SPECIAL SUBMISSIONS
Sources and Distribution of Organic Compounds Using Passive Samplers in Lake Mead
National Recreation Area, Nevada and Arizona, and Their Implications for Potential
Effects on Aquatic Biota
Michael R. Rosen,* David A. Alvarez, Steven L. Goodbred, Thomas J. Leiker, and Reynaldo Patio U.S. Geological Survey
The delineation of lateral and vertical gradients of organic
contaminants in lakes is hampered by low concentrations and
nondetection of many organic compounds in water. Passive
samplers (semipermeable membrane devices [SPMDs] and polar
organic chemical integrative samplers [POCIS]) are well suited
for assessing gradients because they can detect synthetic organic
compounds (SOCs) at pg L-1 concentrations. Semi-permeable
membrane devices and POCIS were deployed in Lake Mead,
at two sites in Las Vegas Wash, at four sites across Lake Mead,
and in the Colorado River downstream from Hoover Dam.
Concentrations of hydrophobic SOCs were highest in Las
Vegas Wash downstream from waste water and urban inputs
and at 8 m depth in Las Vegas Bay (LVB) where Las Vegas Wash
enters Lake Mead. The distribution of hydrophobic SOCs
showed a lateral distribution across 10 km of Lake Mead from
LVB to Boulder Basin. To assess possible vertical gradients of
SOCs, SPMDs were deployed at 4-m intervals in 18 m of water
in LVB. Fragrances and legacy SOCs were found at the greatest
concentrations at the deepest depth. The vertical gradient of
SOCs indicated that contaminants were generally confined to
within 6 m of the lake bottom during the deployment interval.
The high SOC concentrations, warmer water temperatures,
and higher total dissolved solids concentrations at depth are
indicative of a plume of Las Vegas Wash water moving along
the lake bottom. The lateral and vertical distribution of SOCs
is discussed in the context of other studies that have shown
impaired health of fish exposed to SOCs.
Copyright 2010 by the American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science
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Published in J. Environ. Qual. 39 (2010).
doi:10.2134/jeq2009.0095
Freely available online through the author-supported open-access option.
Published online 13 Nov. 2009.
Received 11 Mar. 2009.
*Corresponding author (mrosen@usgs.gov).
ASA, CSSA, SSSA
677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA
P revious studies have shown that persistent low concentrations
of organic compounds have an effect on the ecology of rivers,
streams, and lakes (Bevans et al., 1996; Jobling et al., 1998;
Routledge et al., 1998; Hinck et al., 2007) and that juvenile aquatic
organisms are even more susceptible to low concentrations than
adult organisms (Kime, 1998; McLachlan, 2001). Knowledge
of the lateral and vertical distribution of organic compound
concentrations in the water column is important for determining
possible paths of exposure because ecological niches, including
their spatial distribution, differ among species and often change
during the life cycle of fish. Lateral and vertical concentration
changes of inorganic chemicals, dissolved organic matter, and
phytoplankton abundances in lacustrine habitats have been
commonly reported in the limnological literature (Takahashi
and Ichimura, 1968; Fee, 1976; Hamilton-Taylor et al., 1996;
LaBounty and Burns, 2005). Detection and sampling for lateral
and vertical changes in concentrations of synthetic organic
compounds (SOCs) have rarely been done because collected
samples would suffer from nondetections of SOCs (or detections
near the analytical limit of detection) that would make detecting
gradients difficult using standard grab sampling techniques. Also,
chemical analyses of SOCs are considerably more expensive than
inorganic chemical and phytoplankton analyses, which limits the
number of samples that could be analyzed in most studies.
Semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs) and polar organic
chemical integrative samplers (POCIS) are passive samplers that
sequester hydrophobic (Kow >3) and hydrophilic (Kow <3) organic
compounds, respectively (Huckins et al., 2006; Alvarez et al., 2007).
These passive samplers are generally deployed for 4 to 6 wk, which
generally allows sufficient time to concentrate organic chemicals
M.R. Rosen, Nevada Water Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey, 2730 N. Deer Run
Rd., Carson City, NV 89701. D.A. Alvarez, Columbia Environmental Research Center,
U.S. Geological Survey, 4200 New Haven Rd., Columbia, MO 65201. S.L. Goodbred, U.S.
Geological Survey, Modoc Hall, 3020 State University Dr. E., Sacramento, CA 95819-
6129. T.J. Leiker, U.S. Geological Survey, Box 25046, MS 407, Denver, CO 80225-0046;
current address: Univ. of Colorado at Denver, Dep. of Pharmacology, 12081 E. 17th
Ave., Aurora, CO 80045. R. Patio, U.S. Geological Survey, Texas Cooperative Fish &
Wildlife Research Unit, Texas Tech Univ., Lubbock, TX 79409-2120.
Abbreviations: BB, Boulder basin; BMI, Basic Metals, Incorporated; DDT,
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane; EDC, endocrine-disrupting compound; GB, Gregg
Basin; LVB, Las Vegas Bay; LVVD, Las Vegas Valley Drive; OA, Overton Arm; PAH,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon; PCB, polychlorinated biphenyl; POCIS, polar organic
chemical integrative sampler; PRC, performance reference compound; SOC, synthetic
organic compound; SPMD, semipermeable membrane device; USGS, U.S. Geological
Survey; WB, Willow Beach.
that might not be detected using traditional sampling methods.
The objective of this paper is to demonstrate the utility of using
SPMDs and POCIS for detecting lateral and vertical changes in
concentrations and composition of SOCs within a large reser-
voir (hereafter called a lake), Lake Mead, Nevada and Arizona,
USA, that receives different types and amounts of contaminants
from various perennial streams and from sources within or on
the lake (Lico and Johnson, 2007). Our hypothesis is that higher
concentrations of SOCs will be found downstream of munici-
pal and urban sources than areas that do not have urban con-
taminant sources. We hypothesize that these compounds can be
traced within the lake laterally and vertically. Potential sources of
contaminants within the Lake Mead National Recreation Area
include urban runoff, regional or local atmospheric deposition,
tertiary-treated waste water inflows, urban return-flow discharge
from ground water, and in-lake combustion from watercraft en-
gines. By deploying passive samplers throughout the water col-
umn and throughout the lake at other sites, a better assessment
of organic contaminants entering Lake Mead can be determined.
When SPMDs are deployed in lakes, they are generally posi-
tioned only at one depth (Lico and Pennington, 1999; Lico, 2004;
Balmer et al., 2005), which may miss significant concentrations of
contaminants if the water column is not fully mixed and if there
are plumes of high SOC concentrations flowing on the surface or
the bottom. To our knowledge, this is the first time that SPMDs
have been used at multiple depths (more than two points) in a
lake. Determining the vertical distribution of SOCs is important
in determining what parts of the food chain may be affected (ben-
thic versus pelagic organisms), the fate and transport of SOCs in
the lake, and the interaction with lake sediments.
Setting
Lake Mead is the largest reservoir by volume in the USA and
was created in 1935 by the construction of Hoover Dam on the
lower Colorado River between Nevada and Arizona (Fig. 1). Main
inflows to the lake are from three rivers (Colorado, Virgin, and
Muddy) and from an urban tributary, Las Vegas Wash. Las Vegas
Wash is now perennial because of discharges from three municipal
waste water treatment facilities (see Fig. 1 for locations) and ur-
ban ground water return-flow discharge from irrigation of grassed
areas within the city of Las Vegas (Covay and Leiker, 1998) and
natural storm water runoff (Rosen et al., 2006). As the popula-
tion in the Las Vegas Valley began to increase in the 1940s, the
amount of treated waste water produced increased and in 1993
constituted about 96% of the annual discharge of Las Vegas Wash
(Bevans et al., 1996). By 2001, the mean flow of Las Vegas Wash
into Las Vegas Bay (LVB) was about 606,000 m3 d-1 (U.S. Bureau
of Reclamation, 2001). Waste water entering Las Vegas Wash is
treated to a high standard that includes reduction of nutrients and
dissolved solids using grit removal, primary sedimentation, acti-
vated sludge with nutrient removal, and chemical-enhanced filtra-
tion and disinfection, with chlorine addition or ultraviolet light
treatment (http://www.nps.gov/lame/parkmgmt/upload/Scope_
FEIS_Chp2.pdf). However, these treatments are not designed to
eliminate all organic compounds from the effluent, resulting in
the concentration of some compounds being significantly reduced
while other compounds are relatively unaffected.
Semi-permeable membrane devices were deployed in a ver-
tical profile in LVB because, of the three main surface water
inputs to the lake (Las Vegas Wash, Virgin/Muddy Rivers, and
the Colorado River), LVB was likely to have the highest con-
centrations of organic contaminants due to the urban influ-
ence from Las Vegas Wash. Furthermore, LaBounty and Burns
(2005) demonstrated that plumes of Las Vegas Wash water
enter LVB at different depths in the water column at different
times of the year and that these plumes are persistent for some
distance into the lake. In the spring, during the time the SP-
MDs were deployed, Las Vegas Wash water is warmer than the
lake but generally enters the bay as bottom flow or interflow
because Las Vegas Wash water has higher dissolved solids con-
centrations than LVB. This leads to unstable inflow conditions
of Las Vegas Wash water into Las Vegas Bay at this time of the
year (LaBounty and Burns, 2005) and indicates that, during
deployment of the SPMDs for this study, the position of SOCs
in the water column may have varied.
Previous investigations dating back to the mid-1990s have
shown evidence of endocrine disruption in aquatic biota
(mainly common carp [Cyprinus carpio]) in Lake Mead (Bev-
ans et al., 1996; Patio et al., 2003; Leiker et al., 2009) mostly
in LVB. However, sources of endocrine-disrupting contami-
nants have not been fully determined in these previous studies.
This study provides delineation of SOCs sources to LVB and
delineates SOC sources throughout the Lake Mead National
Recreation Area.
Materials and Methods
Semi-permeable membrane devices and POCIS were de-
ployed in early March 2006 at seven sites for 29 or 30 d (Fig.
1). Two sites in Las Vegas Wash were selected: one at Las Vegas
Valley Drive (LVVD) upstream of any waste water treatment
facility inputs and one near the end of the wash (Outlet). Four
sites were selected in Lake Mead: Las Vegas Bay (LVB), Over-
ton Arm (OA), Boulder Basin (BB), and Gregg Basin (GB).
A final site, Willow Beach (WB), was located downstream of
Hoover Dam in the Colorado River. The Las Vegas Wash sites
were chosen to bracket inputs upstream and downstream of
the major municipal inputs (waste water, urban runoff, indus-
trial inputs). Each site within Lake Mead was chosen to be
representative of potential inputs from each major sub-basin,
and the WB site was chosen to represent the output from the
system. Deployment periods varied by up to 1 wk (Table 1)
due to the distances involved in deploying the samplers and
access to boats, but length of deployment was consistent (Table
1). Three SPMDs (91.4 cm of polyethylene layflat tubing filled
with 1 mL of ultra-pure triolein each) and three POCIS (both
pharmaceutical and pesticide configurations) were deployed
in one stainless steel canister at each site. At the LVVD and
Outlet sites, the deployment canisters were attached to metal
rebar that was pounded into the bottom sediment of the Wash.
The canisters were deployed approximately half way between
Journal of Environmental Quality Volume 39 XX 2010
Fig. 1. M
 ap of Lake Mead showing locations where semi-perpermiable membrane devices and polar organic chemical integrative samplers were
deployed. BB, Boulder Basin; GB, Gregg Basin; LVB, Las Vegas Bay; LVVD, Las Vegas Valley Drive; OA, Overton Arm; WB, Willow Beach.

the surface of the water and the bed of the wash and were sub- anchor the vertical profile gradient study measured the vertical
merged throughout the sampling period. In Lake Mead, all of profiles water quality parameters such as temperature, specific
the canisters were suspended at 8 m depth from US Geologi- conductance, dissolved oxygen, and other parameters at 1-m
cal Survey (USGS) Water Quality Platforms (Rowland et al., intervals every 6 h. One string of SPMDs was deployed at 4,
2006) using a stainless steel cable and u-bolts. The platforms 8, 12, and 18 m depths. The second string of SPMDs was de-
are located in LVB, OA, and BB. Because there were no plat- ployed at 8, 12, and 18 m depth (Fig. 2). The second string
forms at the GB and WB sites, the deployment canisters were of SPMDs deployed at the same depths as the first string was
deployed using a buoy attached to a stainless steel cable. used as a replicate, although one string of SPMDs was about
Semi-permeable membrane devices were deployed in a ver- 4 m from the other on the platform. The deepest SPMD was
tical profile in LVB for 29 d concurrently with the lateral gradi- suspended just above a metal anchor that was placed at the
ent samplers. The USGS-LVB Water Quality Platform used to sedimentwater interface, which was located at 18 m depth.
Table 1. Sampling site identification and dates for the passive sampler deployment.
Site name Abbreviation Deployment date Retrieval date Days deployed
Las Vegas Wash (Las Vegas Valley Drive) LVVD 28 Feb. 2006 28 Mar. 2006 29
Las Vegas Wash (Northshore Drive) Outlet 28 Feb. 2006 28 Mar. 2006 29
Las Vegas Bay LVB 1 Mar. 2006 29 Mar. 2006 29
Boulder Basin BB 1 Mar. 2006 30 Mar. 2006 30
Overton Arm OA 2 Mar. 2006 30 Mar. 2006 29
Gregg Basin GB 7 Mar. 2006 5 Apr. 2006 30
Willow Beach WB 6 Mar. 2006 4 Apr. 2006 30

Rosen et al.: Distribution of Organic Compounds in Lake Mead, Nevada


Fig. 2. D
 iagram of the USGS Lake MeadLas Vegas Bay water-quality
data platform, with the vertical setup for semi-permeable
membrane device (SPMD) and polar organic chemical
integrative sampler (POCIS) passive samplers for the March
2006 deployment period
In addition to water quality data from the platforms, clean
(washed in deionized water) temperature probes were deployed
within each of the SPMD cages at 8, 12, and 18 m depths (re-
cording temperature every 30 min) to determine if there were
significant differences in water temperature during deploy-
ment between sites. The temperature probes were checked in
a constant temperature bath after deployment, and field mea-
surements were corrected using a linear correlation (R2 = 0.99)
derived from the constant temperature bath measurements. Spe-
cific conductance probes from the water quality platform were
calibrated using the methods outlined in Rowland et al. (2006).
Two deuterated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
(anthracene-d10 and chrysene-d12) were added to each SPMD
as performance reference compounds (PRCs). Performance
reference compounds are used to account for environmental
factors such as temperature, water flow, and biofilm build-up
on the SPMD surface, which can impede the uptake of chemi-
cals into the SPMD, and for the loss of photosensitive PAHs
due to photolysis while the compounds are in the lipid phase of
the SPMD. The PRC approach increases the accuracy of esti-
mated water concentrations derived from the chemical residues
measured in the SPMDs (Huckins et al., 2002; 2006).
A total of 103 compounds were analyzed (Suppl. Table 1). One
field blank was used specifically at each site and for each vertical
profile by exposing the blank SPMD to the atmosphere during de-
ployment and retrieval of the SPMDs placed in the water column.
One field blank for the POCIS was used for all sites. The boat
used for sampling had the motor turned off during sample collec-
tion. Semi-permeable membrane devices and POCIS laboratory
blanks were also used to determine whether any contamination
was detected during the processing and analysis of the samples
in the laboratory. Minor amounts of contamination were found
for some compounds but were insignificant compared with the
concentrations of most of the compounds measured in the envi-
ronmental samples (see Suppl. Table 2, which includes all the raw
SPMD and POCIS data discussed herein). The concentrations of
SOCs measured in the blanks were subtracted from total concen-
trations measured in the deployed samples before estimating aver-
age water concentrations of target compounds.
The average water concentrations of selected chemicals
(Tables 2 and 3) can be estimated using models developed by
Huckins et al. (2006) and Alvarez et al. (2004; 2007), in com-
bination with PRC loss data, chemical sampling rates (when
available), and amounts of chemicals sampled. Description of
the equations used to calculate average water concentrations has
been summarized in Alvarez et al. (2009). Those compounds
that did not fit the uptake models or were missing sampling rate
data are reported as nanograms of the compound per SPMD
deployment period (Table 2). Polar organic chemical integrative
sampler concentrations are reported as ng per POCIS (Table 4)
because sampling rates for many of the measured chemicals were
not available. Concentrations that are not reported as average
water concentrations are semi-quantitative at best. Definitive
identification of some compounds was not possible due to in-
terferences or because the amount of the compound in solution
was less than the reporting limits of the method. Estimated con-
centrations were determined for these compounds (see footnote
in Tables 3 and 4), but these concentrations are only semi-quan-
titative and may be higher than the values reported.
Methodologies for the extraction of compounds from pas-
sive samplers and the analytical methods have been previously
reported (Alvarez et al., 2004; 2009; Leiker et al., 2009). Brief-
ly, chemicals were recovered from the SPMDs using a two-step
dialysis into hexane. The dialysate was concentrated using a
Kuderna-Danish evaporator before fractionation by size exclu-
sion chromatography to isolate the chemicals of interest from
sulfur and residual matrix components. After size exclusion
chromatography, the samples were analyzed with a gas chro-
matograph mass spectrometer using positive and negative elec-
tron ionization modes (Leiker et al., 2009).
The extraction solvent used to recover the chemicals from the
POCIS was comprised of 1:1:8 methanol:toluene:methylene
chloride (v:v:v) for the pesticide-POCIS type and 100% meth-
anol for the pharmaceutical-POCIS type (Alvarez et al., 2004;
Journal of Environmental Quality Volume 39 XX 2010
Table 2. S
 ynthetic organic chemicals detected in semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs) in the vertical gradient distribution study in Las
Vegas Bay, Lake Mead, Nevada.
Replicate 1 Replicate 2
Depth of deployment canisters 4m 8m 12 m 18 m 8m 12 m 18 m Likely source
pg L-1
1-methylnaphthalene 1200 970 780 <290 1100 450 530 UR, B
2,6-dimethylnaphthalene 330 250 220 <100 330 110 180 UR, B
2-methylnaphthalene 2400 2000 1300 <290 2000 780 620 UR, B
4-tert-octylphenol 33# 45 74 <45 <45 <45 <45 WW, UR
BDE 47 75 54 64 92 93 21 87 WW, AD
BDE 99 14 7.5 14 28 24 5.6 39 WW, AD
Chlorpyrifos <27 <27 <27 120 <27 <27 <27 WW, AR
Dacthal 16 23 29 20 74 13 20 WW, UR, AR
Galaxolide (HHCB) 45,000 35,000 62,000 90,000 75,000 22,000 95,000 WW
Hexachlorobenzene 24 19 25 29 31 9.7 36 WW, AD
Naphthalene 1600 1400 700 <850 820 230 380 UR, B
o,p-DDE <43 <43 63 130 <43 <43 230 BMI
Octachlorostyrene <20 <20 <20 8.7 <20 <20 <20 BMI
PCB 138 <13 <13 <13 23 <13 <13 38 WW, UR
PCB 180 <18 <18 <18 7.4 <18 <18 12 WW, UR
Pentachloroanisole 29 22 29 26 32 13 26 WW, UR
Phenanthrene 270 280 300 <90 410 82 240 UR, B
Pyrene 230 190 240 <45 320 87 <45 UR, B
Tonalide 2000 2100 4500 7300 5800 1900 9500 WW
trans-Chlordane <8.8 <8.8 <8.8 19 <8.8 <8.8 <8.8 BMI
ng SPMD-1
Acetophenone 41 38 33 <13 26 23 36 WW
Benzophenone 7.2 0.7 16 <13 14 <13 <13 WW, UR
Oxybenzone 15 5.5 14 <130 <130 <130 <130 WW
Likely source of contaminant listed the first time chemical appears in Tables 24.
Water concentrations were estimated from uptake models and concentrations of the chemical in the SPMD.
< values indicate chemical was at a concentration less than the method detection limit.
A  D, atmospheric deposition; AR, agricultural runoff; B, boats; BMI, Basic Metals, Incorporated industrial site located near Las Vegas Wash; PCB,
polychlorinated biphenyl; UR, urban runoff; WW, waste water treatment facilities.
# Italicized values are greater than the method detection limit but below the method quantitation limit or could not be estimated accurately due to
poorly defined peaks. These estimates are provided for informational purposes only and should not be considered to be definitive values.
Values are reported as mass of chemical in the SPMD because water concentrations could not be estimated due to a lack of sampling rate data.

2009). Extracts from all POCIS samples were concentrated us-
ing a Kuderna-Danish evaporator and high-purity N2 before
analysis using the GCMS system described above.
Results and Discussion
Lateral Distribution of Compounds Detected
Las Vegas Wash Sites
Concentrations of SOCs and the types of compounds de-
tected in the two Las Vegas Wash samples were somewhat dif-
ferent. Although some compounds were found at both sites
(Tables 3 and 4), the site downstream of the waste water treat-
ment facilities generally had higher concentrations and 66%
more detections (35 detections of different SOCs) of those
compounds than at the upstream site (21 detections of differ-
ent SOCs). At the LVVD site, the most abundant chemicals
measured in the SPMDs were PAHs, pesticides (benfluralin,
chlorpyrifos, and trifluralin), and relatively low concentrations
of flame retardants and the wood treatment pentachloroanisole
(Table 3). Polar organic chemical integrative sampler (Table
4) detections included fragrances (acetophenone and methyl
salicylate), which may be from natural sources; residues of pes-
ticide formulations (isoquinoline, 4-tert-octylphenol); caffeine;
a wood treatment chemical (para-cresol); flame retardants (tris
(chloroethyl) phosphate and others); an anti-rust and corro-
sion inhibitor (5-methyl-1H-benzotriazole), which is also used
as an anti-freezing agent in cycling cooling water treatment;
and 3,4-dichlorophenyl isocyanate, which is used to synthe-
size pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and lubricants and is used in
making plastics. Many of these compounds are from industrial
and urban uses (including the use of pesticides on turf grass)
that enter Las Vegas Wash by runoff, shallow ground water and
atmospheric inputs, and irrigation with treated waste water
upstream of the site. The reason for the anomalously high es-
timated concentration (up to 50,000 ng per POCIS) in both
POCIS media of tris (2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (Table 4), a
chemical used in flame retardants, is unknown. However, oth-
er phosphate SOCs used as flame retardants are present, and
the chemicals were not found in the trip or extraction blanks;
therefore, the compounds observed are present in the environ-
ment. One possible source of these compounds is runoff from
areas treated with fire retardants during an urban fire.
Caffeine was detected at more than 24 times the estimated
concentration at the LVVD site (3400 ng per POCIS) com-
pared with below the treatment facilities (Outlet site on Fig.
1; 530 ng per POCIS) and was detected in LVB at 8 m depth

Rosen et al.: Distribution of Organic Compounds in Lake Mead, Nevada

Table 3. S
 ynthetic organic chemicals detected in semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs) in the lateral distribution study in Lake Mead,
Nevada. All samplers were placed 8 m below the water surface.
Las Vegas Overton Boulder Gregg Willow Likely
Compounds detected Valley Drive Outlet Arm Basin Basin Beach source
pg L-1
1-methylnaphthalene 1100 <290 <90 86# 2800 188
2,6-dimethylnaphthalene 860 <100 <100 <100 150 <100
2-methylnaphthalene 1400 5.8 <290 <290 5800 130
a-hexachlorocyclohexane <120 410 <120 <120 <120 <120 BMI
g-hexachlorocyclohexane (lindane) <170 1500 <170 <170 <170 <170 BMI, WW
BDE 100 <13 62 <13 <13 <13 <13 WW, AD
BDE 47 49 680 <9.1 <9.1 <9.1 <9.1
BDE 99 19 210 <13 <13 <13 <13
Benfluralin 67 <9.0 <9.0 <9.0 <9.0 <9.0 UR, AR
Chlorpyrifos 260 1000 160 <27 <27 <27
cis-Chlordane <18 38 <18 <18 <18 <18 BMI
Dacthal 110 25 87 42 56 66
Galaxolide <490 400,000 <490 1300 <490 <490
Hexachlorobenzene 12 64 13 7.0 14 10
Naphthalene <850 <850 <850 <850 11,000 188 UR, B
PCB 138 <13 21 <13 <13 <13 <13
PCB 146 <13 11 <13 <13 <13 <13 WW, UR
Pentachloroanisole 29 88 <8.7 10 <8.7 19
Phenanthrene 1300 <90 <90 <90 <90 <90
Tonalide <200 41,000 <200 <200 <200 <200
trans-Chlordane <8.8 34 <8.8 <8.8 <8.8 <8.8
Trifluralin 37 26 <9.0 <9.0 <9.0 <9.0
Data for the Las Vegas Bay site are given in Table 2.
Likely source of contaminant listed the first time chemical appears in Tables 24.
Water concentrations were estimated from uptake models and concentrations of the chemical in the SPMD.
< values indicate chemical was at a concentration less than the method detection limit.
# Italicized values are greater than the method detection limit but below the method quantitation limit or could not be estimated accurately due to
poorly defined peaks. These estimates are provided for informational purposes only and should not be considered to be definitive values.
AD, atmospheric deposition; AR, agricultural runoff; BMI, Basic Metals, Incorporated industrial site located near Las Vegas Wash; B, boats; PCB,
polychlorinated biphenyl; UR, urban runoff; WW, waste water treatment facilities.

(140 ng per POCIS). It is not known why caffeine would be
detected at higher concentrations at the LVVD site compared
with the downstream site (no caffeine was detected in the
blanks), but significant amounts of rubbish and human distur-
bance are present down in and along Las Vegas Wash, and both
of these factors could be the cause of this detection.
Overall, the number of different compounds detected in
the POCIS media at the LVVD site was 44% lower (nine com-
pounds) than at the Outlet site (16 compounds), although esti-
mated concentrations were higher at the LVVD site (mostly due
to the high concentration of tris [2-butoxyethyl] phosphate).
The SOCs detected at the Outlet site are dominated by
the occurrence of two fragrance compounds, galaxolide and
tonalide, which were not present at the upstream site during
the deployment period. Other SOCs that could be associated
with treated waste water discharge and were either not found
at the upstream site or are found at much lower concentrations
are lindane (used in shampoo as a control for hair lice), flame
retardants, and food preservatives. Lindane was also manu-
factured at the Basic Metals, Incorporated (BMI) industrial
site (Fig. 1; see Rosen and Van Metre, 2009, for more details)
and could be a possible source. Also, two known endocrine-
disrupting chemicals, trans- and cis-chlordane (Huang et al.,
2004), which are isomers of the pesticide chlordane that was
banned in the USA after 1988, were found at low concentra-
tions (34 and 38pg L-1, respectively) at the Outlet site. Chlor-
pyrifos, which was banned from household use as a pesticide
in 2001 but is still used in agriculture, was found at the Outlet
site at an average concentration of 1000 pg L-1. The source of
chorpyrifos is not well controlled, but the US Environmen-
tal Protection Agency settled a court case against companies
in Nevada in 2007 that were illegally selling home gardening
products that contained chlorpyrifos (http://yosemite.epa.gov/
opa/admpress.nsf/2dd7f669225439b78525735900400c31/
d17cb018b06f48c485257394006970d7!OpenDocument).
Chlorpyrifos was also found at the LVVD site upstream of the
waste water treatment facilities and at the OA site (which is
downstream of agricultural lands along the Virgin and Muddy
Rivers), but at lower concentrations (Table 3). This indicates
that at least some of chlorpyrifos is locally derived and is not
all from washing of produce that was sprayed with chlorpyrifos
in other parts of the country, as has been suggested by Benotti
et al. (2009) for the presence of atrazine found in waste wa-
ter and drinking water samples from non-agricultural regions.
Chlordane was manufactured at the BMI industrial site, and
this is the likely source for this chemical. However, the con-
centration of chlordane compounds at the Outlet site is much
lower (72pgL-1 combined) compared with the lindane con-
centration (410 pg L-1), indicating that lindane is more mobile
(although it has a higher octanol/water partition value than

Journal of Environmental Quality Volume 39 XX 2010

Table 4. S
 ynthetic organic chemicals detected in polar organic chemical integrative samplers (POCIS) in the lateral distribution study in Lake Mead,
Nevada. All samplers were placed 8 m below the water surface.
Compounds detected LVVD Outlet LVB at 8 m OA BB GB WB Likely source
ng per POCIS
POCIS type: pesticide
Acetophenone 1200 <25 <25 23 <25 <25 <25 WW
BHA <25 240 <25 <25 <25 <25 <25 WW
Benzophenone <25 61 <25 <25 <25 <25 <25
Caffeine 3400# 530 140 <100 <100 <100 <100 WW, UR
Galaxolide <250 2300 <250 <250 <250 <250 <250
Indole <25 50 <25 <25 <25 <25 <25 WW, N
Isophorone <25 <25 <25 35 26 <25 <25 WW, UR
Isoquinoline 290 40 <25 60 36 <25 <25 WW, UR
Methyl salicylate 86 25 <25 35 <25 <25 <25 WW, N
para-cresol 240 <25 <25 66 <25 <25 55 WW, UR
Tonalide <100 250 <100 <100 <100 <100 <100
Tris (2-chloroethyl) phosphate 520 1200 <250 <250 <250 <250 <250 WW, UR
Tris (2-butoxyethyl) phosphate 6900 <2000 <2000 <2000 <2000 <2000 <2000 WW, UR
Tributylphosphate 410 <100 <100 <100 <100 <100 <100 WW, UR
5-methyl-1H-benzotriazole 8800 20,000 <500 <500 <500 <500 810 WW, U R
POCIS type: pharmaceutical
Acetophenone 450 77 13 <25 <25 <25 <25
Benzophenone <25 270 120 <25 110 110 120
Galaxolide <250 980 520 <250 200 <250 <250
Indole <25 130 <25 <25 41 35 41
Isophorone <25 <25 <25 <25 <25 49 47
Isoquinoline 110 <25 <25 <25 <25 <25 <25
Methyl salicylate 71 <25 <25 <25 <25 <25 <25
para-cresol 110 86 < 25 < 25 46 47 64
Tonalide <100 950 <100 <100 <100 <100 <100
Tris (2-chloroethyl) phosphate 660 590 340 <250 <250 <250 250
Tris (2-butoxyethyl) phosphate 50,000 <2000 <2000 <2000 <2000 <2000 <2000
Tributylphosphate 300 1200 <100 <100 <100 <100 <100
Triclosan <500 870 <500 <500 <500 <500 <500
Triphenyl phosphate <500 610 <500 <500 <500 <500 <500
3,4-dichlorophenyl isocyanate 4300 <2000 2600 <2000 <2000 <2000 770 WW, UR
5-methyl-1H-benzotriazole 2900 13,000 <500 <500 <500 <500 <500
4-tert-octylphenol 180 140 <25 <25 <25 <25 <25 WW, UR, B
B, boats; BB, Boulder Basin; BMI, Basic Metals, Incorporated industrial site located near Las Vegas Wash; LVB, Las Vegas Bay; LVVD, Las Vegas Valley Drive;
N, occurs naturally in the environment; OA, Overton Arm; UR, urban runoff; WB, Willow Beach; WW, waste water treatment facilities;
Likely source of contaminant, listed the first time chemical appears in Tables 24.
Values are reported as mass of chemical in the POCIS because water concentrations could not be estimated due to a lack of sampling rate data.
Indicated the type of commercially available POCIS used.
# Italicized values are greater than the method detection limit but below the method quantitation limit or could not be estimated accurately due to
poorly defined peaks. These estimates are provided for informational purposes only and should not be considered to be definitive values.

chlordane) from the BMI site than chlordane or that lindane
containing shampoo from the waste water treatment facilities
may be an additionalsource.
Osemwengie and Gerstenberger (2004) showed that grab
samples of water collected at monthly intervals in Las Vegas
Wash downstream of the waste water treatment facilities con-
tained yearly average concentrations of 57,000 pg L-1 of galax-
olide and 34,000 pg L-1 of tonalide, with monthly values no
higher than 98,000 pg L-1 and 50,000 pg L-1 for galaxolide
and tonalide, respectively. In our study, SPMD concentrations
at the Outlet site were almost eight times higher for galaxolide
(400,000 pgL-1) but were similar for tonalide (41,000 pg L-1).
However, the values are not directly comparable because SPMDs
sample water continuously over the deployment period; there-
fore, average concentrations determined from these devices may
be different from water samples taken at one point in time.
Lake Mead and Colorado River Sites
The four sampling sites within Lake Mead (LVB, OA, BB,
and GB) showed much lower concentrations and number of
SOCs detected than the Outlet site on the Wash (Tables 3 and
4). As expected, the LVB site contained higher concentrations
of certain SOCs and more detections (23 detections at 8 m
depth) than the three other sites in Lake Mead (Tables 3 and
4). Las Vegas Bay also had an overall higher sum of concentra-
tions of SOCs than other sites in the lake (Fig. 3). The OA and
GB sites had relatively low concentrations and fewer detections
(8 and 10 detections, respectively) than the LVB and BB sites
(23 and 11 detections, respectively), but the GB site contained
relatively high concentrations of petrogenic PAHs (naphtha-
lene, 2-methylnaphthalene, 1-methylnaphthalene, and 2,6-di-
methylnaphthalene) compared with other sites. The reason
for this is not clear but may be due to discharge of unburned

Rosen et al.: Distribution of Organic Compounds in Lake Mead, Nevada

Fig. 3. L ateral distribution of the total concentration of synthetic organic compounds synthetic organic compounds sampled by semi-permeable
membrane devices (SPMDs) and polar organic chemical integrative samplers (POCIS) in ng L-1 for SPMDs or g/POCIS for POCIS samplers.
Concentrations of SPMD are listed above the POCIS concentrations. Estimated concentration of 50 g/POCIS for tris (2-butoxyethyl)
phosphate was not included in the total for the Las Vegas Valley Drive (LVVD) site. BB, Boulder Basin; LVB, Las Vegas Bay; OA, Overton Arm;
WB, Willow Beach.

petroleum products from boat exhaust from boats with two-
stroke engines near the site. It is unlikely that the high values
of petrogenic PAHs were caused by the boat used to deploy and
retrieve the samples because the same boat was used at each site
and it has a four-stroke engine, which would be less likely to
discharge unburned fuel into the lake than a two-stroke engine
(Lico and Johnson, 2007).
The LVB site at 8 m depth showed the same SOCs (if de-
tected) as the Outlet site (Tables 3 and 4) but at lower concentra-
tions. Galaxolide and tonalide concentrations at 8 m depth were
approximately 10% of the value at the Outlet site. If microbial
degradation was important, the decay rates of these compounds
would be expected to be different depending on which microbes
degrade them and the rates of decay for each microbe. The simi-
larity in reduction rates indicating that dilution/sedimentation
is probably more important than microbial degradation in con-
trolling the concentrations in LVB. The BB site, which is located
in deep water (>80 m depth) well away from swimming areas,
had relatively few detections of SOCs (11 detections), with most
concentrations less than 0.1 ng L-1 or 100 ng per POCIS. Of
significance is the continued presence of galaxolide at a concen-
tration of 1.3 ng L-1 more than 10 km into the lake. Osemwen-
gie and Gerstenberger (2004) found concentrations of galaxolide
near the shore in the outer part of LVB (Fig. 3) of 0.36 ng L-1,
indicating that galaxolide can be transported over large distances
in water even though it is relatively hydrophobic.
Although concentrations and detections of SOCs were
low at the OA site, three pesticides were detected (chlorpyri-
fos, dacthal, and hexachlorobenzene). Dachtal and hexachlo-
robenzene were detected at all sites with similar low concen-
trations (<100 pg L-1), indicating that the detections may be
partly atmospherically derived from regional agricultural use.
However, chlorpyrifos was detected at OA and not detected at
BB, GB, or WB, indicating that agriculture along the Virgin/

Journal of Environmental Quality Volume 39 XX 2010

Fig. 4. L ake MeadLas Vegas Bay water-quality data for March 2006 deployment period. (A) Water temperature at three depths (8, 12, and 18 m)
at 30-min intervals from sensors located within semi-permeable membrane device (SPMD) canisters. Temperature profiles were smoothed
using a five-point Fast Fourier Transform function. (B) Difference between specific conductance data from the USGS water quality platform
from 1 and 15 m depths. Negative values indicate that the bottom water is denser than the upper water column. (C) Comparison of water
temperature data from the Las Vegas Wash Outlet site and the18 m depth water temperature at the Lake MeadLas Vegas Bay site. Note
differences in scales on each side. Temperature profiles are not smoothed.

Muddy River basin upstream of OA may be contributing small
amounts of pesticide compounds, like chlorpyrifos.
The Colorado River site downstream from Hoover Dam
(WB) had a slightly greater number of detections (n = 13) than
BB, OA, and GB but at low concentrations. Petrogenic PAHs
were detected at this site, probably due to a large amount of
boat traffic. Other compounds detected at this site are related
to flame retardants, plastics, and other chemicals that are not
generally associated with boats.
Overall, the OA, BB, and WB sites showed low concentra-
tions of SOCs, and the GB site contained petrogenic PAHs
at concentrations of some concern, with concentrations equal-
ing almost half of the chronic fresh water quality benchmark
(Suter, 1996). The LVB site had many more detections and at
much higher concentrations than the other sites. The distribu-
tion of the contaminants within the water column found at
the LVB site was further examined to determine if SOCs were
distributed homogenously throughout the water column.
Vertical Distribution of Hydrophobic Contaminants
The vertical and lateral distribution of physical, chemical, and
biological parameters (such as temperature, nutrients, selected in-
organic elements and compounds, bacteria, phytoplankton, and
zooplankton) in LVB and Boulder Basin has been documented
by LaBounty and Burns (2005). They were able to show that dur-
ing the spring, when the SPMDs were deployed in our study, the
point where inflow from Las Vegas Wash enters LVB is not con-
sistently at the top or bottom of the water column when it reaches
the bay due to increasing Las Vegas Wash water temperatures.
LaBounty and Burns (2005) showed that water from Las Vegas
Wash may have four distinct interflow depths during the same
sampling event and may vary longitudinally within a 24-h period.
Temperature and specific conductance measurements taken at the
time of this studys SPMD deployment show that water at the
LVB site was slightly warmer and had higher specific conductance
on the bottom for most of the deployment period (Fig. 4A, 4B).
In addition, diurnal temperature variations, which are more than
4C at the Outlet site in Las Vegas Wash (Fig. 4C), were more ap-
parent in the bottom waters of the LVB site than at 8 m depth, in-
dicating that a plume of Las Vegas Wash water was descending to
the bottom of the bay for more than half the deployment period.
There were three trends in the vertical profiles, and they
were generally consistent between the two vertical deployment
strings (Table 2): (i) The concentrations of galaxolide and to-
nalide were greater at the deepest sampling points (18 m) than
the middle and upper points (4, 8, and 12 m). In one deploy-
ment string, the concentrations increased progressively from the
upper SPMD to the bottom SPMD (Fig. 5A, 5B), and in the
other nearby vertical deployment (which only had three depths),
the concentrations dropped with the SPMD at 12 m depth but
were still highest at the bottom SPMD. (ii) Concentrations of
PAH were highest in the SPMDs near the surface and generally
decreased with depth (Fig. 6A, 6B). (iii) A degradation product
of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), o,p-DDE, and two
congeners of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB138 and PCB 180)
were present only in the lower water column.
Although it could be argued that the two vertical profiles
of the fragrances were not consistent because the 12-m SPMD

Rosen et al.: Distribution of Organic Compounds in Lake Mead, Nevada

Fig. 5. Vertical profiles of two synthetic organic compounds (SOCs).
(A) Galaxolide in Las Vegas Bay. (B) Tonalide in Las Vegas Bay.
These SOCs were detected with two strings of semi-permeable
membrane device passive samplers (LBV-1 and LBV-2) at four
and three depths at the Lake MeadLas Vegas Bay site during
the March 2006 deployment period.
had a variation of more than 40,000 pg L-1 between the two
strings, it is clear that the bottom concentrations (at 18 m) are
higher or at least as high as the upper SPMDs, indicating that
the profiles for the fragrances and the PAHs are different. The
differences observed in the 12-m SPMDs are likely to be caused
by variations in interflow from Las Vegas Wash over the deploy-
ment period, which may have contributed contaminants to this
interval differently due to placement of the SPMDs on opposite
sides of the platform. These contrasting profiles of fragrances and
PAHs indicate different sources for these SOCs. The fragrances
are almost certainly coming from treated waste water discharge
into Las Vegas Wash because they are not present in Las Vegas
Wash at the LVVD site, which is upstream of the waste water
treatment facility inflows. The PAHs likely come from in-lake
sources, such as boats, where higher concentrations should be
concentrated at the surface of the lake. Lico and Johnson (2007)
have shown that boat traffic is the major source of PAHs in Lake
Mead, and our study shows that the highest concentrations in
LVB occur near the surface of the lake, indicating boats as the
likely source. Concentrations of PAHs are high at the surface of
the lake even though volatilization and photolytic degradation of
PAHs lowers the concentration of many PAHs near the surface
of the lake (Lico and Johnson, 2007).
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and PCBs are legacy
compounds formerly manufactured in industrial complexes
that are located along Las Vegas Wash (Rosen and Van Metre,
2009). The fact that they are present only at lower depths of the
bay may indicate that they are solely entrained in the plume of
Las Vegas Wash water that is plunging to the bottom of the lake
or that there is a flux of these compounds from the sediment
to the lake over time. Additional work is being performed to
determine if such a flux exists. The occurrence of these com-
pounds in the sediment (Covay and Beck, 2001; Rosen and
Van Metre, 2009) or near bottom water may expose aquatic
Fig. 6. Vertical profiles of two polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).
(A) Naphthalene. (B) Pyrene. These PAHs were detected with two
strings of semi-permeable membrane device passive samplers
(LBV-1 and LBV-2) at four and three depths at the Lake Mead
Las Vegas Bay site during the March 2006 deployment period.
MRL, minimum reporting level.
biota and affect the health of bottom-feeding fish and benthic
invertebrates present in LVB.
Implications for Fish Health
The health of the aquatic ecosystem is important in Lake
Mead for two main reasons. First, Lake Mead, and in particular
LVB, is habitat for a population of federally listed razorback
sucker (Xyrauchen texanus), which has had limited success in
recruiting new adults into the population (U.S. Fish and Wild-
life Service, 1998); second, Lake Mead supports a substantial
and internationally recognized fishery that accommodates
more than 500,000 anglers a year (Rosen et al., 2006).
A study in the mid-1990s showed that common carp in Las
Vegas Wash and LVB have been exposed to endocrine-disrupt-
ing compounds (EDCs), such as DDT, PAHs, and phthalates
(Bevans et al., 1996), and that the endocrine systems in com-
mon carp was most likely altered due to long-term exposure
to these EDCs. The implications for altered endocrine systems
in fish can affect reproduction and recruitment (Kime, 1998).
Water samples collected from Las Vegas Bay in April 1997 con-
tained four xenoestrogen compounds (octylphenol, 27ngL-1;
nonlyphenol, 750 ng L-1; polyethoxylates, 4850 ng L-1; and
17a-ethinyl estradiol, 0.5 ng L-1) and one natural estrogen
(17b-estradiol, 2.2 ng L-1) (Snyder et al., 1999). Another study
by Snyder et al. (2001) determined that the compounds with
the highest estrogenic activity at Las Vegas Bay were two steroid
hormones: 17b-estradiol, a naturally occurring estrogen, and
17a-ethinyl estradiol, a synthetic estrogen used in oral contra-
ception. Fish exposed to ethinyl estradiol in concentrations as
low as 0.5ng L-1 have shown evidence of endocrine disruption
(Purdom et al., 1994; Routledge et al., 1998; Bayley et al., 1999;
Doyle and Lim, 2002; Thorpe et al., 2003).
Patio et al. (2003) demonstrated lower gonadosomatic in-
dex in male carp from LVB compared with common carp from
Journal of Environmental Quality Volume 39 XX 2010
OA and noted that this finding is consistent with the negative
impacts of EDCs found in LVB on fish testicular condition.
In addition, Patio et al. (2003) found that male common
carp from LVB had a higher incidence of gonadal macrophage
aggregates, which are considered biomarkers of contaminant
exposure in fishes. Goodbred et al. (2007) and Leiker et al.
(2009) have also demonstrated higher concentrations of many
contaminants, such as DDT (and breakdown products), lin-
dane, pentachloroanisole, octochlorostyrene, and triclosan, in
fish tissue from LVB compared with other sites in Lake Mead.
Snyder et al. (2004) found little difference in the reproduc-
tive condition between fish caged at different sites in Las Vegas
Wash and LVB and two reference sites that were attributable to
exposure to contaminants. However, this study was of limited
duration (4248 d) and used adult fish, and fish at all sites
(except one control site) lost weight during the experiment,
possibly indicating they were under stress during the exposure.
Hinck et al. (2007) examined organic and inorganic con-
taminants (metals) in male and female carp along the Colorado
River, which included one site in Lake Mead in GB and one site
at WB. Results from this study at the GB and WB sites showed
some indicators of lower fish health, but the WB site was af-
fected more severely than the GB site. Intersex fish; tumors;
lower gonadosomatic index; a higher incidence of macrophage
aggregates; higher hepatic ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase activ-
ity; higher health assessment index; and elevated concentra-
tions of arsenic, selenium, PCBs, and DDT were found at the
WB site, whereas higher a incidence of macrophage aggregates,
higher health assessment index, higher heptic ethoxyresorufin
O-deethylase activity, and high selenium were found at the GB
site. Elevated concentrations of SOCs were not found at the
GB site, although many contaminants, including PAHs, were
not analyzed in this study.
Overall, the data collected and analyzed in our study are con-
sistent with the conclusions from previous studies that the bulk
of SOCs are derived from Las Vegas Wash and enter into LVB
after some dilution, degradation, and sequestering by sediment
(Rosen and van Metre, 2009) and organic material. In addition
to potential exposure to and uptake of contaminants from the
water column, fish in these areas of Lake Mead are also likely to
be exposed to contaminants via the food chain. Food web trans-
fer of hydrophobic contaminants in particular can result in the
magnification of contaminants at the higher trophic levels. The
data from the study presented here show that multiple sources of
SOCs exist (Tables 24). Important likely sources of SOCs in-
clude (i) former industrial complexes that continue (although at
low levels) to contribute legacy pesticides and other chemicals to
Las Vegas Wash through runoff and ground water; (ii) waste wa-
ter treatment facilities that discharge into Las Vegas Wash; (iii)
boat traffic on Lake Mead; (iv) urban storm water runoff and
irrigation runoff from golf courses and lawns; and (v) possible
atmospheric contributions. The two most dominant sources (in
terms of number of contaminants) are the waste water treatment
facilities and urban runoff (Tables 24).
Recently a plan was approved to move most of the treated
waste water discharge from Las Vegas Wash through a pipeline
Rosen et al.: Distribution of Organic Compounds in Lake Mead, Nevada
into deep portions of Boulder Basin by 2012 (see http://www.
nps.gov/lame/parkmgmt/upload/Scope_FEIS_Chp2.pdf).
If implanted, this will expose new portions of Lake Mead to
waste water discharge, and careful assessment of the biological
impact of this change is needed to ensure that water quality
and the aquatic ecosystem are not significantly further altered.
Conclusions
The lateral and vertical distributions of SOCs in Las Vegas
Wash and Lake Mead measured in March 2006 show distinct
patterns, with the highest concentrations found in Las Vegas
Wash downstream of treated waste water inputs and at 18 m
depth in LVB where Las Vegas Wash water enters Lake Mead
and flows along the bottom. The total number of compounds
detected in Las Vegas Wash ranged from 21 upstream of the
waste water treatment facilities to 35 downstream of the facili-
ties, with 23 compounds detected in LVB. Relatively few SOCs
were found at other sites (813 detections), but detection of
lower concentrations of SOCs at Boulder Basin than in LVB
indicates that certain hydrophobic SOCs can travel over 10 km
into the lake. With depth in LVB, concentrations of certain hy-
drophobic SOCs associated with Las Vegas Wash inflow were up
to two times higher in the deepest SPMD than in the shallower
SPMDs. Tonalide and galaxolide were most prevalent in the LVB
site, but legacy SOCs, such as PCBs and DDT metabolites, were
also found near the lake bottom. Concentrations of PAHs were
greatest near the surface and decreased with depth, indicating
their source was from boating activities in the lake. Data from
the current study indicate elevated levels of SOCs in Las Vegas
Wash and LVB, sites where previous studies have found endo-
crine and reproductive changes compared with reference sites.
Acknowledgments
Funding for this project was provided by the Southern Nevada
Public Land Management Act (SNPLMA), administered by the
US Bureau of Land Management through sponsorship of the
National Park Service (NPS). Assistance from NPS personnel
(Kent Turner, Rigby Ough, Bryan Moore, and Art Gunzel)
and USGS personnel (Ron Veley and Jorge Arufe) is greatly
appreciated and was essential to the completion of this work.
Reviews of earlier drafts of the manuscript by Dr. Laurel Saito
(University of Nevada-Reno) and USGS personnel (Michael
S. Lico, Timothy G. Rowe, and Lari A. Knochenmus) were
extremely helpful in making this a much better synthesis of
the data. The Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit is
jointly sponsored by USGS, Texas Tech University, Texas Parks
and Wildlife Department, The Wildlife Management Institute,
and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Reviews by anonymous
JEQ reviewers were extremely helpful in improving the clarity
and focus of the manuscript.
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Journal of Environmental Quality Volume 39 XX 2010