater
than 1.0 means that more energy is absorbed than what falls on the
material (an obvious impossibility), it is a good practice to reduce it
to 1.0, or even 0.995.
Acouetlcally
.: 1.1
I
--
II
,. ..
25 mm (1 In.) :
flt1erglaee
j ____./_, /
25 mm (1 In.) :
:[ ...../ /
-- -----
air epace
.
./ J -_)3 .
0.5
/' /
0.:3 / / r-:=
/ / 25 mm (1 In.) =-
0.1 / /
flt1erglaee
V I I
4.4 The effect of cavity space on 125 250 500 1.000 2,000 4,000
frequency-a relationship of a 1 in. Frequency (Hz)
thickfiberglass blanket.
4.4 APPLICATIONS OF Porous absorbers such as fiberglass or mineral wool are commonly
POROUS ABSORBERS
used in low-height office partitions, and as wall- and ceiling-mounted
panels. In low-height partitions, Figure 4.5, relatively rigid, abuse
resistant, tackable, high density fiberglass (nearly 95 kg/m3 - 6 lb/
ft3) or wood fiberboards are used. A fabric wrapping provides a
decorative and protective finish over the absorber.
Medium density fiberglass (nearly 48 kg/m3- 3 lb/ft3) is semi
rigid. Typically, it is also fabric wrapped, but is used in protected
locations such as in ceiling suspended baffles, Figure 4.6. Ceiling
suspended baffles are particularly effective in spaces where a
conventional lay-in ceiling is impractical because of interference from
structural components, mechanical services, and other elements, or
where the ceiling is too high. By suspending the absorbers, they are
brought closer to the sound source, which improves their
effectiveness. Suspended baffles can be used in various different
arrangements, Figure 4.7.
Sound Absorbing Materials 69
=== ===
=== ====
=== ===
4. 7 A few alternative
arrangements of suspended Instead of two-dimensional baffles, suspended absorbers can also
baffles in plan. be made of hollow three-dimensional shapes, called space absorbers.
Almost any shape can be fabricated, some of which are shown in
Figure 4.8.
Since a sound wave falls on all surfaces of space absorbers or
suspended baffles, their absorbing property is usually quoted in terms
of the absorption (in sabins) provided by each unit at various
frequencies, not by the value of a.
The total absorption provided by a group of suspended absorbers
is not simply a product of the number of absorbers in a space and the
absorption provided by each unit. For example, if there are 50
suspended absorbers in a room each with an absorption of 15 sabins
at a particular frequency, the total absorption in the room may not be
equal to (50 X 15), i.e., 750 sabins, since the total absorption is also
a function of the spacing of absorbers. A minimum spacing between
absorbers is required to realize their full potential. Small spacings
yield lower than the calculated absorption, particularly at high
frequencies. Manufacturer's data should be obtained for precise
values.
Low density fiberglass (15 kg/m3 to 25 kg/m3 - 1 to 1.5 lb/ft3)
is available in roll or blanket form. Being flexible, it needs adequate
protection. Wood slats (see Figure 3.18), perforated metal panels,
or similar screens are commonly used for the purpose. Fabric
wrapped low density fiberglass can also be used in sound absorbing
banners, Figure 4.9.
4.9 Sound absorbing banners. Courtesy of Essi Acoustical Products Co., Cleveland, Ohio, with
permission.
Fil:lergiaaa
Perforated
aurface
4.10 Acoustical metal decks. Courtesy of Epic Metals Corporation, Rankin, Pennsylvania ( 1995 Epic
Metals Corporation, all rights reserved), with permission.
Roof meml:lrane
Lightweight concrete -
Vapor l:larrier -----,
Wood fil:lerl:loard -
I ---
(a) (b)
4.11 (a) Woodfiberboard. Samples courtesy of Tectum Inc., Newark, Ohio. Photo by Madan Mehta.
(b) The use of woodfiberboard as an acoustical roof deck.
Sound Absorbing Materials 73
4.5 PANEL ABSORBERS A solid unperforated panel installed against a hard substrate with an
intervening air space acts as a panel absorber or a membrane
absorber, Figure 4.12. When a sound wave falls on such a panel, it
sets the panel into vibration. Since the panel is never fully elastic, it
looses some energy by damping.
The vibration of the panel is similar to the vibration of a mass
attached to a spring, Figure 4.13. A mass-spring assembly looses
energy due to damping forces and gradually stops oscillating after
the exciting force is withdrawn. Precisely the same phenomenon
occurs in the panel, and the panel's vibration is influenced by damping
forces.
Damping is a measure of the resistance of a vibratory system to
sustain vibrations. In the case of a mass-spring assembly, the damping
is caused by the viscosity of the medium. The more viseous the
4.12 A solid unperforated medium, the greater the energy loss by damping, and the quicker the
panel against a hard substrate return of the system to a motionless state. Thus, the damping forces
are larger if the mass-spring assembly oscillates in an oil medium
with an intervening cavity.
rather than in air because of the greater viscosity of oil. Additional
damping in a mass-spring assembly is provided by frictional losses
at the surface on which the mass oscillates. Damping also exists
within the material of the spring.
For a given mass-spring assembly, damping forces increase as
the velocity of the mass increases[421. The velocity of the mass is
maximum at resonant frequency. Therefore, the damping forces have
the maximum effect at the resonant frequency. The resonant
frequency of a mass-spring assembly is equal to its natural frequency
- the frequency at which the mass will oscillate when pulled to one
4.13 A mass-spring assembly. side and, thereafter, left to oscillate on its own5 .
In the case of the panel, the damping is provided by the medium
and at its edge fixing. An additional source of damping exists within
the panel - in the material of the panel - which comes into play
due to bending vibrations in the panel. All materials have some
internal damping. Among panels used in buildings, steel and
aluminum have a low internal damping as compared with plywood
and gypsum board, while lead has the highest internal damping.
Since the damping forces are maximum at the resonant frequency
of the panel, a panel absorber has a maximum value of a at the
resonant frequency. On both sides of the resonant frequency, the
value of a decreases.
In our analogy between the mass-spring assembly and the panel
absorber, the panel represents the mass, and the air behind the panel
acts as the spring. A smaller depth of air behind the panel represents
natura/frequency, then the system vibrates with large displacement and velocity
periodically changing external force of the same frequency as the vibrating system's
rooms caused by standing waves (see Appendix C). Resonance is of interest not
only in acoustics but also in other fields. For example, flexible buildings (such as
high-rise structures) must be able to resist resonance effects resulting from
earthquake or wind force induced vibrations.
74 Chapter 4
fres =
1,900
(4.5)
.Jmd
where m is the mass of panel in kg/m2 and d is the air space behind
the panel in millimeters. In the U.S. system of units, the above
expression changes to:
fres =
170
(4.5')
.Jmd
fres =
1 900
= 85 Hz
.J (20)(25)
f-----+----+---+--1
r-f- With porou& at1eorl1er
0.6
'E
f- Without poroue at1eorber
0.5
\)
0 .4
...... ..
... ...
!F
.. ...
8 ....
0.3 ...,.,
..
.. .
v "'
5
l f----f-- ---""odl---
r----"'-.:-,,,,-
- ..,- ,, .--------j
. .
,........
0.2 .
,
---+-----1----4====::::;" ;,;....:.:::;, ..::.:;.:_;
. .;1"
4.1 4 A pproxi m ate frequency-a .. .. .
0.1
relationship of a 13 mm (112 in.) thick
fJlywood panel backed by 25 mm ( 1 in.)
125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000
Frequency (Hz)
air space -with and without a porous
ohsorber in the cavity. Adapted from
'-eference 4.4.
4.6 VOLUME The third and last class of absorbers is known as a volume absorber.
Various other terms used for this absorber are: cavity absorber, cavity
ABSORBERS resonator and Helmholtz resonator. This type of absorber consists
of a volume of air connected to the general atmosphere through a
small volume of air called the neck. A volume absorber is similar to
an open bottle where the volume of air in the bottle is connected to
the outside atmosphere through the air in the bottle's neck, Figure
4.15.
When a sound wave falls on an open bottle, the mass of air in
the neck oscillates back and forth, similar to the mass-spring
assembly. The air in the neck acts as the mass and the air in the body
of the bottle as the spring. As the air in the neck oscillates, it loses
4.15
energy by friction against the walls of the neck. The oscillation of
An open bottle as a the neck peaks at the resonant frequency of the bottle, which implies
volume absorber. that the sound absorption provided by the bottle is maximum at the
resonant frequency.
That an open bottle has a resonant frequency can be verified by
blowing across its neck. The bottle will always produce the same
pitch of sound regardless of who blows across it and how it is blown.
Usually, the resonant frequency of a bottle lies in the low frequency
region, and is given by the following expressions[45l.
55,000 s
fres (4.6)
Jv'V.
=
DD
an octave or so) by changing the width of the slot, its height and its
profile. Two profiles are commonly used - a rectangular profile
and a funnel-shaped profile, Figure 4.17. In fact, several different
types of acoustical blocks are available to suit different applications.
rD
.
6 The metal septum divides the cell cavity into two parts. In Chapter 5, we
will see why the low frequency sounds pass through the septum, but not the
high frequency sounds, which are reflected back by the septum. Consequently,
high frequency sounds do not see the cavity beyond the septum while the low
frequency sounds behave as if the septum does not exist. In other words, the
metal septum creates two resonating volumes: the smaller volume that extends
up to the septum only, and the larger volume that extends the entire depth of
the cell cavity.
Since the resonant frequency is indirectly proportional to the volume (V)
of the resonator, the smaller volume yields a higher resonant frequency. Without
the septum, this higher frequency resonance would be absent. Thus, the
provision of a septum broadens the frequency range of the acoustical block's
absorption.
78 Chapter 4
1.1 ,------,--r--.---,
0.9 1\\
''
.\.
---- --+--
0.7 ..\
..........
.
.. ..........
\ . ..
. . .-..-.. . . .. ./
.
Without fll:lroue flll:r
0.5 f--_l-\1---t---l----;;;..1-'. . - =
. - .."'"'1-- ..
With fll:lrou e flll:r
/
0.3 f-------+--
0.1 f-------+--
Frequency (Hz)
4.23 Approximate frequency-a relationships of an 8 in. thick 4.24 Clay sound absorbing units.
acoustical block with and without a fibrous filler. Adapted from Sample courtesy of Stark Ceramics Inc.,
Reference 4.8. Canton, Ohio. Photo by Madan Mehta.
80 Chapter 4
4.7 SCREENS AND Apart from providing a protective but acoustically transparent screen
over a porous absorber, a perforated panel also acts as an absorber in
PERFORATED PANELS its own right. When spaced away from a substrate, a perforated
AS ABSORBERS panel behaves as a large ensemble of cavity resonators. In this
ensemble, each hole behaves as the "neck" and the space behind the
panel functions as a set of connected air v olumes, Figure 4.25.
As observed in Section 3.5, perforated panels in aluminum, steel,
plywood and hardboard are commonly used. Apart from surface
density and depth of air space, the resonant frequency of a perforated
panel also depends on the percentage of open area ( optical
transparency). Like an individual resonator, the absorption coefficient
of a perforated panel peaks at its resonant frequency, which usually
lies in the low frequency region.
A perforated panel is seldom used alone. It is more commonly
used as a protective cover over a porous absorber. When used in this
way, the perforated panel improves the low frequency absorption of
a porous absorber because of the panel's own effectiveness as an
absorber at low frequencies. However, at high frequencies, the
perforated panel decreases the porous absorber's effectiveness due
to the lower acoustical transparency of the panel at high frequencies
(refer to Section 3.5). The effect of a perforated panel on the
absorption characteristics of a porous absorber is shown in qualitative
terms in Figure 4.26. For a precise data, refer to the manufacturer's
literature.
Rigid 17acklng
Perforated panel
Poroue
al1sorl1er only
Air cavity
4.8 MOUNTING Since a cavity space behind the absorber alters its absorption
coefficient, the absorption coefficient of a material depends on how
CONDITIONS it is mounted. Therefore, several mounting conditions have been
standardized. In comparing the absorption data of two materials, it
is important to ensure that the mounting conditions are the same.
Nine different mounting conditions, designated as mounting
types A, B, C, D, E, G, H, I and K, are identified in ASTM Standard
E 795[4-9l. Mounting types A, B, C D and E are for prefabricated
products, and are shown in Figure 4.27. Mounting types G and H
are for drapery, I for spray-on or trowel applied sound absorptive
treatment, and K for office screens.
Type C, D, E and G are further designated by a numerical suffix
which indicates the distance (in millimeters) of the absorbing material
from the substrate to the nearest integral multiple of 5 mm. Thus,
D-20 mounting indicates that there is a 20 mm air space behind the
sample.
5ubetrate
5ubetrate
5ubetrate
Type A mounting: elmulatee Type B mounting: elmulatee Type C mounting: elmulatee eound
normal uee where an abeorblng acouetlcal ceiling tllee adhered abeorblng material behind a
material le laid directly on, or to a hard eurface with an perforated, expanded or other open
attached with mechanical adhesive. facing, and attached to wood
faetenere to, a eubetrate. furring etrlpe. The preferred elzee
for furring &trlf'l' are 20 mm x 40
mm (
3/4 In. x 1112 In.) or 40 mm x
40 mm (1 1/2 In. x 1112 In.), I.e., either
C-20 or C-40 mounting.
Specimen
Mounting
depth
4.27 Mounting conditions A, B, C, D and E. For mounting conditions G, H, I and K, refer to ASTM Standard
E 795. Adapted from Reference 4.9.
Chapter 4
4.9 AC OUSTICAL TILE An acoustical tile ceiling, as shown in Figure 4.28, has become a
standard feature of most commercial, educational and institutional
CEILING interiors. An acoustical tile is a rigid board (usually of high density
fiberglass or mineral wool) fabricated in modular sizes, usually in
600mm x 600 mm (2ft x 2ft) or 600 mm x 1200 mm (2ft x 4ft)
units. Its thickness normally ranges from 13 mm to 40mm (112 in. to
11/2 in.) and it is simply laid-in on an aluminum supporting framework
suspended from the floor or roof.
Being made of a fibrous material, the absorption characteristics
of ceiling tiles correspond with those of a porous absorber. However,
since there is usually a large air space (plenum) above the ceiling,
the tiles also behave somewhat as panel absorbers. In other words,
the sound absorption characteristics of a prefabricated tile ceiling
combines the characteristics of a porous absorber as well as a panel
absorber. Manufacturers of these systems provide the values of a as
a function of frequency in addition to the NRC data.
r -
I
'I
'r
- .-
4.29 Commonly used surface textures of ceiling tiles. Courtesy of Celotex Corporation, Tampa, Florida, with
fermission.
4. 11 AUDIENCE AND In addition to the absorption provided by room surfaces, two other
sources of absorption in the room are: occupancy absorption an d
AIR ABSORPTION IN absorption provided by the air in the room. The occupancy absorption
HALLS consists of absorption provided by the furniture (seats in an
auditorium) and human beings.
1 l
!
1 -i-o---
-+-
4.30 Audience area used in
:'"L''''''''''''''''''''':
etrlp added to eeatlng
----------------------- -'--
block
o.5 m
Audience on heavily upholstered seats 0.76 0.83 0.88 0.91 0.91 0.89
Audience on medium upholstered seats 0.68 0.75 0.82 0.85 0.86 0.86
Audience on lightly upholstered seats 0.56 0.68 0.79 0.83 0.86 0.86
Unoccupied heavily upholstered seats 0.72 0.79 0.83 0.84 0.83 0.79
Unoccupied medium upholstered seats 0.56 0.64 0.70 0.72 0.68 0.62
Unoccupied lightly upholstered seats 0.35 0.45 0.57 0.6 1 0.59 0.55
The air also absorbs sound, but air absorption is significant only at
high frequencies - 2,000 Hz and above. The air absorption (Aair) is
Tabl e 4.2 Air Attenuation
given by:
Coefficient (m) Aair = mV
Frequency Attenuation coefficient where V is the volume of the room in m3 (or ft3 ), and m is the air
(kHz) Sabins/m Sabins/ft attenuation coefficient, expressed in sabins/m (or sabins/ft). The
value of m is a function of the relative humidity of air, but for a
relative humidity of 40% to 60% (commonly obtained in climate
2 0.009 0.003 controlled interiors), the values of m, as given in Table 4.2 14- 11 1 , may
4 0.025 0.008 be used. Thus, if the volume of a hall is 6,000 m3 , the absorption
8 0.080 0.025 provided by the room's air at 4 kHz = 0.025(6,000) = 150 (metric)
sabins.
86
REFERENCES 4.1 Harris, Cyril: Noise Control in Buildings, McGraw Hill Inc., New York,
1 994, pp. 3.59 and 3.64
4.2 Kinsler, Lawrence, and Frey, Austin: Fundamentals ofAcoustics, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1962, p. 1 8.
4.3 Parkin, P. H., et a!: Acoustics, Noise and Buildings, Faber and Faber
Publishers, London, 1979, p. 50.
4.4 Cracker, M. J., and Price A. J.: Noise and Noise Control, Volume I ,
CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio, 1 975, p . 2 1 7 .
4.5 Harris, Cyril: Noise Control in Buildings, McGraw Hill Inc., New York,
1 994, p. 3 . 3 1 .
4.6 Mehta, M. : Sound Diffusion, Reverberation and Non-uniformAcousticaJ
Boundaries, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Liverpool, United Kingdom,
1 974, p. 3 .
4.7 Cracker, M. J., and Price A. J.: Noise and Noise Control, Volume I ,
CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio, 1 975, p . 2 1 9 .
4.8 Proudfoot Company's literature.
4.9 American Society for Testing and Materials: "Standard Practices for
Mounting Test Specimens During Sound Absorption Tests", E-795-93.
4.10 Beranek, L. L. : Concert and Opera Halls - How They Sound, The
Acoustical Society of America, Woodbury, New York, 1 996, p. 62 1 .
4.11 Harris, Cyril: Noise Control in Buildings, McGraw Hill Inc., New York,
1 994, p. 4.7.
Princi pies of
Airborne Sound
Insulation
5.1 AIRBORNE AND In discussing sound insulation in buildings, we must first distinguish
between airborne sound and structure-borne sound. Most sounds
STRUCTURE-BORNE in buildings are airborne sounds, such as the sounds generated by
SOUNDS human conversation and musical instruments, Figure 5.1. Fans,
motors, machinery, airplanes, and automobiles are some of the other
sources that produce airborne sound.
Structure-borne sound is produced by an impact of some sort on
building elements - walls, floors, roofs, etc. The impact causes
building elements to vibrate, and as they vibrate, they radiate sound.
Since it is impact related, structure-borne sound is also referred to as
87
88 Chapter 5
(( (
5.4 Structure-borne and airborne
sounds from a floor-mounted machine.
5.2 SOUND In Section 3.1, we defined transmission coefficient 't as that fraction
of incident sound energy that is transmitted through a component.
TRANSMISSION LOSS Thus, if 't is 0.2, the transmitted sound is 20% of the incident sound.
't = 0 means that no sound is transmitted through the component. 't
= 1 implies that the component is acoustically transparent since all
sound is transmitted through it, e.g. an open window.
The values of 't for commonly used walls and floors varies from
2
approximately w- to w-8. For instance, for a 1/4 in. thick glass
sheet, 't is nearly 7.8x10-4 , and for a 6 in. thick concrete slab, 't is
approximately 6.3x10-6. Since these are rather awkward numbers,
the transmission property of a component is given by a quantity
referred to as the sound transmission loss or simply the transmission
loss (TL), which is defined as:
1
TL 10 log (5.1)
T
=
Sound preeeure
TL =
SPLeo rce eide - SPLrecelver elde level =90dB
u
SOURCE SIDE
Determine the transmission loss of: (i) a 6 mm (1/4 in.) thick glass sheet for which t=7.8 x 104 , and (ii)
for a 150 mm (6 in.) thick concrete slab for which t=6.3 x 106.
Solution: (i) From Equation (5.1), TL=10 log [11(7.8 x 104)]=10 log (1,282)= 31 dB.
(ii) TL=10 log [11(6.3 X 10"6)]=10 log (158,730)=52 dB.
Determine the value oft for a component whose (i) TL=30 dB, (ii) TL=60 dB, and (iii) TL=36 dB.
Solution: (i) 30=10 log (1/'t). Hence, log (1/t)=3.0. 1/t=103 , or t=103 = 0.001
(ii) 60=10 log (1/t). Hence, log (lit)=6.0. 1/t=106, or t=106 = 0.000 001
(iii) 36=10 log (lit). Hence, log (lit)= 3.6. t= w-3 6' i.e., t=2.5 X 10"4 = 0.00025
5.3 SOUND Since a thick porous absorber provides high sound absorption, one
might assume that it can also provide a high transmission loss. After
ABSORPTION AND all, if most of the sound is absorbed by the absorber, there is little
SOUND INSULATION left to go through it. The fact, however, is that in spite of its high
absorption, the transmission loss of a porous absorber, even a thick
one - say a 100 mm (4 in.) thick fiberglass blanket- is extremely
small. The reason lies in the fact that the absorption coefficient (a)
is expressed on a linear scale, while the TL i s expressed
logarithmically.
For instance, the value of a for a 100 mm (4 in.) thick fiberglass
blanket at high frequencies is approximately 0.95, that is 95% of
incident sound is absorbed by fiberglass. This gives a transmission
coefficient (t) equal to (1 - 0.95) =0.05. Therefore from Equation
(5.1), the TL of a 100 mm thick fiberglass blanket is approximately
13 dB, which is extremely low3 . By comparison, the TL of a 6 mm
(1I4 in.) thick glass sheet is 31 dB, as shown in Example 5.1. A 13
mm cit in.) thick gypsum board provides a TL of nearly 30 dB.
In Tact, the TL of a porous material, regardless of its high
absorption, is relatively low. For example, the TL of a 100 mm (4
in.) thick fiberglass blanket- even of high density - is 4 to 5 dB at
low frequencies. As a general rule, if air can pass through a material,
so can sound. Since, a porous absorber lets air through, it is a poor
sound insulator. Thus, for a material to be a good sound insulator, it
must be of impervious and airtight construction. As we will see in
Section 5.8, even a small void or penetration in an otherwise highly
sound insulating construction can degrade its TL substantially.
5.4 SINGLE-LEAF Building panels usually consist of several (layers) leaves of different
materials. For example, a typical lightweight wall consists of two
PANEL- THE MASS leaves of gypsum board, one on each side of a cavity space formed
LAW by the studs. We shall refer to a panel with two or more leaves as a
multi-leaf panel. On the other hand, a brick wall or a concrete slab,
since it consists of one leaf of the same material, is referred to as a
single-leaf panel.
If a single-leaf panel behaves as if it is composed of several
interconnected parts, which oscillate independent of each other under
the influence of sound pressure fluctuations, as shown in Figure 5.6,
it can be shown mathematically that the TL of such an idealized
panel is given by:
(5.2)
(5.2')
5.6 The vibrations in a barrier that
obeys the mass law behave as if the
barrier consists of several independent
In other words, if a single-leaf panel behaves as an ensemble of
but connected parts - a limp mass irtdependent parts, its TL is directly proportional to its surface mass
model. In an ideal limp panel, while and sound frequency. That is, the TL increases with an increase in
one part of the panel may be vibrating, the surface mass of the panel and also with an increase in sound
the other parts may be stationary. frequency. Since the quantity [20 log (2)] is equal to 6, Equation
(5.2) shows that doubling the surface mass or doubling the frequency
gives a 6 dB increase in the TL of a panel. This is called the mass
law. Thus, according to the mass law, if a 50 mm (2 in.) thick panel
has a TL of 37 dB at certain frequency, a 100 mm (4 in.) thick panel
of the same material and at the same frequency will have a TL of 43
dB, a 200 mm (8 in.) thick panel will have a TL of 49 dB, and so on,
Figure 5.7. Example 5.3 illustrates the use of Equations (5.2) and
(5.2').
37 dB 43dB 49 dB 55dB
Example 5.3 - Transmission Loss of a Single Leaf Barrier That Obeys the Mass Law
Using the mass law, determine the TL of (i) a 50 mm in. thick concrete panel at 500 Hz and 1 kHz, and
(ii) an 8 in. thick concrete panel at 500 Hz. The density of concrete=2,400 kg/m3 (150 lb/ft3).
Solution: (i) Since the density of concrete is 2,400 kg/m3, the surface mass (m) of 50 mm thick concrete
panel=2,400 x 0.05=120 kg/m2. Hence, from Equation 5.2,
(ii) For an 8 in. thick panel, m=100 lb/ft2. From Equation (5.2'),
TL500 =20 log [500 x 100]- 33=20 log [50,000]- 33=61 dB.
Note that we could have obtained the same result from (i) above by using the fact that doubling the
surface mass gives a 6 dB increase in TL. Thus, a 4 in. thick concrete panel would give a TL of (49 +
6)=55 dB, and an 8 in. thick panel would give a TL of (55 + 6) =61 dB.
5.5 SINGLE-LEAF The mass law is based on the assumption that each part of the panel
oscillates independent of the other as if it slides past its neighbors
PANEL- THE without affecting them in any way. Indeed this is possible only if
COINCIDENCE EFFECT the panel has zero stiffness, i.e., it is a completely inelastic (or a
limp) element. That is why the mass law is also referred to as the
limp mass law.
A real panel is not limp. The individual parts of a real panel are
by no means independent of each other, but are coupled to each other
by elastic forces. Therefore, the bending of one part of the panel
leads to the propagation of a bending wave in the panel. In other
words, the stiffness of the panel resulting from its elastic
interconnections among parts affects its transmission loss.
The stiffness of the panel reduces its TL, i.e., the stiffer the panel,
the smaller its TL. For example, Figure 5.8 shows the TL-frequency
relationship of two plywood panels with equal surface mass. The
grooved panel, because of its lower stiffness, gives a higher TL.
For most materials, surface mass and stiffness are related
quantities. For example, if the surface mass of a panel of a given
material is increased by increasing its thickness, its stiffness also
Frequency
increases. Since the increases in surface mass and stiffness have
opposite effects on a panel's TL, the mass law is not completely
valid fo1 a real panel. Deviation from the mass law is further
5.8 Approximate TL-frequency accentuated by the energy-absorbing property (damping) of a panel.
relationships of solid and grooved In other words, the transmission loss of a single leaf panel is not
plywood panels of equal surface mass. simply a function of the mass of the panel alone, but of the following
Adapted from Reference 5.1. three factors:
94 Chapter 5
Mass
Stiffness
Damping
Low damping
--
EKtent>lon of ___
-- Medium damping
the mat>e; law _ _ .. --- ::
.
Large damping
----- __
Ill
Ill
..9
s:::
0
'iii
Ill
.E
Ill
s:::
REGION I REGION 11
MASS STIFFNESS
CONTROLLED CONTROLLED
4 The transmission loss through a panel is also a function of the angle of incidence
of sound. The discussion presented here is for diffuse incidence since it is this
that is relevant in buildings.
5 At extremely low frequencies, which are usually not encountered in building
noise problems, the TL increases with decreasing frequency . This region is to the
left of Region 1 in Figure 5.9. For a more comprehensive treatment of TL
frequency relationship, see Reference 5.2.
principles of Airborne Sound Insulation 95
1
Coincidence frequency oc
Panel thickness
Plywood ---.:=...
Damping laminate
Plywood
5.6 TRANSMISSION Since the average increase in TL of a single-leaf panel is only about
5 dB per doubling of panel thickness, the law of diminishing returns
LOSS OF A TWO-LEAF applies here. For instance, the average TL of a 100 mm (4 in.) thick
PANEL brick wall is 40 dB. To obtain a 5 dB increase in TL, we need a 200
mm (8 in.) thick brick wall. A further increase of 5 dB requires a
400 mm (16 in.) thick wall. Since weight and thickness of elements
are important considerations in contemporary construction, the TL
-
of a single-leaf panel reaches a practical limit fairly rapidly.
If, however, a panel is constructed of two separate leaves with
n_"
an intervening cavity, its TL is higher than that provided by a single
40 ,.
100mm ( 4 In.)
"'"""
200 mm (8 In.)
leaf panel of equivalent weight. For example a brick wall, with two
100 mm (4 in.) thick leaves separated by a cavity, has a higher TL
than a 200 mm (8 in.) thick wall although their weights are the same.
THICK BRICK WALL THICK BRICK WALL
10 '---'-----"----'---_L____L_---'---"---'-'---.J
125 250 500 1.000 2,000 4,000
Frequency (Hz)
Surface mass: This should be maximized as much as
possible.
Stiffness: Although it is usually difficult to control the
stiffness of panels it is important to remember that materials
of low stiffness provide a higher TL.
Decoupling of leaves: This is the single most important factor
affecting the TL of a two-leaf panel. In a wood or metal
stud assembly, decoupling is achieved by using two separate
stud walls or a resilient channel, or both; see Section 6.5 for
details. In brick cavity walls, the ties should be as lightweight
and flexible as structurally permitted.
Porous Absorber in Cavity: A layer of porous absorber in
the cavity improves TL, provided that the leaves are
adequately decoupled.
Dissimilar leaves: Using leaves of either different material
or different thickness improves the TL of the panel.
5.7 PANELS OF THREE The reasons that account for the higher TL of a two-leaf panel over
a single-leaf panel are the very reasons that account for the
OR MORE LEAVES improvement of a three-leaf panel over a two-leaf panel. In fact,
one can go on adding more and more leaves to improve the TL of a
panel. Cost, weight and space are usually the limiting factors.
Additionally, double cavity resonances are hard to predict. That is
why the use of a three-leaf panel (two cavity spaces) is rare except
in glazed windows7.
7 The primary reason for using a triple glazed window is to obtain a high R
value, not a high sound transmission loss. The R-value of a construction
assembly is an index of its thermal performance; refer to a book on building
construction, e.g., Madan Mehta: Principles ofBuilding Construction, Prentice
Hall, 1997.
,nnciples of Airborne Sound Insulation 101
5.8 SOUND For most critical sound insulation problems, a detailed TL-frequency
relationship of a panel is required. However, a TL-frequency
TRANSMISSION CLASS relationship is not easily amenable to comparing the insulating
effectiveness of various panels. For this purpose, a single number
rating of a panel's TL is desirable.
Obviously, one way to obtain a single number TL rating is to
average the TL values of a panel at various frequencies. But an
average value is usually misleading since it ignores the high and low
8
points in a relationship . A single number TL rating that addresses
the above concerns is called the sound transmission class (STC).
To obtain the STC of a panel, we first obtain the measured TL
frequency data of the panel. The TL of a panel is measured in a set
up consisting of two reverberation chambers (see Figure 3 . 28),
sharing a common wall, as per ASTM standard E 90[571. The
common wall has an opening in which the test panel is installed,
Figure 5. 15, and fully sealed along its perimeter. One of the two
rooms is the source room, and the other the receiving room. The
construction of the two room set-up is such that the sound will go
mainly through the test panel, not through other paths. In other words,
the flanking transmission (see Section 6.6) is minimal.
A broad-band noise is generated in the source room with the
help of loudspeakers, and the noise levels in both rooms are
simultaneously measured in one-third octave bands. The difference
between the two corresponding levels is the TL of the panel9.
The TL-frequency relationship of the the panel (in sixteen one
third octave bands from 1 25 Hz to 4 kHz) is now plotted with
frequency on the horizontal axis and the TL on the vertical axis. The
STC of the panel is obtained by comparing the measured TL values
of the panel with a standard TL-frequency relationship, called the
- Teet panel
SOURCE RECEIVING
ROOM ROOM
oudepeaker
5.15 Set-up for measuring the TL of a
panel. D 1!:Meaeurln{!
(\Uipment
8 See section entitled "STC Value From Transmission Loss Data" at the end of
this chapter.
9 The TL of the test panel, when obtained by this procedure, is also a function
of the area of the panel and the amount of absorption present in the receiving
room; see Equation (8.4), Section 8.5.
1 02 Chapter 5
STC contour. The STC contour consists of three straight line parts
with different slopes. The first part has a total rise of 15 dB, the
second part has a rise of 5 dB and the third part is flat, Figure 5.16,
which approximately simulates the sensitivity of human ear.
The STC contour is drawn on a separate transparent sheet. The
divisions on the horizontal and vertical axes of the STC contour must
be the same as those of the TL-frequency relationship. The STC
contour is now laid over the measured TL-frequency relationship of
the panel in such a way that the vertical axes of both the STC and
TL-frequency plot are aligned. The contour is now moved as far up
as possible until the following two conditions are satisfied[5.81:
The sum of deficiencies of TL at 16 frequencies do not exceed
32 dB -an average of 2 dB per one-third octave.
The maximum deficiency at any point should not exceed 8
dB.
Both the above conditions must be satisfied, and when they are,
the STC of the panel is the TL value at 500 Hz on the STC contour.
The STC of a panel is given in a whole number and the unit "dB" is
omitted. Thus, a panel is rated as STC 41, not 41 dB. The greater
the STC value, the more insulating the panel. The method of
determining the STC of a panel is explained with the help of an
example at the end of this chapter.
Like all single number ratings, STC has its limitations. First, it does
not give any idea as to the magnitudes and locations of dips in the
TL of the panel. Second, it is limited to the 125 Hz to 4 kHz region
- the frequency region of speech. There are several indoor noise
situations that extend beyond this frequency range (e.g., music) to
which STC is not fully applicable. Despite its limitations, STC is a
convenient measure to rank order the airborne TL of panels. The
TL-frequency data of commonly used panels and their STC ratings
are given in Appendix J.
1 dB per one
third octave
m :3 dB per one- 5dB
- third octave
Ill
Ill
_Q
<::
0
ii'i 15dB
Ill
e:
Ill
<::
<1:1
.....
1-
5.9 OVERALL Most panels are an assemblage of two or more panels with different
TL (or STC) values. For example, a wall assembly usually consists
TRANSMISSION LOSS of openings - doors and windows. The openings generally do not
OF AN ASSEMBLY have the same TL as the wall. Similarly, a roof may have skylights
of a lower TL value than the roof. How do we determine the overall
TL of an assembly, which consists of two or more panels of different
TL values?
The problem can be solved using Table 5 .2, which is based on
the mathematical formulation of Appendix F. Table 5.2 assumes
that an assembly consists of two panels, the main wall and an opening.
5m To use the table, use the following three steps.
1 Oponlne ._
Openlng'e n.
=
=
10%
20 dB
Calculate the opening area as a percentage of the total wall
area. For example, if the wall has overall dimensions of 5 m
x 3 m, of which the opening measures 1 .5 m x 1 m, the
opening area is 1 0% of the total wall area ..
Determine the difference between the TL of the wall and the
opening. Assume that the wall ' s TL = 30 dB and the
opening's TL = 20 dB , as shown in Figure 5 . 1 7 . The
Wall'e TL 30 dB
=
difference between the two TL values is (30 - 20) = 1 0 dB .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 1.0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 3 2.0 1.0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 4 2.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 0 0
5 5 3.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0
..
l 6
7
6
7
4.0
5.0
2.0
2.5
1.0
1.5
0.5
1.0
0
0.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8 8 6.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 0 0 0 0
9 9 6.5 4.0 2.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 0 0 0
I
The overall TL does not change significantly, or not at all, if
we make the acoustically "strong" part of the wall stronger.
11=201 ] I
[:] 11 1
TL = 20 = 20
B dB
Lw.u n. = 30dB Lw.u n. = 40dB Lw.u TL =50dB Wall TL =6 0dB
,-- 0v<'rsll n. of
1
aee<'m"ly
iOw
I--
20 L_ l________ ._ ---------------
___
n. of op<'nlne
20 30 40 50 60
TL of wall (dB)
(e)
5.18 Overall TL values of a wall assembly with different TL values of wall TL, but the same TL of opening.
Principles of Airborne Sound Insulation 105
Solution: Since Table 5.2 can be used only for a two-component assembly, we must first determine the
effect of the window, and subsequently that of the door. The difference between the wall's TL and the
window's TL = 35 dB . The window occupies 10% of the total wall area. Reading under the 10%
column in Table 5 .2, the reduction in TL is 25 dB (obtained by approximate interpolation). Thus, the
overall TL of the wall and the window is (55 - 25) = 30 dB.
Now combine this TL of 30 dB with the door's TL of 25 dB . The difference between the two TL
values is 5 dB. The area of door is 1 2% of the total wall area. Hence, the reduction at 1 2% of the
opening area is approximately 1 dB . Thus, the overall TL of the entire wall is (30 - 1 ) = 29 dB .
10 m
5.10 SOUND LEAKS AND A sound leak, or simply a leak, is an unintentional gap in the panel.
Since sound will pass through a leak uninterrupted, the TL of a leak
FLANKING is zero. Even a small leak area can reduce the transmission loss of a
TRANSMISSION panel substantially, because of diffraction effects (see Section 3 .4. 1 ) .
For example, assume that a 1 m x 2 . 1 m (3.3 ft x 7 ft door) with a TL
of 30 dB , has a 1 0 mm e18 in.) gap at the bottom of the door. The
percentage area of this gap is approximately 0.5%, obtained by
dividing the area of the gap by the area of the door. How much will
this tiny gap reduce the TL of the door?
The answer is found from Table 5.2. Since the TL of the gap is
[Q zero, the difference between the TL of the door and the gap is 30 dB .
30 Reading under the opening area of 0.5% in Table 5 .2, we find that
....
0
0
the door's TL has been reduced by 8 dB , i.e., the effective TL of the
'3
door is (30 - 8) = 22 dB . If we increase the TL of the door to 40 dB ,
......-
.....
0
20 keeping the same gap size, will it improve the effective TL of the
_J
1-
V
0 door? Very little, because, from Table 5.2, the reduction in TL with
:>
.,i:i a 40 dB door is 1 7 dB , which gives the effective TL of the door as 23
u
0 10
dB . If the door 's TL is increased further to 50 dB, we find that the
.....
..... 20 30 40 50
UJ effective TL of the door remains constant at 23 dB, Figure 5 . 1 9 .
TL of door without leak (dB) In summary therefore, a sound insulating construction must be
as airtight as possible. The sealing of gaps and penetrations is more
important in the case of a panel with a high TL (or STC) because the
5.19 Effective TL of a door with a 0. 5% reduction (in TL) increases with increasing TL of the panel, as
gap at the bottom of the door. indicated by the example just given.
106 Chapter 5
If there are any unintentional gaps such as at the top, bottom and
sides of a barrier, they should be sealed with a sealant over the entire
perimeter. Electrical and telephone outlets, switches, wall fixtures,
etc. - in fact all penetrations through the panel - must be sealed.
Doors and windows must be gasketed. Doors should be provided
with a threshold to seal the space under the door. Masonry mortar
joints must be completely filled, and if possible masonry walls should
be painted. Painting is particularly important in the case of concrete
masonry because of the porous structure of the units.
The extent of required sealing and the resulting benefits are
shown in Figure 5.20. Note that in the case of a light frame wall, all
that is needed is one seal at each face, provided each seal is installed
properly. However, two seals on each side of the wall will provide
redundancy, which is often desirable. Practical aspects of sealing
gaps in walls, doors, and windows are discussed in Chapter 6.
I J
Unsealed One eeslln!! 11esd Two eeslln!! 11esde Four eeslln!! 11esde
5.20 Vertical section through a metal stud wall assembly showing the effect of sealing the peripheral gap on
the STC of a partition. Adapted from Reference 5. 9.
Floor
Floor -
5.11 LABORATORY STC The STC data of various construction types, given in Appendix J,
has been obtained from laboratory measurements. In laboratory STC
VERSUS FIELD STC measurements, all leaks around the test specimen are carefully sealed
and flanking transmis sion virtually eliminated. In an actual
construction, however, the sealing is not as good as in the laboratory,
leading to the presence of a certain degree of flanking transmission.
Consequently, laboratory STC values are not usually realized in
the field. Measurements of STC of panels in the field (called the
field STC, abbreviated as FSTC) have been reported to be much lower
than the laboratory STC values. In some situations, FSTC may be
as much as 1 5 dB lower than the STC. However, with a good quality
control at the construction site to ensure that all leaks have been
sealed and flanking transmission reduced, FSTC is usually 5 to 8
FSTC "' STC - (5 to 8) points lower than STC. That is, if the STC of a panel is 50, the
FSTC will be between 42 and 45.
The FSTC of a panel is obtained in the same way as the STC
"' implies "approximately
except that in the case of FSTC, the TL-frequency data of the panel
equal to".
is obtained from field mea surements , instead of laboratory
measurements, as is the case for STC. The FSTC of a panel is
5
measured according to the ASTM E 336 procedure l 10l .
5.12 CEILING SOUND Most commercial buildings have an uninterrupted plenum space
(space between the floor and the ceiling) to allow air conditioning
TRANSMISSION CLASS ducts and other building services to run through continuously.
Lightweight partitions simply terminate flush with the ceiling, or
penetrate the ceiling by a few centimeters, as shown in Figure 5.22.
In rare cases, such as the walls enclosing a toilet, a mechanical room,
or a room where a high degree of acoustical privacy is required, the
walls extend up to the floor or the roof above.
Where partitions do not extend up to the floor or the roof, the
transmission loss of the ceiling becomes an important factor in
providing sound insulation between adjacent rooms. As discussed
in Section 4.9, the ceiling in commercial buildings is generally made
of a porous material to provide needed sou n d abs orption.
Consequently, the ceiling 's TL is low.
To improve the ceiling 's TL, several manufacturers make ceiling
tiles with a back coating of an impervious laminate, such as an
aluminum foil bonded to the back of the tiles, to increase their
transmission loss. One manufacturer makes a ceiling tile consisting
of fiberglass bonded to a backing of a gypsum board. The impervious
layer improves the ceiling 's TL at the cost of a small reduction in its
absorption.
A single number index of ceiling transmission loss is called
ceiling sound transmission class (CSTC). The CSTC of a given
ceiling is measured by a two-room method in which one room is the
source room and the other, a receiver room. The measurements are
made at the same frequencies as the STC. However, unlike STC,
CSTC is expressed in groups, where the group width is 5 dB, such
as 24 to 29, 30 to 34, 35 to 39, etc. A ceiling whose CSTC is 36 is
classified as CSTC 35. A ceiling whose CSTC is 39 is also classified
as CSTC 35. Thus, CSTC 35 means that the ceiling 's STC lies
between 35 to 39. The higher the CSTC, the more sound insulating
the ceiling is.
A ceiling with a high NRC (0.95 to 1 .05) has a fairly low CSTC
(nearly 25). The maximum CSTC of commercially available
Principles of Airborne Sound Insulation 109
5.13 OUTDOOR-INDOOR Another single number index used i n comparing the T L of panels is
called the outdoor-indoor transmission class (OITC). The purpose
TRANSMISSION CLASS of OITC is to compare the airborne sound insulation of building
facades (including walls, doors, windows and their combinations)
with respect to outdoor noise. The outdoor noise spectrum used in
determining OITC is the average of three transportation noises -
aircraft, railroad and automobile.
The determination of OITCl51 21 of a component or assembly
follows a simple procedure and is similar to the calculation of dBA
levels from dB levels (see Example 2. 1). OITC is determined using
the same TL data as that used for STC, except that OITC includes
data that extends from 80 Hz to 4 kHz, while the data for STC extends
from 1 25 Hz to 4 kHz. Both STC and OITC use one-third frequency
band data. The greater the value of OITC, the more insulating the
assembly.
The reason for extending the data down to 80 Hz in the case of
OITC is that the transportation noise is rich in the low frequency
range. Therefore, OITC is recognized as a better single number
rating of building envelope elements than STC. STC is a good
index for speech, radio, television, and similar sources of noise,
commonly obtained in residential and commercial buildings. For
other noises, such as machinery, manufacturing processes, bowling
alleys, music, etc., the detailed (one-third octave) TL data should be
examined.
1 10 Chapter 5
This section illustrates the procedure of determining the STC of a panel from its measured TL data with
the help of the following example.
Assume that the measured TL values of a panel at sixteen one-third octave bands are as follows:
1 25 22 800 28
1 60 25 1 ,000 33
200 26 1 ,250 38
250 28 1 ,600 42
315 30 2,000 45
400 32 2,500 48
500 34 3,200 51
630 35 4,000 54
To determine the STC of the panel, we first plot the above frequency-TL relationship to a suitable
scale as shown in Figure A (facing page). We next draw the STC contour on a separate transparent
sheet to the same scale as the frequency-TL relationship, and overlay it on the above relationship.
The STC contour is now moved as far up as possible until it satisfies the two conditions described
in Section 5.8, which are reproduced here for convenience.
The sum of deficiencies of TL at 16 frequencies should not exceed 32 dB, and
The maximum deficiency at any point should not exceed 8 dB.
The location of STC contour shown in Figure A satisfies these two conditions. We note that the
deficiencies occur at the frequencies shown in the following table. A deficiency is defined as any point
on the TL-frequency relationship that is below the STC contour. Any point above the contour is not a
deficiency, and therefore a value of zero has been entered in the following table against those frequencies.
1 25 0 800 8
1 60 0 1 ,000 4
200 0 1 ,250 0 Sum of deficiencies = 1 3 dB
250 0 1 ,600 0
315 0 2,000 0
400 1 2,500 0
500 0 3,200 0
630 0 4,000 0
Reading the STC value at 500 Hz, we observe that it is 34. Hence, this panel is rated as STC
34.
The location of the STC contour in this example has been governed by an 8 dB deficiency
at 800 Hz - not by the sum of deficiencies - since the sum ( 1 3 dB) is well below the maximum
permissible value of 32 dB . In a TL-frequency relationship that does not have a major dip, the
sum of deficiencies governs the location of the STC contour, as shown in Figure B . Note that
the average TL of the panels of Figures A and B are nearly the same, yet the two panels have
different STC values.
Principles of Airborne Sound Insulation 111
:30
3
IS)
]
c:
c
FIGURE A ii\ 20
IS)
The placement of the 5TC contour .E
i:ly 8 dB
IS)
hae Peen eovenned c:
(IS
deficiency at a frequency (000 ....
1-
Hz).
10 L-----
Frequency (Hz)
30
3
IS)
IS)
.2
c:
FIGURE B
c
'ii\ 20
IS)
The placement of the 5TC contour .E
hae Peen eovenned i:ly the eum of IS)
c:
deflclenclee at all frequenclee.
1-
Frequency (Hz)
112 Chapter 5
The numerical procedure for determining the STC is easier, and is amenable to computerization.
However, unlike the graphical procedure, it does not give a clear insight into what is being achieved.
The procedure consists of the following steps and is explained with reference to the same data that was
used for the graphical procedure.
enter zero in column 5; if negative enter the actual value. Th1s value is called the deficiency.
Step 7: Add all the deficiencies. If the sum of deficiencies is less than or equal to 32, stop here
and our STC trial is the STC of the component. If the sum is greater than 32, repeat step 6
by choosing TCtrial as one below the previously chosen value.
In this example, the sum of deficiencies is 13, which is less than 32. Therefore, the STC of this component
is 34. However, if the sum of deficiencies was greater than 32, we would have then chosen STCtrial =
33, and repeated step 6, until the sum of deficiencies was less than or equal to 32.
1 2 3 4 5
1 25 22 16 38 0
160 25 13 38 0
200 26 10 36 0
250 28 7 35 0
315 30 4 34 0
400 32 1 33 -1
500 34 0 34 0
630 35 -1 34 0
800 28 -2 @ -8
1,000 33 -3 30 -4
1,250 38 -4 34 0
1,600 42 -4 38 0
2,000 45 -4 41 0
2,500 48 -4 44 0
3,200 51 -4 47 0
4,000 54 -4 50 0
Sum of deficiencies 13
Jrinciples of Airborne Sound Insulation 113
The graphical equivalence of this procedure i s to flatten the STC contour into a horizontal line using the
500 Hz point on the contour as the hinge point. For example, since the 1 25 Hz point is 1 6 dB below the
500 Hz point, the adjustment factor for 1 25 Hz is + 1 6 dB . Similarly, the adjustment factor for 1 ,000 Hz
is 3 dB because, the 1 .000 Hz is 3 dB above the 500 Hz point, see Figure 5 . 1 6. The flattening of the
-
STC contour is to be accompanied by corresponding adjustment of the TL curve. Thus, the TL value at
1 25 Hz is increased by 1 6 dB, and that for 1 .000 Hz is decreased by 3 dB Once the STC contour is a
horizontal line, it becomes easier to move the (horizontalized) contour vertically until it satisfies both
conditions, repeated below for convenience.
The sum of deficiencies of TL at 1 6 frequencies should not exceed 32 dB, and
The maximum deficiency at any point should not exceed 8 dB.
5.1 Egan, D. M.: Architectural Acoustics, McGraw Hill Inc., New York,
REFERENCES
1988, p. 1 80.
5.2 Beranek, L. L.: Noise Reduction, Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company,
Huntington, New York, 1980, p. 287.
5.3 Faulkner, L. L.: Handbook of Industrial Noise Control, Industrial Press
Inc., New York, 1976, p. 173.
5.4 Harris, D. A.: Noise Control Manual, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York,
1991, p. 40.
5.5 Wilson, C. E.: Noise Control -- Measurement, Analysis, and Control of
Sound and Vibration, Harper & Row, New York, 1989, p. 249.
5.6 Flat Glass Marketing Association: Glazing Manual, Flat Glass Marketing
Association, Topeka, Kansas, 1990, p. 36.
5.7 American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia: "Standard Test
Method for Laboratory Measurement of Airborne Sound Transmission
Loss of Building Partitions", ASTM Standard E 90-90.
5.8 American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia: "Classification
for Rating Sound Insulation", ASTM Standard E 413-87(94).
5.9 American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia: "Standard
Practice for Use of Sealants in Acoustical Applications", ASTM Standard
E 91 9-84(92)
5.10 American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia: "Standard Test
Method for Measurement of Airborne Sound Insulation in Buildings",
ASTM Standard E 336-90.
5.11 Egan, D. M.: Architectural Acoustics, McGraw Hill Inc., 1988, p. 2 1 8.
5.12 American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia: "Standard
Classification for Determining Outdoor-Indoor Transmission Class",
ASTM Standard E 1 332-90.
Airborne Sound
Insulation
Practice
115
116 Chapter6
This is just
This is just
wonderful
wonderful
~
30 22-25 Moet sentences clearly understood.
~
This is just
Thi .....
wonderful
wonderful
Speech can l:le heard with some effort.
40 32-35 Individual worde and occasional
~
phraeee heard.
~
50 42-45 effort. Muelc eaelly heard.
That is '
absolutely crazy
~
Loud speech essentially lnaudll:lle.
60 52-55
Mueic heard faintly; !:lass note
dleturl:llng.
n
'
Loud mueic heard faintly, which could
70 62-65 l:le a prol:llem If the adjoining apace le
~
highly eeneitlve to eound intruelon,
such ae a recording etudlo, concert
:
hall, etc.
~
75 Most nolees effectively l:llocked.
and
a!:love
'
* This table assumes a reasonably quiet background noise level in the receiving room - NC 35 or less. See Chapter 8 for
NC values.
Airborne Sound Insulation Practice 117
6.1 CONCRETE WALLS As indicated in Table 5.1, the coincidence dip of a 200 mm (8 in.)
thick concrete panel occurs around 100 Hz; for a 400 mm (16 in.)
AND SLA BS thick panel, the dip is around 50 Hz. For a 100 mm (4 in.) thick
panel, the dip occurs at nearly 200 Hz (see Section 5.5). Since, the
thickness of a commonly used concrete wall or slab is greater than
150 mm (6 in.), its coincidence dip usually falls below the frequency
region of interest to us, which in most situations is 125 Hz to 4kHz.
Consequently, the coincidence dip does not influence the general
shape of TL-frequency relationship of a concrete wall/slab,
particularly that of a thick one. In other words, the TL of a concrete
wall/slab increases almost uniformly within 125 Hz to 4kHz region,
as suggested by the mass law.
However, due to its stiffness, the TL values of a concrete wall/
slab are lower thari those given by the mass law. Additionally, the
TL of a concrete wall/slab increases at the rat of nearly 5 dB per
octave, instead of the mass law's prediction of 6 dB per octave. These
observations are illustrated in Figure 6.1, which gives the TL
frequency relationships of a 200 mm (8 in.) and a 150 mm (8 in.)
thick concrete wall/slab.
Although measured TL-frequency data should be obtained for
use in any critical sound insulation application, the following
empirical relationship may be used to give a rough estimate of the
TL of a concrete wall/slab. Thus, if f is the frequency of sound in
Hz, and m is the surface mass of wall/slab in kg/m2 (lb/ft2), then its
approximate TL is given by:
TL
(dB)
-+--
5 dB/octave fit to !
meaeured data
Meaeure TL-frequency
Meaeured TL-frequency
t---+---:>-<tr--+- relatlonehlp for a 200 mm
h.S+=+ relatlonehlp for a 150 mm
(6 In.) thick concrete panel
(8 In.) thick concrete panel
I
40 L__L--_J__L_
125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000
Frequency Frequency
(a) 200 mm (8 In.) thick concrete panel: (b) 150 mm (6 In.) thick concrete panel:
weiht 475 /m2 (97 lb/ft;2) welht 350 /m2 (71 lb/ft;2)
STC58 STC56
6.1 TL-frequency relationships of (a) 200 mm (8 in.) thick concrete panel, and (b) 150 mm (6 in. ) thick concrete
wall or slab.
1 18 Chapter 6
nominal and 300 mm (12 in.) nominal. Notice, once again, the virtual
absence of coincidence dips, and an almost uniform increase of TL
with frequency and thickness.
It is because of the absence of a coincidence dip within the
frequency range of interest that a thick concrete or masonry wall is
an excellent sound insulating barrier, and is recommended for use
where its weight is not a deterrent.
TL
(dB) 50 f----+--+-+--i'-+----A--+c--+
I
I
I
5TC52
I
-
i
!
--
I
!'
30 '----'---'----"--'---'--"
125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000
Frequency (Hz)
6.2 TL-frequency relationship of a 100 mm (4 in.) thick brick wall, a 200 mm (8 in.) thick brick
wall, and a 300 mm (12 in.) thick brick wall. Adapted from Reference 6.1.
Note: The actual thickness of a masonry wall is 10 mm (3/8 in.) less than its nominal thickness.
54 .......,
5TC 16.75 (m)0.2, If m 15 in ke/m2
/
=
STC
46 /
/
42 V
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 (ke/m2)
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 (11:1/ft2)
Surface ma55
6.3 Approximate STC value of a (sealed) concrete masonry wall. Adapted from Reference 6.2.
6.3 MASONRY CAVITY As stated in Section 5.6, if the cavity depth is small, the TL of a
cavity wall at low frequencies may be lower than that of a single
WALLS leaf wall of the same surface weight due to cavity resonance.
However, the TL values of most commonly used masonry cavity
walls are higher than those of equal-weight single-leaf walls. The
increase in sound insulation resulting from the air space is a function
Fiberglass or similar porous material
in cavity
of the extent of decoupling between leaves.
Maximum insulation is obtained when the two leaves are
structurally independent of each other with no connection between
them, as shown in Figure 6.4. The use of a porous material in the
cavity and increasing the width of cavity space increases decoupling
between leaves (see Section 5.6).
The two leaves of a (commonly used) conventional masonry
cavity wall are, however, not independent. They share a common
support at the top and the bottom, and are connected together by
metal ties for structural reasons. Therefore, the sound insulation
provided by a conventional cavity wall is much lower than the wall
of Figure 6.4.
6 .4 A cavity w a l l with two 1 To minimize porosity leaks in a concrete masonry wall, the wall may be plastered,
structurally independent leaves. parged, or sealed with a high solids block filler, or two coats of heavy enamel.
Airborne Sound Insulation Practice 121
.
. ,i. :v
. .
.
... .. . .
.
Mlltal tiee
6.4 FURRED MASONRY A gypsum board lining to a masonry wall, either with metal furring
sections or wood furring sections (such as 50 mm x 50 mm, i.e., 2 x
WALLS 2 nominal) improves the sound insulation provided by a masonry
wall. Further increase in insulation is obtained by using fiberglass
in the cavity and resilient channels (see Figure 6.9 for an illustration
of a resilient channel).
For example, a painted 200 mm (8 in.) nominal concrete masonry
wall gives an STC of nearly 48, Figure 6.7(b). If gypsum board is
fastened to resilient channels, which in turn are fastened to 50 mm x
50 mm (2 x 2) nominal wood furring sections, and the cavity space
is filled with fiberglass, the STC of the assembly is nearly 56 - an
increase of 8 points, Figure 6.7(e).
If the gypsum board lining and fiberglass filling in cavity is used
on both sides of the wall, the STC of the assembly is nearly 59,
Figure 6.7(f). Note that it is adequate to use the resilient channel on
one side of the assembly. Using it on both sides provides an
insignificant increase in STC.
If the gypsum board lining is fastened to a metal or wood stud
wall, which is not attached to the masonry wall (i.e., a structurally
independent stud wall), the resulting assembly gives a high STC.
Figure 6.7 (g). Two independent gypsum stud walls, one on each
side of a masonry wall, yield an assembly with a STC of more than
70, Figure 6.7(h).
In fact, gypsum board lining of masonry walls with furring
sections is a commonly used method to improve the TL of an existing
masonry wall.
Airborne Sound Insulation Practice 123
APPROX. 5TC
44
1 11 1 t " " '''""" 200 mm c ,,_) m'' " ""'m.,..
" ''"h-ht ""
(a)
52
]D D[C ;::;:: :: (c)
, .rrr,htw<r,ht ,oo-. m""' 11
]tiD1E
Rt:elllt:nt channt:le
53 Hat et:ctlone
Palnttld 200 mm (8 In.) nominal llghtwt:lght concrt:ttl maeonry wall
(d) SEE FIGURE 6.9 FOR
AN ILLUSTRATION OF
16 mm (5/8 In.) gypeum j,oard RESILIENT CHANNEL
Rt:elllt:nt chanMie
56 50 x 50 (2 x 2) nominal wood furring et:ctlone
Palnttlt.:l 200 mm (8 In.) nominal llghtwt:lght concrtlttl maeonry wall
Joo:c
T-- '- - T-. -:
50 x 50 (2 x 2) nominal wood furring et:ctlone
59 '37 mm (11/2 In.) thick flj,t:rglaee
Palnttld 200 mm (8 In.) nominal llghtwt:lght concrtlttl maeonry wall
,... ::.. .0:-: .. .....
'37 mm (11/2 In.) thick flj,t:rglaee
..:.. ........ . .....:.: ... .-:: ...(. :.... .:: 50 x 50 (2 x 2) nominal wood furring et:ctlone
(f) 16 mm (5/8 In.) gypeum j,oard
INCREASING
STC
65
J':oo (e)
c
75 mm ('3 In.) dt:t:p lndt:pt:ndt:nt mt:tal etud wall
6'3 mm (21/2 In.) thick flj,t:rglaee
Palnttld 200 mm (8 In.) nominal llghtwt:lght concrtlttl maeonry wall
6.7 Increase in sound insulation provided by various ways of furring a masonry wall.
124 Chapter 6
A wall with a two-layer gypsum board on each side of
. . .
studs.
Observe that in all the three relationships there is a large
dip at nearly 2 or 2.5 kHz frequency. This is the coincidence
WOOD STUD WALL dip. In fact, the coincidence effect in all gypsum board
assemblies occurs in the 2 to 2.5 kHz region (see Table 5.1).
The cavity resonance dip usually occurs around 100 to 200 Hz
region Hz (see footnote 6 in Chapter 5). Therefore, in most
gypsum board assemblies, the cavity resonance dip is not seen
in 125 Hz to 4 kHz region.
20 ----__,___-+--
125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000
Freliuency (Hz)
Free end of
reelllent channel
Reelllent channel
(approx. one-third
full elze)
=======* . . . . . . . . . .
Caulk
Reelllent
channel
DETAIL Q
Firet layer of eYp&um
11oar.:l 5econ.:l layer of
RESIL IENTLY SUPPORTED SURFACE SHOULD
eypeum 11oard
NOT CONTACT A DJACENT SURFACE EXCEPT
THROUGH CAULKING
6.11 Typical details of a gypsum board wall assembly with resilient channels.
Note: Tests by U.S. Gypsum indicate improved STC when multiple layers of gypsum board
are laminated together with a rubber-like acoustical sealant, with base layer screwed to studs.
The damping provided by the sealant layer (referred to as constrained-layer damping) provides
additional energy loss in transmission.
Airborne Sound Insulation Practice 127
Table 6.2 Approximate STC Values of Wood Frame Walls with 13 mm (1/2 in.) Thick
Gypsum Board
38 mm x 90 mm (2 x 4) wood studs 37 40 43 40 43 46
38 mm x 90 mm (2 x 4) wood studs, 40 45 49 50 53 57
resilient channel on one side
38 mm x 90 mm (2 x 4) wood studs, 41 46 51 49 53 58
resilient channel on both sides
Staggered 38 mm x 90 mm 41 48 52 50 54 58
(2 x 4) wood stud wall
Flberglaee or
Plywood
Floor jolet mineral wool
eubfloor
Reelllent
channel .......____.,
-::.E
;
-
6.6 SOUND LEAKS AND As stated in Chapter 5, sound insulating construction is highly
sensitive to air leakage. Therefore, assemblies should be as airtight
THE CONTROL OF as possible. Joints between two overlapping layers should be
FLANKING PATHS staggered.
The entire back surface of the electrical, telephone and other
outlet boxes in a sound insulating wall should be sealed to render
them fully airtight. Preformed sealant tape is best for this purpose.
Outlets in the front and the back of a wall should preferably not
be placed in the same stud cavity, Figure 6.14(a). They should be
staggered, with at least one intervening stud between them -
preferably more - Figure 6.14(b). Stud cavities containing outlets
should be lined with fiberglass or mineral wool.
Similarly, cabinets should not be provided in a sound insulating
single-stud wall. Cabinets in a double-stud wall should be staggered
and backed by gypsum board on all concealed faces, Figure 6.14(c).
(a) (11)
Gypsum I:Joard
lining to cai:Jinet
(c)
6.14 Detailing of electrical outlets and cabinets in a lightweight wall. Adapted from Reference 6.3.
130 Chapter6
0
0
Roof or floor /
PLENUM
Sound al1eorl11ne
c:elflne
Provide ceiling tiles with a high CSTC value (see Section
5.12), i.e., tiles with nonporous backing such as aluminum
foil, gypsum board, etc. In addition, lay a minimum of 150
mm (6 in) thick medium density (15 kg/m2, i.e., 3 lb/ft2)
fiberglass or mineral fiberboard layer over the ceiling, Figure
6.17(a). This layer should extend at least 1.2 m (4 ft) on
each side of the partition.
Provide a loaded vinyl barrier (see Figure 5.12) over the
partition, Figure 6.17(b). The vinyl barrier and fiberglass/
mineral wool in ceiling board layer may be used in
conjunction for greater effectiveness.
If the plenum is used for return air, provide a sheet metal
"boot" or chimney lined internally with fiberglass above each
room. The chimney should extend at least 600 mm (24 in.)
above the ceiling, Figure 6.17(c).
Airborne Sound Insulation Practice 131
0
0
Roof or floor
Extend partition up
to the roof or floor
PLENUM
, o
o_ :.
Roof or floor
PLENUM
Loaded vinyl
Flt.>erelsee or curtain
mineral wool
Flt.>erelsee or mlnt:rsl wool
1.2 m (4ft;) minimum PLENUM
(a)
(11)
:or
--o
PLENUM
Return-sir t.>oot lined
Internally with
flt.>erelsee, minimum
600 mm (24 In.) hleh
(c)
Flberglaaa or plastic
foam In mullion cavity
Flberboard
Realllent channel
Gypaum board
Flberglaaa/mlneral wool --t-+'ff'"="" _.,..
_
Partition
Flanking through
attic
....... ..
ATII C
:\ Reellient channel
Gypeum uoard
Caulk
Flanking through Jolet epace
o:.
'-tO
:.!to:.
.
. .
cantileverd here
6.19(b) Party wall [of Figure 6.18(a)] detailed
for the control offlanking transmission.
134 Chapter6
6.7 SOUND INSULATING Windows with a high transmission loss (sound insulating windows)
are required in buildings situated in high outdoor noise environments.
WINDOWS Houses, apartments, hotels, and hospitals in a busy urban center or
near an airport are usually required to have sound insulating windows.
A sound insulating window is one whose transmission loss
performance is better than that of a conventional single glass window,
or a window with an insulating glass unit. A typical single or double
hung window with a 3 mm e18 in.) thick glass has an STC of nearly
g_I
26. If the 3 mm thick ass is replaced by an insulating glass unit
(19 mm or 25 mm, i.e., I or 1 in.) thick, the STC value is slightly
lower (see Section 5.6). Commercially available sound insulating
windows, on the other hand, provide an STC of up to 55.
Thermal ureak
Table 6.3 Approximate STC 6.7.3 Glass Thickness and the Use of Laminated Glass
Values of Fixed Windows With
Single Glass
Another important aspect of a sound insulating window is the
thickness of glass. Greater glass thickness means a greater mass,
and hence a higher sound insulation. However, the coincidence dip
Glass thickness STC
limits the increase in ST C of a thicker glass to a much smaller value
mm in
than that predicted by the mass law.
1
For instance, the coincidence frequency of a 3 mm ( /8 in.) thick
3 1/8 29 glass occurs at 5 kHz (see Table 5 .1). This is outside the frequency
6 1/4 31 range within which ST C is determined 125 Hz to 4 kHz. For a 6
9 3/8 32
-
mm (1/4 in.) thick glass, the coincidence frequency is 2.5 kHz, and
13 1/2 33 1
for a 13 mm ( /2 in.) thick glass, it is 1.25 kHz, both within the STC
25 1 37 frequency range.
Table 6.3 gives the approximate STC values of fixed single glazed
Note: Increase the above values by 3 windows with different glass thickness. Note that a window with a
for laminated glass. 3 mm (1/8 in.) thick glass has an ST C of 29. According to the mass
law, a window with a 6 mm (1/4 in.) thick glass should have an STC
of 35, a window with a 13 mm et2 in.) thick glass should give an
STC of 41, and so on. However, the actual ST C value for a 6 mm
thick glass window is only 31, and that of a 13 mm (1/2 in.) thick
glass window, 33.
As stated in S ection 5.5 , a laminated glass dampens the
coincidence effect. In general, a laminated glass increases ST C by
3, as compared with a monolithic glass of the same thickness.
However, under extremely cold climates, the resilience of the plastic
interlayer in a laminated glass is adversely affected, reducing the
benefit of lamination.
136 Chapter 6
Using two glass panes with an intervening air space increases the
STC of window. However, a small cavity (less than 25 mm, i.e., 1
in.) in a double glazed window can in fact give worse TL than a
single glazed window (see Section 5.6). This is due to the cavity
resonance dip occurring within the frequency range of interest.
By increasing the depth of air space and the thickness of glass,
the cavity resonance can be lowered to below the frequency range of
interest. Usually, adding a storm window over an existing single
glass window with 75 mm (3 in.) air space can increase STC by 10
to 15 points.
If an air space is provided between the two glass panes of a
fixed window, the panes must be removable for cleaning purposes,
or a fully sealed unit should be used.
Table 6.4 Approximate STC Values 6.7.5 Lining of Window Reveal With a Porous Absorber
of Fixed Windows With Two Glass
Panes With an Air Space An improvement in TL performance is obtained by lining the interior
perimeter of window frame (window reveal) with a porous absorber
- fiberglass or mineral wool (nearly 65 kg/m3, i.e. 4 lb/ft3 density).
Glass thickness Air space STC Usually, the porous absorber in the reveal is covered with a perforated
mm in. mm in. metal or vinyl sheet, Figure 6.22. The lining of the reveal with a
porous absorber increases the STC of window by nearly 3 points.
Table 6.4 gives the approximate STC values of commercially
3 1/8 50 2 42 available sound insulating windows with two fixed glass panes with
6 1/4 100 4 44 different depths of air space. Note that using two 13 mm (11.2 in.)
6 1/4 200 8 46 thick glass panes with a 200 mm (8 in.) deep air space, an STC of
9 3/8 200 8 50 nearly 52 is achieved. If the reveals of this window are lined with a
13 1/2 200 8 52 porous absorber, the approximate STC of the window will be 55.
This is almost the same value as that given by a 200 mm (8 in.) thick
Note: Increase above values by 3 for windows concrete wall (see Section 6.1). It must, however, be noted that a
with reveals lined with a porous absorber. 200 mm thick concrete wall is far superior than the above mentioned
window at low frequencies.
Gypeum
eheathlne
Air epace
Reelllent channel
6.8 SOUND INSULATING Doors are more difficult to treat acoustically than windows. A typical
residential hollow core wood door has an STC of only 17; a typical
DOORS commercial solid core wood door has an STC of only 20. Therefore,
doors should be avoided as far as possible in walls with high sound
insulation.
The insulation of doors is based on the same principles as sound
insulating windows. Because they are operable, the most important
factor that influences the transmission loss of a door is the leakage
of air through gaps between the door and its frame. A typical door
\
has nearly 6 mm < in.) wide gaps at the top and bottom edges, and
.
3 mm (1/8 in.) on sides.
Unless these gaps are properly sealed, the STC of a door cannot
exceed 20, regardless of the increase in the weight of the door or
improvements in its construction, Table 6.5. Rubber and neoprene
gaskets pressed between the door and the frame are quite effective,
but may need periodic replacement to maintain the efficiency of the
seal.
Scraper
&ea I
DO NOT RELY ON FELT, VINYL OR METAL WEATHERSTRIPPING FOR GOOD ACOUSTICAL SEALS. USE
WEATHERSTRIPPING MADE OF CLOSED-CELL SPONGE RU 66ERS OR HOLLOW EXTRUSIONS OF SOLID
ELASTOMERIC MATERIALS FOR GOOD ACOUSTICAL SEALS. MAGNETIC SEALS ARE ALSO AVAILABLE.
(a) Hlf16e when door I& open (17) Hlnee when door I& c;loeed
6.25 A cam lift hinge: (a) door open position, (b) door closed
position.
140 Chapter 6
Where higher STC values are needed, two separate doors, with
a sound lock space should be used, Figure 6.26. A two-door assembly
in which the doors are connected together can be used in situation
where space for a sound lock is not available, Figure 6.27.
Doors with glass vision panels must have the glass assemb1)1
meet the acoustical requirements of the door. Sound rated door
manufacturers u sually limit the glazed area to meet STC
specifications.
EXECUTIVE SECRETARY
CORRIDOR
Fll:lerglaee filling
lnelde frame
. .
143
144 Chapter 7
Impact and vibration are the two most common sources of structure
borne sounds. Impact is the result of a force that occurs for a short
duration. Though an impact force may be repetitive, its repetition is
usually not periodic in nature. Vibration, on the other hand, is periodic
and continuous.
Walking, jogging and dancing are obvious examples of impact
sounds. Other impact sources are playing basketball, bowlingl
wheeling equipment and furniture, slamming of a door, etc. Vibration
is usually produced by machinery and equipment mounted on floors.
such as air conditioning equipment, fans, pumps etc. VibratioQ
control is best achieved by mounting the equipment on vibratiod
isolators. Since this is a specialized subject, it is covered separatel1
in Chapter 15.
In this chapter, we shall deal only with impact sound insulation.
Although airborne sound insulation is required of all barriers - wallsi
floor-ceiling assemblies and roofs - impact sound insulation is
primarily required of floors, because most impact-producing sourcet
rest on floors. Therefore, this chapter is limited to the sound insulati
of floor-ceiling assemblies only.
SOURCE
ROOM
7.2 STRATEGIES TO In general, there are four basic strategies available to increase the
structure-borne sound insulation of a floor-ceiling assembly, as listed
INCREASE IMPACT below and discussed in the following sections.
INSULATION Soft or resilient floor covering
Resiliently supported floor- floating floor
Resiliently supported ceiling
Structural discontinuity in floor and ceiling - reducing
flanking transmission through the structure
7.3 SOFT OR RESILIENT The best means of insulating a floor against structure-borne sound is
to weaken the impact on the floor at the source - before the impact
FLOOR COVERING becomes structure-borne. Thus, a soft floor covering, such as a carpet
backed by a foam underlayment (pad), is an excellent way of
improving the structure-borne sound insulation of a floor.
For example, a 6 in. thick bare concrete slab has an STC rating
of nearly 55, but its ne rating is only25. The same slab when covered
with a pad and a carpet gives an IIC rating of nearly 85 (an
improvement of 60 points) , but its STC rating remains unchanged at
150 mm (6 In.)
55, Figure 7.3.
thick concrete
elal:> The increase in structure-borne sound insulation due to a carpet
is far greater for a hard inflexible floor such as concrete than for a
relatively flexible wood floor. For example, a typical residential
floor with a plywood subfloor and gypsum board ceiling attached
directly to floor joists gives an IIC of 34 and an STC of 38.
If the same floor is covered with a pad and a carpet, its IIC
IIC25 IIC 85 increases to 55 (an improvement of21 points) and the STC increases
5TC55 5TC55 to 39, Figure 7 .4. The small increase in STC is partially due to the
(airborne sound) absorption provided by the carpet and partially due
to the covering of joints of the floor by the carpet.
7.3 Increase in IIC of a concrete slab
Although a carpet is the best way to improve the structure-borne
by the addition of a pad and a carpet. insulation of a floor, resilient floor coverings such as cork, rubber
Adapted primarily from Reference 7.2. and vinyl also provide some improvement, Table 7.1.
ltructure-borne Sound Insulation 147
Table 7.1 Approximate Improvement It is important to emphasize that a soft or a resilient floor covering
in IIC for Some Floor Coverings has virtually no effect on airborne sound insulation, except that a
carpet, because of its absorption at high frequencies may slightly
increase the airborne sound insulation at these frequencies.
,...
Floor Improvement
in ne
50 X :300 (2 X
fdapted from Reference 7.3. 12) floor jolet
7.4 FLOATING FLOOR Although a soft floor covering improves the structure-borne sound
insulation of a floor, in many situations a hard concrete or wood
surface is required. In such a situation, a floating floor is the answer.
Unlike a carpet or a resilient floor covering, a floating floor also
increases the airborne sound insulation. Thus, a floating floor is
used where high values of both STC and IIC are required.
A floating floor is an additional layer of floor (concrete or wood)
supported on a structural floor (concrete or wood) through resilient
mounts. To be effective, the floating floor must be isolated at all
sides from walls or other building components, so that the impact or
vibration from the floor does not flank to other parts of the building
through the wall. This isolation is provided by a perimeter isolation
board (fiberglass board or a plastic foam), Figure 7.5.
Wall
Caulk here
Perimeter leolatlon board
Floatlne floor
R"elllent layer
Structural floor
7.5 Essential elements of a floating floor.
148 Chapter?
Plywood floatlne
floor
50 X 100 (2 X 4)
wood elpr
Compreeed
fll:lerelaee
Plywood
eul:lfloor ------.=" lb=::--oo="""",_.,
Plywood
eul:rl'loor
channel
Gyp eum
l:>oard T
IIC 58 IIC80
7. 7 Concrete floating floor on 5TC60 5TC60
conventional wood floor.
Table 7.2 Approximate IIC and STC 7.4.2 Wood Floating Floor over Concrete Structural Floor
Values for Some Floating Floors
A wood floating floor over a concrete structural floor is ideal for
aerobic exercise halls, gymnasiums, dance floors, high-rise
floating floor IIC STC apartments, etc., particularly over suspended concrete slabs.
Although there are different versions, a typical wood floating floor
over a concrete structural floor is shown in Figure 7.9. Impact
Wood floating floor on: absorption is provided by high-density fiberglass blocks 50 mm x
Wood structural floor 52 58 50 mm x 50 mm (2 in. x 2 in. x 2 in.).
Concrete structural floor 64 62 The fiberglass blocks are bonded to 50 x 100 (2 x 4) wood
sleepers at nearly 300 mm (12 in.) on centers. Depending on the
Concrete floating floor on: load on the floor, the sleepers are simply laid (not attached) on the
Wood structural floor 58 60 concrete floor at 300 to 400 mm (12 to 16 in.) on centers.
Concrete structural floor 74 62 The space between sleepers is filled with low-density fiberglass.
Next a layer of plywood panels is nailed to the sleepers. Finally, a
These values are approximate and are provided second layer of plywood is adhesively bonded and nailed to the lower
to compare one type of floating floor with the plywood, with staggered joints. The STC and IIC values depend on
other. The actual values depend a great deal on the thickness of the structural floor. A floor covering, such as a
the thickness of materials, depth of air cavity, hardwood floor, carpet, etc., provides the floor finish. Table 7.2
the presence or absence of fiberglass in the cavity, gives some representative STC and IIC values of floating floors.
etc. The values represent bare floors with no
carpeting.
..- 50 x 100 ( 2 x 4)
wood eleepere
- Low-denelty
fli:lerglaee i:llanket
Wood eluper
7.9 Wood floating floor on a reinforced concrete structural floor- a system supplied by Kinetics Noise
Control Inc., Dublin, Ohio.
ltructure-borne Sound Insulation 151
Concrlltll floatln!!
floor
Plywood
7.10 Concrete floating floor assembly supplied by Kinetics Noise Control Inc. , Dublin, Ohio.
Perimeter Isolation
7.12 Plywood form and high-density fiberglass blocks bonded 7.13 Connecting plywood panels together.
to low-density fiberglass blanket. Photo by Madan Mehta. Photo by Madan Mehta.
Lifting l:>olt A jack-up concrete floating floor has the same finished appearance
as the floor described previously. The difference between the two
floors is in the processes of construction and the impact-absorbing
mounts. Each mount consists of a neoprene block enclosed in a
cast-iron housing, Figure 7. 14. The housing is supported on a lifting
bolt, which in turn rests on the neoprene block. The cast iron housing
has two cantilevered brackets to support reinforcing bars.
The process of construction is shown in Figure 7. 15(a). First, a
plastic sheet is laid over the structural concrete floor. This sheet
works as a bond breaker between the structural floor and the floating
slab. Depending on the load on the floor, the mounts are then placed
at 600 to 1 ,200 mm (2 to 4ft) on centers each way. Reinforcing bars
are now placed over the brackets of the mounts. Additional
reinforcement is now laid over the previously laid reinforcement,
and concrete is poured.
7.14 Cast-iron housing and neoprene
mount.
lructure-borne Sound Insulation 153
After the slab has cured and attained the necessary strength, it is
jacked up with the help of jack screws, Figure 7 . 15(b). One or two
people can lift a large floor little by little, ensuring a uniform lift at
all points. The total lift of the floor need be only 25 mm (1 in.), but
a greater lift may be specified for a higher insulation. A jack-up
floor is particularly suitable for heavily loaded floors, or floors that
have an irregular shape.
Perlmr
le;olatlon
(a)
Reinforcement
(!?)
7.5 RESILIENTLY Apart from a soft floor covering and/or a floating floor, a continuous
resiliently supported ceiling of a nonporous material can augment
ATTACHED CEILING the structure-borne sound insulation of a floor, just as it augments
the airborne sound insulation. For a conventional wood floor, resilient
channels are used (see Figure 6.9).
For a suspended ceiling, the use of ceiling isolation hangers,
available from several manufacturers, is recommended, Figure 7 . 16.
In addition, ensure that there are no sound leaks in the ceiling and
that the entire ceiling is airtight, including light fixtures.
Llehtweleht
- Joint fillet.! with wall
lmpa al1eorl11ne
material
lmpa
al1eorl11ne
material
. . . . ... ..
7.17 Joint between suspended ceiling and wall. . . 0. 0
: D 0 '
u
"""'I'-
lmpa
al1eorl11 ne
material
,
Impact Impact
al1eorl11ne al1eorl11ne
material material
'o . . - ..:.f. .
. . .
This section illustrates the procedure of determining the ne of a floor-ceiling assembly through the
following example.
Let the measured sound pressure levels in the receiving room of a two-room set-up for a conventional
wood floor, whose cross-section is shown, be:
Frequency (Hz) TL(dB) Frequency (Hz) TL (dB)
100 72 630 66
125 69 800 61
160 70 1,000 56 SECTION THROUGH
200 73 1,250 52 FLOOR ASSEMBLY
250 71 1,600 52
315 69 2,000 53
400 68 2,500 54
500 67 3,150 51
To determine the ne of the assembly, first plot the above data to a suitable scale as shown in Figure
A. Next draw the IIC contour on a separate transparent sheet to the same scale, and overlay it on the
above plot.
Now move the ne contour as far down as possible until it satisfies the two conditions described in
Section 7. 1, summarized here for convenience.
The sum of deficiencies at 16 frequencies should not exceed 32 dB, and,
The maximum deficiency at any point should not exceed 8 dB.
A deficiency is defined as any measured value lying above the contour. The location of the IIC
contour shown in the diagram satisfies the above conditions, and its placement is governed by the first
condition. Reading the SPL value at 500Hz, we observe that it is it is approximately 65. Hence
IIC = 110- 65 = 45, which can also be obtained directly from the right hand vertical axis (note
reversed values).
The second curve in Figure A shows the measured SPL values for the same assembly, but
with a 40 mm (1 1/2 in.) thick cement concrete topping, highlighting the improvement obtained
at low frequencies through the use of a concrete topping.
r--.--,----. 35
IIC contour le fitted to thie curve
FIGURE A
SPL IIC
(dB)
-L-50 ----L-r--+-L-+-'
1-q--L
.
_ -4--+--
J:.
' ... 1' . .. . . J
..
l"f
-H--+--
. . ... .... . ........
55
Frer:tuency (Hz)
Structure-borne Sound Insulation 157
REFERENCES 7.1 American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia: "Standard
Classification for Determination of Impact Isolation Class (IIC)", ASTM
Standard E 989-89(94).
7.2 Harris, C. M.: Noise Control in Buildings, McGraw Hill, Inc., New York,
1994, p. 6.4.
7.3 Harris, C. M.: Noise Control in Buildings, McGraw Hill, Inc., New York,
1994, p. 6.9.
Noise Control in
Buildings
The ill effects of noise are well documented. Apart from general
annoyance, high noise levels cause interference with task
performance, speech communication and sleep. Noise also affects
the health and general well-being of humans. Exposure to sufficiently
high noise levels for extended periods can cause stress, hypertension,
and hearing loss.
This chapter deals with various means of reducing noise inside
buildings to acceptable levels. Note the word "acceptable" here,
since a complete elimination of noise is neither possible, nor even
desirable. A certain amount of noise is necessary for our well-being.
Anyone who has spent some time in an anechoic chamber knows
that a totally silent space can be as disturbing as a noisy space.
The noise level in a building is due to a combination of two
sources: interior noise - that produced inside the building - and
exterior noise. The primary source of interior noise is the use and
occupancy of the building. For example, in an industrial building,
most noise is due to the manufacturing process.
In shopping centers, educational establishments and offices,
interior noise is due to human conversation in addition to task-related
activities. In restaurants, clubs, and similar commercial spaces, the
interior noise is due to human conversation, music, and eating-related
activities. A noise source common to almost all interiors is heating
and air conditioning noise.
159
160 Chapter 8
8 8
Path All noise, whether interior or exterior, is subject to a three-way
control mechanism - at the source, along the path, and at the
receiver. In fact, the source-path-receiver principle is so fundamental
that it is not only applicable to building noise, but to all types of
noise control.
The most effective control takes place at the source. For example,
road traffic noise is best controlled by making the automobiles as
well as the road surfaces quieter. Federal and state regulations control
noise emissions from various sources, particularly motor vehicles.
For instance, the California Vehicle Code requires that the noise level
from a motor vehicle, measured at a distance of 15 m from it, should
not exceed 85 dBA if the vehicle speed is less than 35 miles per
hour. If the speed is greater than 35 miles )Jer hour, the corresponding
noise level should not exceed 90 dBA[s.n.
Most noise reduction at the source is achieved during the design
and manufacturing phases of the product. It is only when further
noise reduction at the source is not practical that the control must
take place along the path and/or at the receiver.
Noise Control Along the Path
Once the sound has reached the receiver, very little can be done to
control it, except to muffle it at the listener's ears through ear
protectors. Experience in noisy industrial facilities shows that the
use of ear plugs or hearing defenders is not liked by workers.
Therefore, these measures are recommended only where the noise
cannot be reduced by the other two means- at the source and along
the path.
Noise Control in Buildings 161
8.1 INTERIOR NOISE Before proceeding to discuss noise control measures, a question that
must be addressed at the outset is: what are the maximum acceptable
CRITERIA interior and exterior noise levels? Obviously, the maximum
acceptable interior noise level is a function of the type of occupancy.
The acceptable level for a noise-sensitive area, such as a recording
studio or a concert hall is much lower than that for an office or a
dwelling.
The acceptable interior noise level is generally based on the
degree of interference produced by noise on task performance. The
acceptable exterior noise level, on the other hand, is based on the
degree of annoyance produced by noise in our use of outdoor spaces.
In a noisy manufacturing facility, the acceptable noise level may be
based on hearing damage risk.
Once the acceptable noise levels are known, we can then
determine the required noise reduction. For example, if the acceptable
noise level for an office space is 50 dB, and the noise level in the
adjoining space is 80 dB, then the required reduction is 30 dB.
An acceptable interior noise for given activity cannot be specified
in dB levels because interference or annoyance produced by a noise
is frequency dependent. As discussed in Chapter 2, our ears are not
equally sensitive to all frequencies. Consequently, acceptable noise
levels cannot be specified by a single number, but in terms of a
detailed noise spectrum.
Since a dBA level is more representative of the ear's sensitivity,
efforts have been made to specify acceptable levels in dB A, but even
this has been found unsatisfactory. Two noise environments with
different spectra (and hence different potential for annoyance and
effects on task performance) can have the same dBA value.
1 From Figure 1. 7, we see that the octave band centered at 500 Hz begins at 354
Hz, and that centered at 4kHz ends at 5.6 kHz.
162 Chapter 8
0.4
90 0.8 1.6 :3.:3 6.5 1:3 26 52
80 8-
0
I 4'1.
.:'ot.r. 'tf
i
8.1 Speech interference levels as afunction
of(male) speaker-listener distance for just 70
-
reliable speech communication(under free- .V.o,..
SIL
field conditions, i.e. , the speaker is not aided (dB) 60 - /
by reverberation). To determine speech
interference level for female speakers, 50
subtract 4 dB from SILobtained from this
figure, since 4 dB represents the difference
40
between the speech level of an average
female and an average male. For instance,
SILfor a male speaker at 1 m distance, in :30
normal voice, is nearly 55 dB. T he 0.125 0.25 0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 8.0 16.0
corresponding S/Lfor a female speaker is 5pealcer-lletene;r dletance (m)
51 dB. Adapted from Reference 8.2.
8.1.2 NC Curves
- - - - - - - -f- - - - - - - - - - - - - - J_ _ _ _ _ _ _ l
90.----------
1
______________ ______________ _ ______________
--- - + + + ! + +
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -r- - - - - - - 1- - - - : : : :::
80 - - -- -------------- ------------- -------------- ------------- ----------- -------------
:: :: :: :: :: ::
: : : : : : :- --
T _ _ __ __ __
NC-70
NC-65
NC-60
NC-55
NC-50
SPL (dB)
NC-45
10 '-----
-- --'----------------
--' _j_ ____ _j_____ ___j_ __j
__ __ NC-15
63 125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000 8,000
Frequency (Hz)
NC-15 47 36 29 22 17 14 12 11
NC20 51 40 33 26 22 19 17 16
NC-25 54 44 37 31 27 24 22 21
NC-30 57 48 41 35 31 29 28 27
NC-35 60 52 45 40 36 34 33 32
NC-40 64 56 50 45 41 39 38 37
NC-45 67 60 54 49 46 44 43 42
NC-50 71 64 58 54 51 49 48 47
NC-55 74 67 62 58 56 54 53 52
NC-60 77 71 67 63 61 59 58 57
NC-65 80 75 71 68 66 64 63 62
NC-70 83 79 75 73 71 69 68 67
8.2 NC curves and their octave band values. Adapted from Reference 8.3.
164 Chapter 8
Determine the NC values of two environments for which the measured sound pressure levels are:
65 65 59 52 40 36 33 30 33 . .... Environment 2
Solution: The above octave band values are plotted for both environments in Figure A. Superimposed
on these plots are NC-45 and NC-40 curves. We see that NC-45 is the nearest NC curve that lies
completely above environment 1 plot. Now if we shift NC-45curve down, we see that the downward
shift needs to be only 1 dB, and the NC curve becomes tangent to environment 1 plot at 2,000 Hz.
Hence, environment 1 is (45- 1), i.e., NC-44.
The same procedure is followed with with environment 2. This is also NC-44 environment, since
the NC-45curve becomes tangent to its plot at 125Hz through 1 dB downward shift.
FIGURE A
5PL
(dB)
NC-40
8.1.3 RC Curves
SPL
(dB)
RC-45
RC-40
RC-35
8.3 RC curves.
2 As of 1997, ASHRAE is still debating whether to use RC or a different
criterion being advanced by some researchers.
166 Chapter 8
Determine the RC values of the two environments of Example 8.1. The measured sound pressure levels
are repeated below for convenience.
65 65 59 52 40 36 33 30 33 ...... Environment 2
Solution: The above octave band values are plotted separately for both environments in Figures A and
B. For environment 1, the average of sound pressure levels at 500, 1,000 and 2,000 Hz is (44 + 43 + 41)
= 43.3 i.e., 43 dB. Hence, environment 1 is an RC-43 environment.
Now we must classify this environment as N, H, R or V. Therefore, beginning with the 43 dB point
at 1,000 Hz, draw a line at a slope of 5 dB per octave, to represent RC-43 line. Next, draw two lines
parallel to RC-43, one to the left of 500 Hz and 5 dB above RC-43 line, and the other line to the right of
1,000 Hz, and 3 dB above RC-43 line. These lines are designated as R and H respectively. Observe that
two environment 1 values are above the H line. Therefore, this environment will sound hissy. Hence
environment 1 is rated as RC-43(H).
The average of sound pressure levels at 500, 1,000 and 2,000 Hz for environment 2 is (40 + 36 +
33)/3 = 36.3, i.e., 36 dB. Therefore, draw a line with a slope of 5 dB per octave beginning with 36 dB
at 1,000 Hz. Then draw lines R and H, and observe that some environment 2 values lie above the R line.
Hence environment 2 will sound rumbly, and hence it is classified as RC-36(R). Note from Example
8.1 that both these environments were NC-44 environments.
FIGURE A FIGURE B
80 eo
70
SPL
(aB) 60 60
50
40
:30 :30
16 :32 6:3 125 250 16 :32 6:3 125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000
Environment 1 Environment 2
168 Chapter 8
must stand well above HVAC noise. In recital and concert halls
with their unamplified sound, HVAC noise must not mask even the
faintest of performance sounds. Generally, HVAC noise should be
at least 10 dB lower than occupancy-related sounds in all octaves.
Table 8. 1 lists acceptable HVAC background noise levels in terms
of RC values for various occupancies. Conformance to RC values
generally requires a costlier HVAC system than conformance to NC
values. That is why NC values are extensively used even though
RC values provide a more reliable specification. Table 8. 1 also lists
NC values.
The corresponding approximate dB A levels of acceptable HVAC
noise are also listed in Table 8. 1. They may be used only in those
rare situations where instrumentation for octave band measurements
is not available to verify existing noise with that specified; dBA values
should not be used for specification purposes.
Hotels or motels:
Individual rooms, meeting rooms 25 - 35 25 - 35 33 - 43
Halls, corridors, lobbies 35 - 45 35 - 45 43 - 53
Office buildings:
Executive and private offices 25 - 35 25 - 35 33 - 43
Open plan offices 30 - 40 30 - 40 38 - 48
Circulation areas 40 - 45 40 - 45 48 - 53
Schools:
Classrooms up to 70 m2 (750 ft2) 40 (max) 40 (max)
Classrooms over 70 m2 (750 ft2) 35 (max) 35 (max)
Libraries 30 - 40 30 - 40 38 - 48
Courtrooms:
Unamplified speech 25 - 35 25 - 35 33 - 43
Amplified speech 30 - 40 30 - 30 38 - 48
Adapted from American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers' (Atlanta) Applications
Handbook, 1995, page 43.5.
Noise Control in Buildings 169
8.2 INTERIOR NOISE Various interior noise criteria discussed in the previous section are
simply guidelines for good practice. Although generally followed,
LEGISLATION their use is entirely voluntary. The only mandatory interior noise
control in the United States is in situations where a possibility of
hearing damage risk exists.
Hearing damage results from exposure to high noise levels over
long periods of time . The Occupational S afety and Health
Administration (OSHA) of the U.S. Department of Labor regulates
Ta b l e 8.2 OSHA P e r m i s s i b l e
the exposure of workers to workplace noise through federal
Noise Exposure Limits legislation passed in 1970. This legislation sets the upper limit of
exposure to noise in a worklace based on daily noise dose.
Time duration Maximum According to the Act[S. J, the maximum permissible value of
per day (T) in permissible daily noise dose (D) for a worker is 1.0 (or 100%). The value of D is
to be calculated from the following expression.
..
hours exposure (dBA)
I
8 90 ; Ct + Cz + c, + .
D (8. 2)
6 92 Tt Tz T3
4 95
3 97
2 lOO
1.5 102 where, a C value (C , C2, C 3 , etc.) is the total daily exposure time of
J
1 105 a worker to a specittc noise level, and a T value (T1 , T2 , T3, etc.) is
0.5 1 10 the corresponding maximum permissible exposure time tor that noise
0.25 or less 1 15 level. The values of T, as specified by the Act, are given in Table
8.2. Note that there is a 5 dBA exchange in the values, implying that
when the level increases by 5 dBA, the maximum exposure time is
Mathematically, the above values may be halved. For instance, the maximum exposure time for 90 dBA is 8
expressed as: hours, the maximum exposure time for 95 dBA is 4 hours, and so
Maximum permissible exposure in dBA on3 .
= 105 - 1 6.6 log (T) Now consider a worker who is exposed to a noise level of 100
dB A for 1 hour, 90 dB A for 6 hours, and 80 dB A for the remaining 1
hour on a particular day. From Equation (8. 2), the worker's noise
dose for that day is:
1
D = - + __ + _!_ = 1 .25
00
2 8
which is unacceptable since it is greater than 1 .0. Note that T for 80
dBA exposure has been assumed to be infinite, since according to
3 The OSHA Act also provides that if an employee has a standard threshold
shift (STS), that is, if he/she has lost an average of 10 dB of hearing at 2.0, 3 .0
and 4.0 kHz in either ear, then the 90-dBA- 8-hour limit will be replaced by
85-dBA-8-hour limit. The other values in Table 8.2 will also be correspondingly
reduced. Thus, 95-dBA-4-hour limit will be reduced to 90-dBA-4-hour limit,
and so on.
170 Chapter 8
Table 8.2 the permissible exposure time for a noise level lower than
90 dBA is unlimited.
In case D exceeds 0.5, the employer must institute an action
plan for hearing conservation of the worker/s, as specified in the
Act. Employers usually enforce conformance with the Act through
a noise dosimeter, which the workers wear during work time, Figure
8.4. A noise dosimeter continuously records and displays the value
of D.
8.3 INTERIOR NOISE The simplest and the most efficient means of controlling interior
noise is through architectural design. Rooms in which noise level
CONTROL THROUGH is expected to be high should be separated from noise-sensitive
ARCHITECTURAL rooms. Thus, in a multistory apartment building, bedrooms and
study rooms should be separated from lobbies, corridors and general
DESIGN circulation areas, Figure 8.5(a). The separation between noisy and
noise-sensitive spaces should be examined both in plan as well as
sections, Figure 8.5(b).
Noise Control in Buildings 171
u KIT
Ill I
KIT I--
BED
- =-
BED
J u u
c
J [
LIVING LIVING Alrl:oorne
BED BED sound
(a)
,I (11)
r
8.5 (a) Grouping of relatively noisy and quiet roo ms in a multifamily residential building. (b) Section through
a multifamily re sidential building indicating that structure-borne sound can transmit to a dwelling unit below
as well as to a unit to the side.
Court
Court
8.4 INTERIOR NOISE Another means of controlling interior noise is through the use of
sound absorbing materials. Since sound absorbing materials act by
CONTROL THROUGH reducing the intensity of reflected sound, they are effective in
SOUND ABSORPTIVE reducing reverberant sound only. The addition of sound absorption
has no effect on the level of direct sound.
TREATMENT It can be shown that noise reduction achieved through the use of
sound absorbing materials is given by:
A aft
NR = 10 log ---'- ( 8.3)
Abet
4 Close to the source, it is the direct sound that is dominant (free field condition).
Away from the source, it is the reverberant sound that dominates (reverberant field);
see Figure 1.16.
Noise Control in Buildings 173
A rectangular room measuring 20 m x 1 0 m x 6 m (high) with highly reflective surfaces (await& = 0.05,
afl r = 0.03, ac il = 0.03) is found to be quite noisy, Figure A. Determine the noise reduction 1f: (i) its
qp is treateo with a sound absorptive material ac l = 0.65) in the first phase, and (ii) if the upper
ceumg ( \li
part of walls, 4 m high, is also treated with sound absoromg material (awaits = 0.57) in the second phase.
a = 0.03
a = 0.65
a = 0.05
a = 0.05
a = 0.05
Aaft = Swa!ts (Uwatts) + Sfloor (<lfloor) + Sceil (<lceit) = 143 + 200(0.03) + 200(0.65) = 279 sabins.
From Equation (8.3), NR = 10 log (27911 54) = 2.6 dB, say 3 dB.
Celling
euepended
. / al:leorl:ler
Sound ""-
radiating in half
apace. Q 2
8.4.2 Location of Noise Source in a Room
=
Room eound In a room with reflective walls, it is important to keep noise sources
level = X dB away from the walls. Theoretically, a noise source near a reflective
wall increases the noise level by 3 dB, as compared to a source in
the center of the room. A noise source placed near the edge of a
room increases the level by 6 dB , and a source placed in the corner
5ource near a of a room increases the level by 9 dB8.61.
room'5 edge, I.e., Therefore, in a manufacturing facility, the machines should be
radiating In quarter placed away from the walls, if possible. Thus, the arrangement of
epace, Q 4 =
5ource near a machines in Figure 8 . 1 0(a) is acoustically better than that of Figure
room'e corner, I.e., 8 . 1 0(b).
radiating In one
eighth 5pace, Q 8 =
Room eound level EJ
= (X + 9) dB
(a) D D D D D D
. Reflective wall
Q le called the dlrectlvfty of eourc;e (eee aleo r I]
Section 9.6 and Appendix K).
0 O D D
Machine /
()
JDD"
8.10 Two alternative arrangements of noisy
machines in a room. Less noise will be 0
produced in the room using alternative (a).
Noise Control in Buildings 175
8.5 INTERIOR NOISE A sound insulating (full-height) barrier between a noisy environment
and the receiving room is the most effective means of interior noise
CONTROL THROUGH control. The principles and practical details of sound insulating
BARRIERS construction have already been discussed in Chapters 5 to 7. In this
section, we will discuss the magnitude of sound insulation required
of barriers between occupancies.
In a highly critical occupancy, a detailed analysis of the
transmission loss of the barrier between the source room and the
receiving room must be performed as shown later in Example 8.4.
For normal occupancies, the required sound insulation of the barrier
may be obtained from the empirical data. Table 8.3 gives minimum
STC values for party walls between multifamily dwellings, and Table
8.4 gives recommended STC values for nonresidential occupancies.
Partition wall STC ;;:: 55 STC ;;:: 52 STC ;;:: 48 STC ;;:: 50
Floor ceiling assembly STC :2: 55 STC :2: 52 STC ;;:: 48 STC ;;:: 50
The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) classifies multifamily dwellings into Grade I, 11, and Ill.
Grade I dwellings are those located in suburban or peripheral suburban areas, considered as "quiet" locations, with approximately
35-40 dBA, or lower, nighttime exterior noise levels.
Grade 11 dwellings are those located in urban and suburban areas considered to have "average" exterior noise environment, with
nighttime exterior noise levels of about 40-45 dB A. Grade Ill dwellings are those located in noisy urban areas, with nighttime
exterior noise levels of about 55 dB A or higher.
The building code requirements given in this table are from the Uniform Building Code, 1997. The same values appear in the
draft document of the International Building Code, expected to replace all three U.S. model building codes in the year 2000.
176 Chapter 8
Concert halls, recording studios, TV stations, etc. These are extremely critical
areas. Carry out a detailed
noise analysis, or use values
from Table 6. 1 .
Noise Control in Buildings 177
A rec
NR = TL + 10 log (8.4)
s
Arec
TL = NR - 1 0 log (8.5)
s
For example, let the noise level in the source room at some
frequency be 90 dB . If the receiving room can tolerate a maximum
noise level of only 35 dB at that frequency, the required NR is 55
dB . If the area of the barrier between the source room and receiving
room is 1 5 m2, and the total absorption in the receiving room is 45
sabins, then from Equation (8.5), the required TL of barrier is:
RECEIVING SOURCE
ROOM ROOM
TL = 55 - 10 log(45/1 5) = 50 dB
Nole;e: tranemlt
ted from eou rce: Nolee: le:ve:l In 8.5.2 Required Noise Reduction
room
f3.ackeround The magnitude of noise reduction required between the source room
le:ve:l In and receiving room is a function of the background noise level in the
receiving room. The transmitted noise level should be lower than
the background noise level - generally by at least 5 dB. This ensures
Min. 5 dB
that the sum of transmitted and background noises will not be
significantly higher than the original background noise level, Figure
8. 1 1 .
Tranemltte:d nolee: le:ve:l muet be: be:low
backeround nolee: level in recelvlne
room (minimum 5 dB be:low)
The HVAC noise environment specified for the conference room is RC-3 5 . Expected (or measured)
noise environment values in the manufacturing room are :
Solution: The barrier surface area = 1 0 x 3.5 = 3 5 m2. We now determine the total absorption in the
conference room for each octave, by multiplying the area of the element with its absorption coefficient.
For instance absorption provided by the ceiling at 500 Hz = 1 50(0.73) = 109.5 sabins. Detailed
calculations of total absorption in the conference room are given below.
-
+ i
Since the specified HVAC environment for the conference room is RC- or' Barrier
1.!)
35, the noise after going through the barrier must be at least 5 dB below z 10 m
RC-35 environment, i.e. RC-30. Thus, the required noise reduction in ii2 CONFERENCE
::I ROOM
1-
each octave is given below. (.) Glazlne -
<
u..
::I
-:01
Frequency 1 25 250 500 1 ,000 2,000 4,000 z
<
::t
FIGURE A
Manufacturing room noise 70 78 82 88 86 82
Noise level in receiving room
after transmission (RC-30) 15 20 25 30 35 40
Required NR 55 58 57 58 51 42
Subtract 1 0 log (ArecfS) -6 -7 - 8 -9 -9 -9
Required TL 49 51 49 49 42 33
The barrier must be such that its transmission loss at each frequency must be equal to or greater than the
required TL.
Noise Control in Buildings 179
8.6 EXTERIOR NOISE The most c ommon sources of exterior noise, also termed
environmental noise (or community noise) are traffic noise, aircraft
CRITERIA noise, industrial noise, etc. How do we rate the annoyance potential
of environmental noise? The NC curves and RC curves used for
rating interior HVAC noise cannot be used to rate environmental
noise, because of one fundamental difference between the two types
of noise: the HVAC noise level is constant, while the environmental
noise varies with time.
Because of its temporal variation, environmental noise does not
lend itself to a simple rating criterion. Consequently, an extremely
large number of criteria have been suggested over the years. Although
efforts to arrive at a consensus criterion have yielded some results,
there are still a large number of them in use. In this text, we will
discuss only two commonly used criteria: Le and L A
.
8.6.1 L
eq
8.6.2 Ldn
In the United States, cities and several federal agencies, such as the
Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA), Federal Transit Administration
(FTA), Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), etc., are involved
with environmental noise issues. The have formulated ordinances
and guidelines to assess the impact of environmental noise.
180 Chapter 8
New Housing new residential development. Table 8.5 gives HUD's nmse standards
for evaluating residential sites for financing new housinj
Site Classification Ldn (dBA)
construction[S. 9] .
Thus, for sites that are in the normally acceptable category, w
an Ldn lying between 65 to 70 dBA, the dwelling's envelope mu
have an overall TL of 25 dB (5 dB more than a conventional dwellin
Acceptable 65 which is assumed to give nearly 20 dB A reduction for transportati
Normally acceptable 65 - 75 noise). If Ld is between 70 to 75 dBA, an additional l O dB in
Unacceptable > 75 overall TL of the envelope must be provided, i.e., an overall TL of
30 dB.
8.7 EXTERIOR NOISE Most cities have noise ordinances specifying the maximum noise
levels that can be produced by industries and other noise-producinJ
CONTROL THROUGH occupancies at their property lines. In addition to the noise legislatioJt
SITE PLANNING the following site and town planning principles can be used to control
exterior noise.
Increase distance between the noise source and the received
Heavy foliage coupled with several rows of trees reduce!
noise, Figure 8. 12(a). Although the trees do not absorb much
sound, they diffuse sound so that a part falls on the foliageJ
where it gets absorbed. Heavy foliage absorbs sound to thd
same degree as an interior carpet. One or two rows of trees
with no or little ground foliage will not attenuate any more
sound than that attenuated due to distance, Figure 8. 12(b).
Trees should be evergreen, not deciduous that shed their
leaves during autumn.
Self-protecting building forms can shield noise-sensitiv
parts of the building from the noise source. A few self
protecting building forms are shown in Figure 8. 13.
Buildings housing noise-sensitive spaces should be laid
perpendicular to the street, shielded by buildings that can
tolerate noise, Figure 8.14.
Noise Control in Buildings 181
(a)
(17)
8.12 (a) Several rows of trees with heavy foliage provide attenuation of
sound in addition to that obtained due to the distance effect.
(b) One or two rows of trees with little or no ground foliage give no
additional sound attenuation except that due to the distance.
8.13 A few self-protecting building forms that shield parts of the building sensitive to noise.
Nolee
eeneltlve
epace&
[),______....(]
Street
If tall buildings have overhanging balconies facing a busy
street, the underside of their balconies should be treated with
sound absorbing material to absorb sound before it hits the
building facade, Figure 8 . 1 5 .
Residential districts and other areas where quiet is needed
should be separated from industrial districts, highways,
railways, airports, etc.
Road network should be planned in such a way that traffic is
concentrated on a few streets rather than being distributed
on several of them (see Example 1 .5).
Sound a17eorl71ng
rnatrlal
J
8.8 EXTERIOR NOISE When site planning measures do not provide the desired noise
reduction, embankments (berms) or barrier walls or both should be
CONTROL THROUGH built, Figure 8 . 1 6. Barrier walls, or simply barriers, are usually
BARRIERS made of masonry, concrete, metal panels, etc.
As shown in Figure 8. 17, noise attenuation provided by a barrier
is a function of the following three factors:
Sound diffracted over the barrier,
Sound reflected by the ground and diffracted over the barrier,
and
Sound transmitted through the barrier.
The sound transmitted through a commonly used outdoor barrier
is usually much smaller than that diffracted over the barrier, provided
the barrier is without holes or gaps. Therefore, the factors that
determine sound attenuation of a barrier are diffraction and ground
absorption.
Noise Control in Buildings 1 83
Noiee 17arrier
Berm
Source
where
N = (20 /A), and o = (a + b - d),
Bsrrfer d = length of straight line path between the source
and the receiver, called the line of sight,
(a + b) = shortest path length between the source and
8.18 Barrier and source-receiver receiver over the barrier's edge, and
geometry. A. = wavelength of sound.
20
<
ltl ---
15 ------
V
/
1:::
0
43
<1'1
:::3
1:::
<1'1 10
1/
L.
"
1:
L.
<1'1
ltl
5
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
o = (a + 1.> - d) In m
(X
a Receiver Aa = A l SO (8.8)
Barrier
where, Aa = barrier attenuation subtending an angle of a (in degrees)
at the receiver, and A is the attenuation of the same barrier if it were
infinitely long (i.e., a = 1 8o).
186 Chapter 8
Determine the noise level at a receiver located behind a long (consider infinitely long) highway noise
barrier with a total height of 4.0 m above the road level, as shown in Figure A. Assume that highway
noise level measured at 20 m from the center of the highway (and at a height of 1 .0 m above road level)
is 85 dBA.
Solution: a = 40. 1 1 m, b = 20.22 m, d = 60 m. Hence, 0 = 40. 1 1 + 20.22 - 60 = 0.33 m. From Figure
8.20, A = 1 2.6 dBA. This is the barrier insertion loss (attenuation in excess of the attenuation due to
distance). From Section 1 .6.3, traffic noise reduces by 3 dB per doubling of distance. Hence at the
location of the receiver (60 m from the center of the highway), noise reduction due to distance is
approximately 4.8 dB. Thus, the total noise reduction (attenuation) = 12.6 + 4.8 = 1 7.4 dBA, say 1 7
dBA.
The above calculation does not include the effect of the ground, which degrades the attenuation.
Usually 3 to 4 dB A degradation due to ground may be expected. Thus, the actual noise reduction will
be nearly 1 3 to 14 dBA, in place of 17 dBA.
3m
C enterllne of
highway
i...::::...----ff- 0
Receiver 1 m
20 m 20 m 20 m
FIGURE A
Noise Control in Buildings 1 87
9.1 HVAC SYSTEMS The HVAC systems commonly used in buildip.gs may be classified
as: window air conditioners, fan coil units, roof-top units, packaged
air handling units, and built-up air handling units.
189
190 Chapter9
Exhaue;t
. :o. "'
o .. . ;.'o .,. ' 41' .0
. o,:c-o
.. . .
..
.
"
. . . .
: .0 6
. . ;
. ':' '0.:
.
0, . , . o. .
.
) m uuoouoouuuQlll\(Y\ J(Wl
j
,.
l
duct high tranemle;e;lon loee and
high thermal lne;ulatlon D
l 1
__r=D.
001
Dlecharge
plenum 2
--
1:::
- ., - Dr''
"'
pl"m 1
t--- -
._
.!!
iii
.>::
2 :'1
:
I
u:
-----
-.!!-
iii
._
.,
<.l
1:::
.,
Freeh air and
retum-alr In-
take
Floating floor
l
c
Id._
t'----)0
-
Jr
I
jt.o!:;"'
r--- -
.;.? 0 . .
. . .":o .. . .. . "' : . .. . .
,i)
.
.. .
u.,:
. ... .
.
. .. .-t:,;_ . :
. I>
. o: ., :o
, . .. , .
C> _o
.. : o ., _r .. .
9.2 NOISE The primary source of noise in an HVAC system is the fan. The
noise from the fan is fed into the ducts. As the fan's sound travels
ATTENUATION IN along the duct system, its level decreases through several energy
DUCTS extracting mechanisms. Some of the sound energy is converted to
vibrations of duct walls. The duct radiates this vibrational energy in
the space surrounding the duct as sound, known as duct break-out
noise, Figure 9.4.
The sound energy that is retained in the duct is absorbed by the
internal fiberglass lining (if used), duct bends, junctions, and duct
cross-sectional changes.
To increase its attenuation, as the sound travels in the duct, the duct
is internally treated with fiberglass, referred to as duct lining, Figure
duct 9.5. The use of lined ducts is therefore common in HVAC systems,
since an unlined duct provides negligible attenuation except in the
low frequency region, Figure 9.6. This attenuation is mainly due to
9.5 Fiberglass lining in HVAC ducts. duct break -out.
I I I
1.0 \..
150 mm x 150 mm ( 6 In. x 6 In.) -
duct
300 mm x 300 mm ( 12 In. x 12 -
. .... ::. : :
....
:
In.) duct
300 mm x 600 mm ( 12 In. x 24 - E:
0
... . . . . . . . . .......... . . . .
0.5 0.15
. . . . . . . ... .
E:
.. - . .. . ...... . .
0 ---------L--L--- 0
9.6 Sound attenuation of 63 125 250 500 1.000 2,000 4,000
unlined ducts. Adapted Frettuenc;y (Hz)
from Reference 9.1.
194 Chapter9
16 4.9
14 4.:3
... .......... ........... ..
12 ....... :3.6
I
/ ......
'E
iO
50 mm
10 t- llnlne
(2 In.) thick
-r " :3.0
/
""
I
10
,:/
Ill
8 2.4
I 1-
Ill
s::
0
6
i
25
llnlne
mm (1 In.) thick
- 1.8
s::
.!:
4
. . ..
...
...
.
/ 1.2
0)
V
..
.!:
... .
. ............... ...
...
2 -- 0 .6
9.7 Insertion loss of300 mm
x 600 mm (12 in. x 24 in.) 0 0
sheet metal duct with 25 mm 6:3 125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000
(1 in.) thick and 50 mm (2 in.) Frequency (Hz)
thick fiberglass lining.
Adapted from Reference 9.1.
1 Recently, the use of fiberglass lining in ducts and plenums has been banned or
severely limited in several educational and medical projects due to the concern
that glass fibers promote microbial growth and may be carcinogenic. Evidence
available so far has failed to show any evidence to endorse this concern (see
Reference 9. 1, page 43.32).
Some manufacturers offer duct lining treated with bactericidal and fungicidal
materials to reduce the contamination effect. In a duct system where no lining is
permitted, system cost increase for the control of noise is inevitable. The increased
cost may be due to increased attenuator lengths, specification of attenuators without
fibrous lining, or with fibrous lining enclosed in thin airtight polyethylene bags, or
the use of computer-controlled active silencers.
Control of H VAC Noise 195
16
-------- ----,-- 1 ----,-
-,--- 1 ./ .. . . . . . . . .
.-- ... . --,---------, 9
- . 4
14
,-------,-
12 :3 6
. .
.
x ..
(12 In. 24 In.) duct / . .................. """--
mm x mm
x
\
..9 8 I / "- 2 . 4 111
, . / ....... !
1:
0
e 6 .
1.
'""'
600 mm x 600 mm
1:
4 . ->"
..-..-.. +-
...
+- (12 In. x 24 In.) duct - 1.2
-= _
..=
--- -+--_.-.
r-- '
.. :r"'-=-
"-:
2 . 0.6
9.8 Insertion loss of three rectangular sheet metal ducts of different cross
sections - all with 25 mm (1 in.) thick fiberglass lining. Adapted from
Reference 9.1.
196 Chapter9
Where noise attenuation greater than that provided by duct runs and
transitions is required, air plenums and duct silencers are used. A
plenum is routinely provided beyond the outlet section of a fan and
before the main distribution duct to smooth out turbulent airflow in
the vicinity of the fan. A plenum is a large enclosure (usually o
sheet metal), whose walls are lined with fiberglass, Figure 9.9. Tho
surface area of a plenum must at least be 1 0 times the inlet area.
The greater the surface area of a plenum in relation to the inlet area,
the greater its effectiveness.
To achieve a gooq absorption over the entire frequency range, a
1 00 to 150 mm (4 to 6 in.) thick fiberglass lining is required. In
addition, the inlet and outlet openings should be staggered as much
as possible both in the horizontal as well as in the vertical direction.
The effectiveness of a plenum is also expressed as insertion loss.
The insertion loss is simply the additional sound pressure level
reduction obtained by the use of a plenum. Insertion loss of nearly
1 2 dB is obtainable in low frequency region from the use of a lined
plenum.
Inlet duct
plenum enclosure
J
= 0.5A__.J
__
Branch This division is in direct proportion to the individual branch areas.
duct: area Thus, if the cross-sectional area of branch duct is Ab and the area of
= 0.5A
the main duct is Am the reduction in the sound power level in the
,
branch duct (as compared to that in the main duct) is given by the
following expression.
.
area= A Reduction in sound power level = 10 log
A
A
:
9.11 Branching ofducts and noise level For instance, if the main duct divides into two ducts of the same
distribution. area, that is the ratio of the area of branch duct to that of the main
duct is 0.5, the noise in each branch duct is 3 dB less than in the
main duct, since 10 log (0.5) =- 3 dB, Figure 9.11.
9.3 NOISE GENERATED The air flow in ducts should be as smooth as possible in order to
reduce the generation of air turbulence. In an improperly designed
BY AIRFLOW duct system, turbulence increases noise levels, and also decreases
the HVAC system's efficiency. An important factor that affects
turbulence is the velocity of air in the duct.
ASHRAE specifies the maximum air velocity for ducts, which
is a function of the NC (or RC) rating of the space, and whether the
duct is circular or rectangular in cross-section. The greater the NC
(or RC) rating, the greater the maximum air velocity permitted, Table
9.1. A circular duct gives less turbulence. Therefore, a greater air
velocity is permitted in a circular duct.
El"owe in ducte
L ....
....
\..._'- Vanee
L L
Avoid Uee Uee
Air
'
_)w
:;::moth
n 1 re
I
mcceed15
Change in duct Airflow Airflow
croee-eection
Avoid Uee
Terminal units in ducts that supply and distribute air into the room
are called diffusers. In a return air system, the terminal units remove
air from the room, and are usually referred to as grilles or registers.
Diffusers and grilles generate noise, as they constrict the passage of
air through them. This is unlike the in-duct elements, which attenuate
noise. Diffusers and grilles are therefore noise additive, and because
they are terminal elements, there is no way to attenuate their energy.
Manufacturers of these devices provide sound power level data of
their products.
Diffuser noise tends towards being "hissy", i.e., in mid and high
frequency range, due to the small scale of the turbulent eddies
generated by vanes. Therefore we avoid face dampers to control air
volume, since they increase turbulent flow. Locate volume control
devices several equivalent diameters upstream of diffusers, so that
by the time air reaches the diffusers it is relatively free of turbulence.
9.4 SOUND RA DIATION Duct break-out noise has already been referred to in Section 9.2. It
must be accounted for in calculating the noise in a room. Thus, the
BY DUCT WALL S noise in a room is due to that received from duct outlets and duct
break-out noise.
Duct break-out is more serious in a high velocity system.
However, it is present to some degree in a low velocity systems as
well. Duct break-out can be quite high in the first 6 to 10 m (20 to
30 ft) from the fan. Therefore, the initial part of the duct should not
traverse an acoustically sensitive space. In other words, an important
space, such as a conference room or a board room, should not be
located close to an AHU's main (trunk) duct.
ASHRAE[911 provides a simple procedure to determine duct
break-out noise. If the calculated break -out level is excessive, means
must be employed to reduce it. The simplest means of reducing
duct break-out is to use a circular duct, which because of its inherent
stiffness, is less prone to break-out than a rectangular duct, Figure
9.13. However, increased duct wall thickness (gauge), a duct width
to-height ratio close to 1.0, and the short distance between bracing
flanges improve break-out characteristics of rectangular ducts.
Sh metal
duct Tape
.olt, . 6 -
. .. . - . . c - . .. - . .. . ..
..
. . r; . . . ' . . . ', : .
I .o. : ' : .
9.15 Duct break-in from a noisy space into a relatively quiet space.
Control of HVAC Noise 201
9.5 CROSS Cross transmission (or cross talk) is the transmission of noise between
adjacent rooms through a supply or return duct that is common to
TRANSMISSION IN the two rooms, Figure 9.16. A careful examination of cross
DUCTS transmission between rooms is necessary where speech privacy or
noise isolation is important. In general, duct attenuation should be
at least 5 dB more than the TL of the partition between rooms. Thus,
if the TL of the partition is 40 dB, the attenuation of the duct should
be at least 45 dB.
0 s. .
Q
====l[r l-,--::::=:...
iran!lmleelon
through duct
V
iranemleelon
through wall
-
0 0 0
'----
c:;-;:::
ROOM ROOM ROOM
-
g [ g
(1:1) Duct layout to reduce croee tranemleelon
9.6 ESTIMATIN G HVAC ASHRAE has developed a straightforward method to estimate the
sound pressure levels in each octave from 63Hz to 8 kHz at a receiver
NOISE LEVELS in a space served byHVAC duct system2. A typical work sheet for a
room is shown in Table 9 .2. We start with the sound power levels of
the fan(s) at the air handling unit- data that is routinely available
from fan and air handler manufacturers.
Proceeding from the fan, we tabulate each element in the duct
system that affects the sound power level in the air stream until the
air is delivered to the served space. Elements include lengths of
straight duct, elbows, sound attenuators, plenums, branches and VAV
mixing boxes. This data is typically available from ASHRAE tables,
except for plenums, which must be calculated, and for attenuators,
whose data is available from manufacturers.
2 Many consultants skip the 8 kHz octave because sound absorption coefficients
are not reported at that frequency, and HVAC noise is seldom a problem at that
frequency.
Control ofHVAC Noise 203
R=
where r.A =total absorption in room (in metric sabins), and aav =
average absorption coefficient of the room; see Equations (4.3) and
(4.4).
If the customary U. S . system of units is used, in which r is
expressed in feet, and R in ft-sabins, Equation (9.1) becomes:
. r2 R
i
204 Chapter9
-15 -16 -16 -16 -16 -16 -16 (PWL - SPL) from Eq. (9.1'), Q = 2, r = 15 ft- room effect- calculated
9.7 ACTIVE NOISE Reducing or completely eliminating a sound through another sound,
by destructive interference, is called active noise control, as opposed
CONTROL IN HVAC to the use of fiberglass, which is referred to as passive noise control.
SYSTEMS Although active noise control has been known for a long time- the
first patent was awarded in 1936l921 it became a practical
-
Dletance
Wave 1
10.1 IMPULSE If we produce a short "burst" of sound (sound impulse), such as that
generated by pricking an inflated balloon or by a hand clap in a large
RESPONSE OF A ROOM room, we will observe that the sound does not die instantaneously.
The sound of the balloon or the clap persists for a while, decreasing
in level over time. In fact, in a large hall with highly reflective walls,
the persistence of sound after its termination is quite noticeable. In
a reverberation chamber (Figure 3.28), which is specially designed
to have a long decay time, the sound may persist for as long as 10
seconds or more. Some of the old cathedrals in Europe have decay
times close to that value. On the other hand, in an open area or in an
anechoic chamber the sound dies instantaneously.
207
208 Chapter 10
1 Some selective absorption will also occur, as some frequencies will be more
absorbed than others at boundaries and by the air in the room- changing sound's
"timbre".
The Behavior of Sound in Rooms 209
142
q p ,P
\ \ I I
\ I I
\ I
\ I
\
\ I
\
\ I
\ I
I
\ I
\ I I
\ \ I I
\ \ I I
0..------------
1:31
'
/
', '
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61
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'o
10.2 Mirror images of the source in a rectangular room and the directions of sound received by a listener. Only
the first-order, second-order and some third-order images are shown - in one plane.
Note that one and only one image lies in each
replica of the actual room. A line and arrow in
the diagram indicate the direction of travel of a
sound wave from the source or its image, as it 10.1.2 Directional Distribution of Reflections
is incident on the listener, L. It does not imply
that sound travels like the "rays" of light; see Now consider the sound received by a listener situated at L. The
Section 10.7. listener receives sound impulses from the source as well as from all
its images. Since the listener is closer to the source than any one of
its images, the first sound impulse to arrive at the listener is from the
source - along direction SL. This impulse is referred to as the
direct sound.
The subsequent impulses come from the images. The directions
from which these impulses arrive at the listener are shown by broken
lines in Figure 10.2. Notice the spread in the directional distribution
of the sound arriving at the listener, implying a good deal of diffusion,
which becomes more obvious if higher-order images are taken into
account.
The directional distribution of sound is particularly important in
halls meant for music. Sound coming from many different directions
creates a sense of "volume" or "envelopment" in the room - an
important requirement for the appreciation of music. More
specifically, as we shall see in Chapter 12, strong early reflections
coming from the lateral directions (as opposed to the overhead
reflections) are particularly favored for concert halls.
210 Chapter 10
1 0.2 IMPUL SE A smooth decay of sound is obtained only if the sound field in the
room is diffuse. By definition, a perfectly diffuse sound field is one
DI A GR A M A N D SOUND in which the sound reaches every listener in the room in equal strength
DIFFUSION from all directions (see Section 3.7). The impulse diagram in a room
with a perfectly diffuse field is perfectly uniform, implying that
individual impulses decrease uniformly in level with no deviation
from the imaginary broken line, Figure 10.4.
A perfectly diffuse sound field is an ideal condition, seldom
achieved in practice. However, a reasonably diffuse field is obtained
in a room whose average absorption coefficient a is small, and
where the absorption is (almost) uniformly distributed on all surfaces.
As the nonuniformity in the distribution of absorption increases,
fluctuations from the uniform decay increase. For instance, if one
or more surfaces of the room are highly absorptive, significant lack
of diffusion results.
This is shown in Figure 10.5, where one of the four walls (wall
2) of the room is fully absorptive (i.e., a = 1.0). If we construct
mirror images of the source for this room, we will see that there are
no images beyond wall 2, since there are no reflections from this
wall. In fact, the images for this room are located only within a
narrow spatial band. Consequently there is considerable non
uniformity in the directional disposition of sound in this room, as
compared with the room of Figure 10.2. This difference is more
apparent if third- and higher-order images are considered.
5PL
(dB)
10.2.1 Reverberation and Echoes
Wall 2
10.5 First- and second-order images in a room in which one wall (wall 2) is fully absorptive (a = 1.0).
Observe the nonuniformity of directional distribution of sound at the listener as compared with the room of
Figure 10.2.
'
'
'
'
10.3 REVERBERATION Except sounds created by air conditioning and a few other sources,
most sounds in buildings seldom reach the steady state. They are
TIME transient sounds, identified by start-stop characteristics. A typic
speech, for instance, consists of phrases, which in turn consist d
words. Each word consists of one or more syllables. Silent interval
(pauses) exist not only between words and phrases but also between
syllables. Music is also composed of transients. For example, an
intervening pause is necessary as one piano key is pressed after
another.
Due to the transient nature of most practical sounds, and because
sound decay is far more perceptible than buildup, it is the decay of
sound, not its buildup, that is important in room acoustics. Mord
precisely, it is the rate of decay of sound that affects the acoustics of
lecture and concert halls.
Although the importance of decay rate in room acoustics has
been known for centuries, it was first placed on a quantitative footind
nearly one hundred years ago by Wallace Clement Sabine, a professor
of physics at Harvard University. Sabine identified the decay rate as
reverberation time and defined it as the time taken by a sound to
decrease 60 dB from its value at termination.
90 Thus, if the sound level when the source is terminated is 90 dB,
I
I
and it takes 1.6 seconds for the sound level to decrease to 30 dB,
I
I then the reverberation time of the room is 1.6 seconds, as shown in
5PL I
I
I
60 Figure 10.9.
(d6) I
I
dB By extensive and ingenious measurements in halls of different
I types, Sabine obtained the following relationship betweea
I
I
30 -- -
; - --- - reverberation time and room parameters.
1
lo 1.0 2.0
Ti e (eecorule)
Reverl:leratlon
I RT =
0.16 V
A
(10. 1 )
i time f
where, V is room volume (in m3), and l:.A, the total absorption in the
10.9 Definition of reverberation time room (in metric sabins). The value of RT is in seconds.
- as the time it takes for the sound to Equation (10.1), known as the Sabine equation, shows that the
decay by 60 dB after its termination. reverberation time is a function of only two room parameters: room
The Behavior of Sound in Rooms 213
where, S1, S S3, ... etc. are the surface areas of a room (in m2), and
' az, <l:3 2. etc., are the corresponding absorption coefficients.
. .
0.05 V
RT = (10. 1')
:EA
0. 1 6( 1 44) 0. 1 4 sec
RT = =
70 ....... 70
10.11 A simplified illustration of the masking effect of reverberation on the intelligibility of the three-syllable
word "musical". (a) RTofroom = 2. 0 sec, (b) RTofroom = 0.4 sec, and (c) word uttered slowly in a room with
RT = 2. 0 sec.
10.5 REVERBERATION Since the absorption coefficient of surface finishes and the audience
varies considerably with frequency, the reverberation time of a room
TIME CALCULATIONS is a function of frequency. Therefore, the reverberation time of a
room must be calculated at a number of frequencies.
The Behavior of Sound in Rooms 2 17
10.6 OPTIMUM Rooms meant for speech require a relatively short reverberation time.
For a small room, a value of 0.5 sec is appropriate. For large lecture
REVERBERATION rooms and auditoriums, a larger value is necessary, because in a large
TIMES room, the audience is farther away from the speaker, and hence a
greater degree of reinforcement is required.
Music requires a longer reverberation time, the actual value
depending on the type of music. Although, this aspect is discussed
further in Chapter 1 2, in general, slow and solemn music, such as
church music, is best perceived in a space with a long reverberation
time. Quick rhythmic music (light concert) requires a shorter
reverberation time. Once again, a larger room is better served by a
longer reverberation time.
Cinema halls require a very short reverberation time, since the
reverberation is built into the sound track of the film. A cinema hall
with a long reverberation time will unduly change the character of
the space in which the plot was filmed, and reduce intelligibility.
218 Chapter 1 0
3.0 .
2.5 -----1-
2.0
RT5oo
(6ec) 1.5 1
1.0 1
0.5 1
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 10.0 20.0 30.0
10.12 Suggested optimum reverberation times for various activities at 500 Hz. For cinema halls, and
recording and broadcasting studios, see Chapter 13.
Note that the values in the figure are for people with normal hearing. For hearing-impaired and older individuals, optimum
reverberation times for speech auditoriums should be less than those given above; see also Section 1 1 . 10.
The Behavior of Sound in Rooms 219
[ RT RT250 ]
I 25 +
BR = ( 1 0.2)
[ RT ]
soo + RTl ,OOO
5 BR greater than 1 . 0 is not favored for music practice rooms, as the music director
and musicians require no such enhancement while working to perfect blend,
projection, ensemble etc.
220 Chapter 10
10.7 COUPL ED ROOMS It is not uncommon for two spaces to be coupled to each other through
an opening between them. Such spaces are referred to as acoustically
coupled rooms. Most commonly occurring coupled rooms are a hall
and the stage coupled through the proscenium opening, or a hall
coupled to a deep balcony.
In coupled rooms, sound energy is exchanged between the rooms
through the opening. If the source is a continuous source and if a
steady state has been established, there is no net energy exchange
between rooms. However, when the source is turned off, the sound
in both rooms decays at their own individual decay rates.
If the reverberation times of the rooms are unequal, there will be
an energy surplus in one room as compared to the other during the
decay process. This will lead to energy transfer from the energy
surplus room to the energy-deficient room, causing a modification
in the reverberation characteristics of rooms. If the reverberation
times of both rooms are the same, there will be no energy exchange
between rooms during the decay process.
6 If the two rooms are separated by a large opening, the difference between
the sound pressure levels between the rooms, at the time when the source is
switched off, will be small. On the other hand, if the opening is small the
above difference will be large.
The Behavior of Sound in Rooms 221
Time
Time
Sourcll E9 EB Sourcll
10.13 Sound decay in coupled rooms. (a) The sound source is in room 1. (b) The source is in room 2.
If the sound source in the coupled rooms were to lie in room 2, the
decay process of room 1 would be completely masked by that of
room 2, as shown in Figure 10. 1 3(b). In other words, both rooms
would have virtually the same decay rates - that of room 2.
Unless the reverberation times of the two rooms are (almost) equal,
the reverberation times of coupled rooms should be calculated
separately. This is done by assuming that the absorption coefficient
of the opening (between the two rooms) is the average absorption
coefficient of the other room. Thus, if we are calculating the RT of
room 1 in Figure 1 0. 1 3 , the absorption coefficient of the opening is
assumed as the average absorption coefficient of room 2. In
calculating the RT of room 2, we assume that the absorption
coefficient of the opening is the average absorption coefficient of
room 1 .
222 Chapter 1 0
10.8 BEH AVIOR OF The preceding discussion of the reverberation process was based on
the assumption that sound propagation in space is geometrical- in
SOUND IN A SM ALL the form of sound beams or rays. Additionally, the derivation of the
ROOM reverberation time equation is based on a few statistical assumptions.
For example, it is assumed in the derivation of reverberation time
equation that sound energy has an equal probability of falling on
every unit area of a room surface. It is also assumed that the distance
traveled by each sound ray between two successive reflections is
(4V /S) - the mean free path.
Because of these statistical and geometrical assumptions, the
behavior of sound in a room, represented by the Sabine equation, is
referred to as statistical-geometrical acoustics.
The reality, however, is that sound does not travel as rays or
beams, but in the form of waves. Thus, as the sound is reflected
from room boundaries, standing waves are formed, due to the
superposition of reflected waves with the original waves - a fact
that cannot be accounted for by assuming that sound propagation is
geometrical in nature.
The standing waves are formed only at frequencies whose
wavelength divides the room dimension by a whole number. In other
words, if a room dimension is an integral multiple of the wavelength
of sound, a standing wave is formed at that frequency, referred to as
the resonant frequency or the modal frequency. The room gives a
preferential treatment to a resonant frequency by amplifying the
sound at that frequency. The emphasizing of certain frequencies is
called tonal coloration; it makes voices sound unnatural and music
sound distorted.
Apart from tonal colorations, a standing wave increases the sound
pressure level at some locations and decreases it at other locations,
giving a nonuniform distribution of sound in the room - an
undesirable feature for music and listening spaces. The locations
where the increase and decrease of sound pressure levels occur
depend on the frequency of sound.
The number of modal frequencies in a room increases with the
size of the room, and far more sharply with the frequency of sound.
For an auditorium or a concert hall, the number of modal frequencies
- the frequencies at which the room responds preferentially - is
so large that the room can be assumed to behave nonpreferentially at
all frequencies.
In other words, the statistical-geometrical acoustics applies quite
well to a relatively large room, but not to a small room. For a small
room, the standing wave phenomenon must be taken into account,
particularly at low frequencies. It is precisely because a small room
gives a preferential treatment to a few low frequencies that the
phenomenon of bathroom baritones can be explained. In a small
bathroom with its highly reflective surfaces, the low frequencies,
particularly of a male singer, sound richer and fuller than in a large
room.
In practice, small rooms are: a broadcasting studio, sound
recording room, music practice room, rehearsal room, etc. Large
rooms are: a concert hall, auditorium, opera theater etc.
The standing wave phenomenon is also of less concern in an
irregularly shaped small room, since shape irregularities increase
the number of modal frequencies. Additionally, there are some room
proportions that reduce the standing wave effects in a small room.
For a detailed discussion of the standing wave phenomenon, refer to
Appendix C.
The Behavior of Sound in Rooms 223
Calculate the reverberation times of a rectangular lecture room measuring 10 m x 15 m x 3 .65 m (33 ft
x 49 ft x 12 ft), as shown in Figure A. Interior finishes and the corresponding absorption coefficients
are given below:
Wall : gypsum board on 2 x 6 metal studs {a125 = 0.26, a500 = 0.05, a2,000 = 0.04)
Glazmg: (a 125 = 0.30, a5 00 = 0. 1 0, .ooo = 0.05 )
Flr: concrete (a 125 u.u1 . a50 = O':oz, a2 000 = 0.02)
Cellmg: sspended mmeral f1berboard ( a125 = 0.34, a500 = 0.53 , 000 = 0. 73)
D ,
Doors: sohd core flush door (a 125 = 0. 1 5, a5.oo = 0. 10, a2 000 = 0.05)
Audience: students seated in armchair seats l<X125 = 0.56, a500 = 0.79. a2,000 = 0.86, see Table 4. 1)
Solution: Since the room consists of three different heights , its volume is calculated in three parts.
Thus:
Room volume = (9.0 x 10.0 x 3 .65) + (3.0 x 10.0 x 3 .45) + (3.0 x 10.0 x 3 .25) = 529.5 m 3 . The
remaining calculations are best performed in a tabular format as shown in Table A on the following
page.
FIGURE A
15.0 m
1
(49' 0")
10.0 m
l
:3.65 m
(12'0" )
"'
Step in floor -7
/
V
10.0 m Rear 10.0 m
Front Audience area
(:3:3' 0" ) wall LECTURE ROOM 8.5 m x B m
wall (:3'0")
Door
1.1 m x 2.5 m Door
...=
1.1 m x 2.5 m
Left wall ==
15.0 m
''
(49'0 )
224 Chapter 1 0
Table A
0.8
Actual
RT / Optimum
Comparison of the Actual
i
(e>ec:) 0.6
and Optimum Reverl:leratlon
Tlmee
0.4 '--'-----'--.....__
125 500
Frel.\uency (Hz)
2,000
!
The Behavior of Sound in Rooms 225
Calculate the reverberation times of a hall, whose plan and longitudinal section are shown in Figure A.
Interior finishes and their corresponding absorption coefficients are:
Rear wall and rear part of two side walls: Sound absorbing concrete block ( a.125 = 1 .07,
500 = 0.6 1 , z..ooo = 0.56)
All other walls: Painted concrete block (125 = 0. 10, a.500 = 0.06, .ooo = 0.09)
Stage floor: Hardwood floor (a.125 = 0.20, a.500 = 0. 15, a., 000 = 0.06)
Stage apron - vertical face between stage floor and hall floor: wood paneling (a.125 = 0.17,
5oo = 0. 10, 2,000 = 0.06)
FIGURE A
6.1 m 17.0 m
( 20'-0") (55'-9")
2b.O m
16.0 m (91'-10")
Door (2.0 m x 2.5 m}
(52'-6")
Sound al>150rl?ing
STAGE I> lock
PLA N
8.0 m
9.0 m
(26'- :3")
(2 9'-6")
SECTION
226 Chapter 1 0
Solution: This problem is basically similar to that of Example 9.1, except that the calculation of volume
and surface areas are more complex in this example. We will ftrst calculate the area of the floor by
dividing it into six component areas. The area of each component is shown within parentheses in
Figure B. Note that the areas of components (2) and (5), which are segmental in shape, have been
worked out by approximating them to triangles. Thus, the component area (2) has been assumed as a
triangle with a base of 16.0 m and a height of 1.5 m.
FIGURE B
Area of stage = Component areas (1) + (2) = 97.6 +
17.0 m 3.0 m 12.0 = 109. 6 m2
Area of hall = Component areas (3) + (4) + (5) + (6)
= 260 + 54 + 42 + 54 = 410.0 m2
FIGURE C
5.0 m f -51!1 f
l @l
16
(Door)
5.0 2 @ : : . 3
....___,
...._ _...-_ .-; ................................... ...........
4.5 m 12.5 m
f ')5
The reverberation time calculations are tabulated in Table A on the following page. Since, it is a
multipurpose hall, optimum RT500 is estimated to be 1.0 second from Figure 10.12 (as being in between
speech auditorium and opera theater).
The Behavior of Sound in Rooms 227
Table A
8. Audience (assume the audience area to include the aisles and the front circulation area)
Fully occupied hall a 0.76 0.88 0.91
Area = 410.0 m 2 Sa (sabins) 3 1 1 .60 360.80 373. 1 0
REFERENCES 10.1 Beranek, Leo: Concert and Opera Halls - How They Sound, Acoustical
Society of America, 1996, p. 5 1 3 .
10.2 Beranek, Leo: Concert and Opera Halls - How They Sound, Acoustical
Society of America, 1996, pp. 105 and 275.