SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011

HYDROPHYSICS: THE PETROPHYSICS OF DRILLING

FLUIDS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON LOG DATA

Geoffrey Page, Stephen Vickers

Baker Hughes Incorporated
Copyright 2011, held jointly by the Society of Petrophysicists and Well Log and paramagnetic particles may also influence some of
Analysts (SPWLA) and the submitting authors
This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging the more complex logging tools.
Symposium held in Colorado Springs, Co, USA, May 14-18, 2011.

This paper is intended as an overview of the primary

effects of drilling fluid chemicals on petrophysical log
ABSTRACT
data. References are provided to assist in additional
research on individual mud systems.
Drilling fluids are carefully formulated to enable safe
and efficient drilling of subsurface formations and,
within reservoir sections, to minimize formation
INTRODUCTION
damage. Although the effects of these fluids on log data
might be a consideration, these effects are generally
Hydrophysics is technically the study of marine and
accepted as a necessary consequence of achieving the
land waters; however the term here is used to
most cost-effective and productive wellbores.
encompass the study of the liquid components in
petrophysics whatever their chemical composition. In
The response on log data due to drilling fluid chemicals
practice one of the least understood components (by
is generally considered to be minimal, as tool-specific
petrophysicists) is the drilling fluid or mud, and its
corrections are applied to account for the fluid within
potential effects on the petrophysical measurements of
the borehole.
the surrounding formations.
These corrections, however, adjust responses to true
A correctly formulated drilling fluid consists of a base
measurements of the bulk formation properties that
brine or oil with added chemicals and should:
include invaded fluid. It is still necessary to account for
the properties of the invading mud chemicals during the Promote mechanical and chemical stability of
petrophysical interpretation. This was not a problem the open well-bore.
when the drilling fluids were simple water-based or Remove cuttings from the hole.
invert-oil emulsions. With the introduction of more Cool and lubricate the bit.
complex drilling fluid chemistry, accounting for the Control subsurface pressures.
invading fluid properties becomes more important. Suspend solids when circulation stops.
Base brines such as formates and bromides, which have Isolate the fluids from the formation.
significantly different log responses than other aqueous Support part of the weight of the drillstring
fluids, might require complex modeling to retain and the casing.
interpretation accuracy. Release cuttings at the surface.
Maximise penetration rates.
The formulation of drilling fluids for drilling purposes Transmit hydraulic horsepower to bit.
has been widely documented; however the effects that Minimise corrosion rates.
many common, and not so common, drilling fluid Have minimal adverse interaction with the
components have on petrophysical measurements are reservoir.
not well documented. Even the physical properties of Allow recovery of information from the hole
common make-up brine and standard base oils may (pulser).
affect basic log data responses but have been widely Comply with environmental regulations.
ignored. Other components such as precipitating salts

1
SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011
Although not always considered, one other
requirement/consideration should also be:
To allow the acquisition of accurate
petrophysical information.
As part of pre-well planning the optimal drilling mud
formulation should also be reviewed for its suitability
for the required data acquisition strategy, especially for
exploration wells where the primary reason for drilling
the well is to gather high quality data.
The physical properties of the drilling fluids are
reported on a daily basis and should be reviewed by the
petrophysicist to be aware of any major changes made
to the drilling fluids, particularly while penetrating the
reservoir. The reported mud properties, however, tend
to be limited only to the mud properties that are
important to drilling: density, viscosity, chemicals used,
etc.
These properties, and additional information, which
affect the petrophysics are also important to the
acquisition of high-quality log data. It is often difficult
to ascertain additional properties, particularly at a later
date.
The mud properties affecting the data acquisition
include:
Mud weight, not only of the whole mud but
also the filtrate.
Viscosity will affect wireline tool running
speeds and LWD pulsing capabilities.
Filtration control and expected depth of
invasion.
Chemical composition of make-up brine:
salinity, conductivity, and reactivity.
Chemical composition of base oil, and
comparison to predicted native hydrocarbons.
Chemical composition of solids components,
especially if any form of mineral logging is
being undertaken.
Measurements of additional properties could be done at
the rigsite if suitable equipment were made available,
but in general this is probably not required. It is,
however, recommended that when mud formulation has
a potential to affect the formation evaluation data,
regular samples are kept, for example daily, or when
2
any major change is made, so that these samples are
available for later laboratory analysis if required.
Corrections for mud properties should be considered in
the same category as detailed core analysis; they
generally do not change the overall picture of a quick
look analysis, but can help refine the data at a later
date.
INVASION
An important consideration is how deeply liquids, or
solids, invade the rock from the wellbore, relative to the
depth of investigation of the petrophysical
measurements. There are two parts to this:
How deep does the drilling fluid invade?
How deep do the instruments measure?
Additionally, for deviated or horizontal wells, there
may be a directional consideration, with the invasion
varying azimuthally around the wellbore due to
anisotropic permeability variations, and/or gravity.
Correctly sized solids should never invade more than a
few pore depths from the wellbore. This requires the
correct mix of small and larger particles in the mud
mix, sized relative to the expected pore diameters
(Figure 1). Mud filtrate invasion is dependent on time,
(over)pressure, permeability, and mud cake
development. For LWD data recorded shortly after
drilling this may only be a few inches, or may be
considerably deeper for wireline if not recorded until
several days or weeks later.
Figure 1. Correctly sized solids should not enter the
formation causing damage and affecting log responses
 SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011
In comparison, most of the petrophysical measurements
have a large part of their responses within a few inches
of the wellbore, and are therefore frequently affected by
filtrate properties. A confusing factor is that for most
resistivity logs, the depth of investigation is defined
as 50% of the response coming from within that depth,
whereas nuclear measurements are usually quoted at
90% response.
A density measurement is usually quoted as having a
depth of investigation of around eight inches; however
50% of the signal comes from within three inches.
Neutron measurements are deeper at around 12 inches,
which should be considered when combining density
and neutron as they may be seeing different fluids.
Acoustic measurements follow the shortest path, and
invading fluids may force the measurement deeper or
shallower depending on slowness contrasts between
filtrate and formation fluids, but generally stay within a
foot of the borehole. Magnetic resonance has a
precisely defined depth of investigation between one
and four inches.
All of these measurements are usually within the
(partially) invaded zone, and mud filtrate properties
need to be considered. The exceptions are the resistivity
logs which are designed to either see a lot deeper,
possibly 10 feet or more, or specifically to measure
very shallow to define Rxo. Frequently a range of
depths of investigation is recorded to define the
invading fluid depth profile. Resistivity image logs are
considered to be very shallow reading, which the
individual buttons are; however, combined on a pad the
system as a whole can respond to a much deeper
background resistivity of between 15 and 20 inches
depth providing a mix of Rxo and Rt responses.
Understanding and quantifying the invasion depth can
be very important when invading fluids have a
significant effect on formation properties. One of the
key measurements that allow this is resistivity. Many
programs/methods now exist to derive an apparent
depth of invasion from at least three resistivity
measurements of different depths; however it should be
noted that ideally one of these should be an accurate
shallow Rxo such as a pad type device reading within
the first few inches. Although an Rxo and depth of
invasion can be derived from many sonde type tools,
3
in general their shallowest raw data comes from around
a 10-inch depth, which is beyond the important first few
inches where the porosity logs have most of their
responses as described above.
Alternative methods for defining apparent invasion
depths include using the photoelectric effect (PE) for
fluids with a high PE such as Caesium1 Formate brines,
magnetic resonance fluid analysis in the 2 to 4 inch
depth range, and acoustic, which can be used to define
variations in DT in the first few feet away from the
wellbore. It should be noted, however, that the acoustic
is probably more affected by stress variations around
the wellbore than just invading fluids, unless there is a
good contrast between invading and native fluid DT.
DATA CORRECTION
Correcting petrophysical measurements for mud
chemistry consists of two parts:
1. Borehole corrections are applied based on hole
size and mud properties to correct
measurements back to calibration conditions,
(usually a 7 7/8 inch borehole filled with fresh
water). This then provides a true value for
the bulk formation property being measured,
free from wellbore artifacts.
2. The borehole-corrected true bulk formation
properties still contain effects from any
invading fluids (or solids) that need to be
accounted for in the petrophysical
interpretation. This includes fluid properties
for porosity and saturation calculations,
wetability, permeability, and/or any
mineralogical changes.
When applying these corrections it should be noted that
temperature and pressure may be different within the
wellbore and formation. When applying borehole
corrections, use borehole parameters, and if correcting
for filtrate effects, use formation parameters.
Only after accounting for both of these will the virgin
formation properties be determined. Many of the
advanced mud systems such as formate and silicate
muds allow the drilling of high-quality bit-size
SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011
wellbores, and thus the acquisition of high-quality data.
The challenge is then, however, understanding and
interpreting that data.
WHICH MEASUREMENTS ARE AFFECTED
Drilling fluid bulk density and the absorption of gamma
rays has a small effect on formation density
measurements due to backscatter within the borehole,
and will also reduce total natural gamma ray (GR)
counts. This may be exacerbated by high PE
components, such as barite and caesium, which
preferentially absorb the lower energies, thus distorting
the energy spectrums and adding considerably to the PE
curve. Mud cake density, mainly related to the solid
components of the drilling fluids, is generally
compensated for by multi-detector tool design, but may
also introduce high PE effects. The liquid components
that may enter the formation as filtrate will need to be
considered in density porosity calculations.
The gamma density response of fluids is also slightly
different from the true density, but a correction can be
estimated as per Appendix 1.
Acoustic measurements are fully compensated for any
variations in borehole fluid slowness; however invading
filtrate slowness needs to be accounted for in porosity
calculations.
Some mud system components may considerably
reduce the hydrogen index (HI) of the mud. This will
affect the neutron borehole corrections and porosity
measurements. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
measurements will also be affected by the HI in a
similar way to the neutron porosity, with additional
changes in the T1, T2, and diffusivity spectra.
The HI of fluids can be estimated as per Appendix 2.
The mud sigma, or macroscopic thermal neutron
capture cross-section, affects both the neutron borehole
corrections and porosity. Modern tools tend to be
designed to minimize borehole chloride/salinity
corrections (essentially a sigma correction). Formation
salinity corrections are small but also available. Some
mud/filtrate components that have a very high sigma,
4
such as caesium, will require additional special
corrections.
Mud radioactivity, for example from potassium content,
can significantly add to natural gamma ray
measurements, and distort spectral measurements. The
radioactivity, however, is rarely high enough to have
any noticeable effect on density measurements. If the
filtrate is radioactive there may be an additional
permeability-related component to the apparent
formation gamma ray signal. In general spectral gamma
ray measurements are useful to identify and correct
these responses.
Whole mud resistivity will affect the choice of optimal
resistivity logging tools, and may restrict NMR
acquisition capabilities in highly conductive muds.
Filtrate samples should be taken and their resistivity
measured to calculate flushed zone saturations and
correct all measurements for invasion.
If there are any magnetic minerals used as weighting
material, then this may affect orientation devices. There
have been alleged cases of mud cake becoming
magnetized by NMR tools resulting in bad orientation
data from subsequent runs. If the mud contains any
magnetic materials, or any milling has potentially left
swarf in the wellbore, then running NMR after any
orientated services should be considered.
The addition of surfactants to mud to mix the oil and
water in an oil-based mud (OBM) may affect the
wettability of the flushed zone, and hence calculated
irreducible flushed zone fluid saturations. This may also
affect the data recorded by NMR tools, which generally
read within the flushed zone. This requires NMR core
measurements, currently rarely done, to identify the
magnitude of any such effects.
A wide range of loss control materials (LCM) may be
added to the mud when losses occur. These contain
polymers, asphalt, or other materials designed to block
pores and fractures. These may or may not be later
removable under flowing conditions, and can affect the
pre-testing pressure communication, permeability and
sampling from formation testing tools. These materials
may also affect other permeability measurements such
as stoneley permeability derived from acoustic
measurements.
 SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011
Some mud systems require a high pH, which can be
corrosive to some types of elastomers/seals. Special
compounds are available which are resistant to these
conditions. It is particularly important that these are
used for LWD equipment that is exposed for a long
time to the fluids, and formation testing tools that have
a large quantity of pressure seals.
When cleaning up formation tester fluid samples, a
good contrast between filtrate properties and native
fluids will ensure that contamination levels can be
identified and monitored. This may be a consideration
when designing mud systems for important testing
programs such as in exploration wells.
Ultimately many of these effects can be identified and
corrected if log data is calibrated to core. Core,
however, is considered expensive, not available in
many wells, and rarely over entire reservoir intervals. If
data are calibrated to core from wells or intervals other
than that being analysed, then care should be taken to
ensure that the mud/logging conditions were
comparable in the cored and logged/analysed wells.
MUD SYSTEM COMPONENTS
The following discussions on mud system components
provide a general overview of the type and magnitude
of potential petrophysical effects. Mud formulations are
constantly being updated and this information should be
used as a general guide only. For important reservoir
sections the individual mud properties should be
properly researched.
BASE COMPONENTS
Water-Based Mud - It is widely known that water has a
density of 1.00g/cc and a hydrogen index (HI) of 1.00,
which fresh water has at surface temperature and
pressure. Increasing temperature causes water to
expand. At 200C (and 225psi, the lowest pressure at
which it remains liquid at this temperature), fresh water
only has a density and HI of 0.87. Pressure alone at
10,000 psi compresses water, increasing its density/HI
to 1.02, less than the temperature effect. Combined,
these effects mean that fresh water at downhole
conditions has a density and HI less than 1.0. At 200C
5
and 10,000 psi, the density/HI of an invading fresh
water mud filtrate would be 0.92.
The addition of salts to water increases its density and
reduces its HI. Sodium chloride (NaCl) saturated water
(250 Kppm) at surface conditions has a density of
1.19g/cc and an HI of 0.90. Increasing pressure and
temperature change these values in a similar way to
fresh water.
For a typical reservoir at 120C and 6,000 psi, a 100
Kppm NaCl filtrate would have a density of 1.04g/cc
and an HI of 0.94. If a value of 1.00 were mistakenly
used for both, then porosity calculations would be
reduced by around 0.5% (at 20%). At 200C and
10,000 psi, the true density for the same saline filtrate is
1.12g/cc and an HI of 0.91, resulting in a loss of 1.5%
porosity if 1.00 were used.
Oil-Based Mud Oil-based mud (OBM) primarily
consists of base oil and brine, with the addition of
surfactants and emulsifiers, which allow it to form an
inverted emulsion. This means that the oil is the
continuous phase and the brine is present as isolated
droplets (Figure 2). For this reason these muds do not
conduct electrical currents at the normal
voltages/frequencies of logging measurements. It is also
assumed, (sometimes wrongly), that, as the continuous
phase, only the oil invades through a mudcake into the
formation. It is, therefore, the properties of this filtrate
that will affect log measurements most.
Figure 2. The invert emulsion of oil and water in an
oil-based mud
The base oil can be a wide variety of natural,
synthetic, or combination oils. At least 80 varieties are
known with widely varying properties.
SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011
Generally base oil is not, as widely thought, diesel.
Diesel contains 18 to 24% aromatic compounds that are
toxic, and many other volatile and hazardous
components. This makes it unsuitable for most
countries to use as a drilling fluid for environmental
and HSE reasons.
Many base oils are refined petroleum mineral oil with
the aromatics and other hazardous components removed
to give them a low toxicity rating. Due to the refining
process these oils are sometimes referred to as
synthetics, confusing them with those products
below.
Synthetic oils have been developed to further reduce the
toxicity rating: esters (derived from vegetable oils), and
non-petroleum hydrocarbons such as linear alpha
olefins (LAO), iso olefins (IO) and paraffins. (These are
all simply different arrangements of hydrocarbon
chains). These muds were common a few years ago, but
are now rarely seen outside of the USA.
Ester muds are sometimes referred to as ester-based
muds (EBM). EBM tends to be more aggressive
towards elastomers than mineral OBM. Esters are also a
wetting agent and can affect near wellbore wettability.
They also generally have a slightly lower hydrogen
index than mineral OBM, which may be visible as a
porosity reduction on neutron or NMR measurements.
Esters can absorb gas at elevated temperature and
pressure, and have been known to appear as a false gas
effect on density/neutron logs. They are also more
compressible than mineral oils, which sometimes
appears like a gas effect on formation tester pretests.
For more detailed additional information on ester muds
refer to: Amin et al, 2010, Badruzzaman et al, 2005,
Lugol et al, 2000.
The physical properties of these base oils vary
widely, with densities typically between 0.75 to 0.85
g/cc and an HI around 1.0. It should be noted that the
lower the density of the base oil the more solid
weighting materials need to be used to achieve the same
mud weight. Some examples are shown in Table 1.
At surface conditions typical base oil with a density
of 0.8 g/cc and an HI of 1.01 will expand with
increasing temperature and contract under pressure. The
6
temperature expansion is of similar magnitude to that of
water; however the pressure contraction is, unlike
water, of a similar magnitude to the temperature
expansion but opposite direction. This results in
downhole properties similar to those at surface. The
example oil with a 0.8g/cc density and an HI 1.01at
surface would have a density of 0.78g/cc and an HI of
0.99 at 120C and 6000 psi. Note that these values
assume no absorption of gas. An oil of this density at
these downhole conditions can potentially absorb up to
a GOR of 1700 cf/bbl resulting in a density of only
0.6g/cc and an HI of 0.89.
Table 1. The physical properties of some common
OBM base oils
Underbalanced Drilling Mud Low-density
underbalanced drilling mud is created using either a
standard mud aerated with air or nitrogen, or using
specific lightweight chemical foams. Most logging
tools can be run in them, however with some specific
problems/exceptions, as identified below:
LWD data pulsing relies on a low compressibility fluid
column to transmit pressure pulses of data to the
surface, and will, therefore, not be practical in these
mud systems. Alternative electromagnetic transmission
systems are available as a replacement data route.
Acoustic measurements are also generally not possible
as they rely on a similar borehole fluid to couple the
signals in/out of the formations.
Borehole corrections for density and neutron
measurements will be larger than for regular mud
 SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011
systems. The lack of a radiation absorbing medium
surrounding the instruments will result in higher count
rates and lower densities and neutron porosities.
Wireline instruments are likely to be affected more than
LWD due to the smaller fraction of the borehole that
they occupy.
Formation tester pre-tests will exhibit draw-ups, as
formation pressure will be higher than hydrostatic. This
may need analysis logic re-programming to interpret
when pressures have stabilized and for determining
permeability. The higher formation pressure also means
that this will tend to try and push the sealing pad off the
wall resulting in more lost seals.
Induction and propagation resistivity logs should work
effectively, however shallow and lateral-type logs may
not work due to increased mud resistivities and it may
be necessary to use an oil-based imager tool even in
water-based fluids.
CHEMICALS - LIQUIDS
Brines - Many different salt brines are used in addition
to NaCl solutions, allowing different density base
water to be created from 1.0g/cc up to more than
2.0g/cc for the pure liquid phase alone (no solids)
(Table 2). As these brines get denser, their HI also
decreases. Saturated sodium bromide brine, for
example, has a density of 1.52 g/cc and an HI of only
0.8 (at surface conditions). This is due to the high
Table 2. The physical properties of some common
water -based mud brines
7
weight fraction of salts displacing the hydrogen in the
dissolving water fraction.
The heavier brines and formates may undergo gravity
segregation with formation fluids showing unusual
invasion profiles.
One of the commonest brines is the use of potassium
chloride, which helps to stabilize clay structures and
prevent swelling. When clay structures contain an
interlayer of calcium or magnesium ions, they can bind
several layers of water molecules within the structure
(Figure 3). Sodium is particularly bad and can bind up
to 10 water layers, causing clay swelling and borehole
collapse.
Figure 3. Clay ionic hydration when calcium (Ca),
magnesium (Mg), and sodium (Na) ions are present
Potassium in contrast can form stable interlayers
without water, resulting in a stable clay structure
(Figure 4). One result of this is that potassium in mud
is used up, and additional potassium may constantly
be added to the mud system to maintain salinities. This
means that if mud potassium content is used to correct
log data (for example the GR) then mud reports should
be checked throughout the drilled interval, not just the
final report at the time of logging.
Potassium acetate (CH3CO2K) is the potassium salt of
acetic acid, and has been used as a more
environmentally friendly version of potassium chloride,
(no chlorine). From a logging perspective, this is just
another brine. The HI of the potassium acetate itself is
0.14, compared to 0 for the chloride, so there may be
a slight increase in the HI of the filtrate.
 SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011
Figure 4. Clay stabilization by the addition of
potassium (K) ions
When calculating resistivities of salt solutions, the
charts used are frequently those for sodium chloride
brine; however, salts other than this can have a
significantly different resistivity response. Charts exist
to allow other salt/ion concentrations to be converted to
NaCl-equivalent values (Figure 5). At very high
temperatures (over 200C), the resistivities may also
start to deviate from the standard (Arps type) formulas,
and above 300C may actually start to increase with
increasing temperature (Ucok et al, 1979).
Multiplier, K
Total Solids Concentration (ppm or mg/Kg)
Figure 5. Equivalent NaCl concentrations from total
solids concentrations
Formate Brines - Formates are a special case brine. The
-
formate ion (HCOO ) can be combined with sodium
(Figure 6), potassium, or caesium to create very dense
brines. Some of the properties of these brines are shown
in Table 3.
8
Figure 6. Sodium formate
Table 3. Formate petrophysical properties
Due to the very high percentage (by weight) of the
formate and low water content, these brines have
significantly different log responses and require special
modeling to determine the required instrument
corrections. In particular, the low HI will significantly
reduce the neutron response and may look similar to a
(false) gas effect on the density/neutron.
The resistivities of formate solutions also do not behave
as expected. As the formate concentrations increase, the
resistivity initially decreases as expected, but then at
very high concentrations the resistivity increases again
as the solution becomes so overloaded with ions that
they start to affect each other reducing conductivity
(Figure 7). The mixing of different formate brines also
generates a non-linear mixing rule.
Figure 7. Formate brine resistivity variations with
concentration when diluted with distilled water (at
room temperature)
 SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011

Consider the case of saturated formate brine invading a
fresh water-filled formation. As the saturated formate
dilutes by mixing with the formation water, its
resistivity may decrease, contrary to expectation.
Saturated caesium formate has a very high photoelectric
absorption (PE) of over 200b/e, and very high log
values of 30b/e or more may be observed. This high
photoelectric absorption may also affect gamma ray
counts as low energy gamma rays will be absorbed. The
high PE makes normal analysis of the PE curve
impossible for mineral identification; however it can be
very useful for identifying and quantifying invasion,
and used for a net sand count (Kukal et al, 1985).
Glycols are a hydrocarbon chain similar to alcohols but
with two or three OH groups (Figure 9). Typically
they have a density between 1.0 and 1.1 g/cc, an HI
close to 1.0, are non-toxic, and will have minimal effect
on log data as they should not invade more than a few
pores depth. Resistivities of the whole mud may be
different above and below the cloud point temperature,
but the invading filtrate should be only the water/brine
fraction.
Glycols have the potential for slightly altering
wettability, but the authors currently have no evidence
of this in the wellbore.

For more detailed additional information on formate

muds refer to: A-Harbi et al, 2005, Berg et al, 2007,
Cabot manual, Galford et al, 200, Gallino et al, 1997,
Guo et al, 2002, Inanc et al, 2011, Pedersen et al, 2006.

Glycol - Glycol, also known as cloud point glycol, is a

common constituent of water-based muds, which helps
reduce invasion and improve lubricity. At low
temperatures glycol is fully miscible in water. As the
temperature is increased a point is reached where the
glycol clouds out into droplets and becomes
separated from the water. This happens at the cloud
point temperature, which is designed around the
expected wellbore temperature. The glycol droplets
then coat the rock surface, block pores, and inhibit
Figure 9. Alcohol and glycol chemical structures
invasion. Glycol coating cuttings also prevents their
dispersion. As the cuttings laden mud returns to surface
the glycol cools again, becomes miscible again, and is
Oil-Based Mud Additives Oil-based mud (OBM) can
released from coating the cutting (Figure 8).
be prepared with base oil, as described previously,
mixed with almost any salt solution. Calcium chloride
is the most common brine as it has a low activity and is
relatively cheap.

Surfactants and emulsifiers are used to make the oil and

brine mix. A small excessive amount is usually used to
account for any water ingress from the formation and
still maintain the emulsion. This means there is spare
capacity for them to react with formation water if there
is invasion.

If smaller micro-sized particles are used (see solids

Figure 8. A laboratory demonstration of glycol section below), then more of these chemicals are
clouding as temperature is increased
9
SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011

required to wet the relatively larger surface area of

small particles compared to large.

CHEMICALS - SOLIDS

Solids are added primarily to increase the mud density

and provide filtration control by forming a cake. If
sized correctly these solids should not invade the
formation (Figure 1), but may add to borehole
corrections of logging instruments.
Figure 10. Some examples of mud particle sizes

Weighting agents are solids of high density that are

insoluble in water. Some typical examples are shown in
Filtration Control - Filtration control additives can be
Table 4.
either solid or dispersible in the liquid phase of the mud
(such as glycol). The commonest solids are barite,
bentonite, or calcium carbonate. If sized correctly these
solids should not invade the formation, but may add to
borehole corrections of logging instruments. Other
common chemicals include starch, carboxymethyl-
cellulose (CMC), polyanionic cellulose (PAC) and
asphaltene, especially at high temperatures. Most of
these products are long chains of carbon, oxygen and
hydrogen atoms, and will have minimal log effects
(Figure 11). They are designed to be removable from
the rock surface under production or chemical treatment
to restore production permeability. Asphalt can be
Table 4. Some examples of mud-weighting solids
difficult to remove and could possibly permanently
inhibit production.
Of particular note from a logging perspective is barite,
which is very common and has a very high
photoelectric response (267 b/e). Galena, which has
been used despite the toxicity of lead, with a
photoelectric response of 1631 b/e, and minerals
containing iron, which will be magnetic.

In addition, mud solids will include whatever rock has

been drilled through. Surface mud cleaning will remove
larger particles and cuttings, but any fine rock flour will
be dispersed throughout the mud.

Typical mud solids particle sizes are in the range of 10

to 100 microns (Figure 10); however when high
quantities of solids are required to generate a heavy
mud for high-pressure formations, micro-sized particles
are often used around one micron. These smaller
particles are less likely to settle out of suspension,
preventing mud sag and varying mud densities.
Figure 11. Starch and cellulose molecules

10
 SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011
If these products are removable, then they will not
impede formation testing and sampling, although an
increased drawdown may be seen for a short time
before the mud cake pops off. If the barrier is
permanent, then permeability measurements and
potentially pressure measurement will be impeded.
Silicate - Silicate muds are solutions of water-soluble
glasses. The silicate starts out as monosilicate, which
polymerizes rapidly to form negatively charged
oligomers at a high pH, at which the mud is formulated.
After entering a pore network, the pH drops, the
oligomers overcome their mutual repulsion and
coagulate, forming 3D gel networks. Within the pore
fluids and at clay surfaces, there are free polyvalent
ions (calcium and magnesium) which then react
instantaneously with the oligomers to form insoluble
precipitates. This reaction is irreversible and occurs
very rapidly before significant fluid loss and pressure
invasion has occurred. These muds are run
overbalanced to encourage invasion, the net result of
which is a permanent glass barrier within the borehole
wall, not on the surface as for most mudcakes. In
hydrocarbon bearing formations, there are typically less
free ions available resulting in deeper invasion prior to
precipitation.
These muds may have significant effects on formation
testing and sampling as the permeability of the wellbore
surface is permanently damaged. Crystalline solids may
precipitate on moving surfaces and valves causing
blockages and seals to fail if cut. The alkaline
environment is also detrimental to many elastomer seal
compounds. Additionally any instruments run in these
muds should be thoroughly washed inside and out
immediately on return to the surface as the precipitate
may encase them in a thin permanent glass film,
jamming threads and moving parts.
The precipitate may affect the operation of mud
turbines and pulsers for LWD operations, and acoustic
data has been reported to be affected by either the hard
fast layer within the rock wall and/or plugging of the
instruments, shorting out the acoustic energy directly.
Shallow measurements such as resistivity and density
will also be affected, and the density correction curve
may show a dense (-ve correction) mudcake.
11
Unusual invasion profiles may develop, which require
multiple depths of investigation resistivities to solve for
a true Rt.
For more detailed additional information on silicate
muds refer to: (El Essawy et al, 2004, Van Oort et al,
1996, Ward et al, 1999).
It is not recommended to use these muds in any
reservoir section.
Aluminium2 salts - Aluminium salts have now largely
replaced silicates. They perform a similar function in
precipitating and blocking pores, however the process is
reversible thus there is a lower risk of permanent
formation damage.
Aluminium salts stay in solution at a pH greater than
10. As the mud filtrate penetrates formations, the pH
drops below 10 and the aluminium precipitates. This
blocks the pores and prevents additional filtrate entry.
The process is fully reversible by increasing the pH
again, and also unlike silicates the aluminium salts do
not cause cuttings to accrete.
The precipitate may potentially cause some reduction in
permeabilities at the time of acquiring formation tester
data; however at the time of writing this has not been
reported as the precipitate is not stuck to the rock in
the same way as silicate.
NEW TECHNOLOGY
There is a new range of chemicals designed for
removing mudcake to reduce skin and clean out
wellbores and wellbore equipment. They are not
designed to be included in drilling mud systems at the
current time, and are unlikely to be encountered at the
time of logging, however are included here for
completeness and potential future applications.
Mesophase engineering fluids create bicontinuous
microemulsions, not oil-in-water or water-in-oil but
both simultaneously. This solubilises oils, breaks down
emulsions, unpacks and dissolves filter cake, and
solubilises carbonate particles. Solids are converted to
100% water wet. The result is significant reductions in
SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011
skin and 100% cleaning efficiency. Oil-covered
wellbore equipment that has been in wells containing
these fluids returns to surface as if it has been polished.
These fluids are highly beneficial in completions
applications to improve well productivity; however if
these fluids were included in drilling mud they could
significantly alter the wettability and properties of the
invaded formations.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The good news is that in most cases, mud chemicals do
not cause any significant problems to petrophysical
evaluation; however, their properties should be
evaluated and effects accounted for in a petrophysical
interpretation. There are a few exceptions such as
formates and silicates where additional information
may be required.
Petrophysicists should pay more attention to mud
chemistry, and for important wells and reservoir
sections, review the mud components at regular
intervals over the drilled sections, not just at the end, as
the mud properties are not static. They should also
preserve regular samples that may be required for
analysis later.
The petrophysical properties of the filtrate are as
important as the whole mud. It is that which invades the
rocks being analysed. The composition of many of the
specialist chemicals is proprietary and closely guarded
by the mud companies; however, the majority bulk
components can usually be identified.
Understanding the invasion profile is key to applying
any corrections for invading filtrate. Ultimately the best
solution is calibrating to core, however care should be
taken when transferring data from one well to another,
questioning whether the mud and wellbore conditions
are exactly the same?
This is considered a working document and the authors
would appreciate any feedback, additional information
and experiences regarding this topic.
12
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Geoffrey Page studied physics at
the Royal College of Science in
London. He began his oilfield
career as a Dresser Atlas field
engineer 31 years ago, moved into
Petrophysics in Aberdeen 23 years
ago, and is now UK Petrophysical
Advisor for Baker Hughes based in Aberdeen. He is a
former President of the Aberdeen chapter of the
SPWLA (AFES) and was honoured with a life
membership. He has written and presented many
papers over the years, helped organise many of the
conferences including SPWLA 2008 in Edinburgh, and
in his spare time teaches the Petrophysics course of
Aberdeen Universitys Integrated Petroleum
Geoscience Msc course.
Stephen Vickers is the Eastern
Hemisphere Technical Manager for
Reservoir Services for Baker
Hughes. He originally qualified as a
Mining Engineer but changed
disciplines and since has enjoyed 30
years working in the oil industry,
first as a Drilling Engineer and then in Fluids and
Chemical Engineering. Stephen is based at the Eastern
Hemisphere Technology Centre in Aberdeen and has
specific responsibilities for the application and design
of reservoir fluids and also specialising in the
prevention and remediation of formation damage.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors want to thank Baker Hughes management
team for their support and permission to publish this
paper, and all those who have contributed pieces of
information and experiences.
NOTES
1. The International spelling of the Element is Caesium,
the USA Standard is Cesium.
2. The International spelling of the Element is
Aluminium, the USA Standard is Aluminum.
 SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011
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13
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SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, May 14-18, 2011

APPENDIX 1.0 APPENDIX 2.0

GAMMA DENSITY MEASUREMENT OF FLUIDS HYDROGEN INDEX CALCULATIONS

Wireline and LWD density tools measure bulk formation
density using a gamma ray source via compton scattering,
which actually measures an electron density that is converted
to g/cc by the calibration process.
The conversion process is calibrated for an electron/nuclear
mass Z/A ratio of 0.5, which is correct for most rocks. The
Z/A ratio of hydrogen is, however, 1.0, which means that
water has a Z/A of 0.55 (18 electrons/8 protons+neutrons in
H2O). If a correction were not applied, water would read a
density of 1.1 g/cc. The corrections for varying porosities due
to this are invisibly built into the calibration systems for all
tools to ensure that pure water reads 1.0g/cc, and all other
porosities are correct up to 100% solid rock (no correction)
defined at 2.71 g/cc (limestone) (Figure 12). This also means
that minerals with a matrix other than a pure limestone at
2.71g/cc read slightly incorrectly. (very small) Quartz
corrections are available for some tools but rarely used.
The hydrogen index (HI) of any liquid can be estimated if the
volumetric components and density are known.
Pure water with a density of 1.0g/cc at surface conditions is
defined as having an HI of 1.00. For any other material the HI
is the relative amount of hydrogen per unit volume compared
to water.
Water has two hydrogen (atomic weight 1.0) and one oxygen
(atomic weight 16), and, therefore, consists of 2/18 or 0.111g
of hydrogen per cc of water.
For another pure liquid, a similar calculation can be used. For
example, for octane there are eight carbon (atomic weight 12)
+ 18 hydrogen (atomic weight 1) atoms, a total of 18/114 by
weight hydrogen. If the density of octane is 0.71 (at surface
conditions) then 18/114 x 0.71 = 0.112 g/cc of octane is
hydrogen. Comparing this to water (0.111 g/cc hydrogen)
yields an HI of 1.01 for octane.

For a solution of materials, you also need to know the

percentage by weight of the solute (usually a salt) and the
solvent (usually water), and the density of the mixture. The
hydrogen index of each component can be calculated and then
combined. For example, for a 250 Kppm (by weight)
saturated sodium chloride solution, with a density of 1.2 g/cc:
the NaCl has no hydrogen (HI=0) and the water has a HI of
1.0. The total is (0.25 x 0) + (0.75 x 1.0) x 1.2g/cc = HI of
0.9.

Figure 12. The correction of gamma density

measurements for the Z/A of water being 0.55is applied
linearly from 0 to 100% porosity

For other materials that contain a lot of hydrogen, i.e., most

fluids, the Z/A ratio is also higher than 0.5, and they require
similar correction. For a CH2 chain hydrocarbon the ratio is
0.57 for longer chains, and as high as 0.625 for methane (4 x
hydrogen, 1 x carbon). This means that even after the
automatic water correction, most oil and gas densities still
read high by 3 to 13% when measured by a gamma density
tool.
Laboratory-measured fluid densities, or those derived from
formation tester gradients, cannot, therefore, be directly used
to calculate accurate porosities without correction from true to
electron density.
14