Science and Justice 50 (2010) 100109
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Science and Justice
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / s c i j u s
Conference report
Body Fluids Conference Jointly hosted by the Forensic Science Society & the Centre
for Forensic Investigation, University of Teesside
1819 April 2008 Convenors: Julie Allard and Brian Rankin
The conference was opened by Louise McKenna, Forensic Science
Providers' Group (FSPG), Body Fluids Forum (BFF) Chair and Brian
Rankin, President of the Forensic Science Society (FSSoc). The purpose
of the conference was to share the Forum's knowledge with other
forensic biologists and to learn from each other through discussion
groups and poster presentations. A wide range and rst-rate calibre of
speakers from the UK, Ireland, New Zealand, Lausanne, Zurich and The
Netherlands presented their work and ndings over two days.
The BFF of the UK and Ireland was established in 2003 to join
knowledge and experiences from various laboratories in order to
optimise the location, recovery and identication of body uids and
best practice in the interpretation of the forensic results within the
case context. The BFF then became a sub-group of the FSPG in 2006.
Since its inception, members of the BFF have consolidated information
and conducted much research into specic body-uid matters.
This conference proved to be an impressive start in redressing the
imbalance between the resources and attention that have been put
into DNA proling in recent years over and above the efforts put into
improving the abilities of biologists to locate, extract and identify
body uids and into understanding the factors involved in their
transfer and persistence.
And in the beginning.there was AP
Gerry Davidson, FSPG BFF Secretary, Forensic Science Service (Chorley),
and Jennie Lewis, FSPG BFF Member, Cellmark Forensic Services
This presentation detailed the BFF's approach to maximising the
chances of nding relevant evidence in sexual offence casework and
improving the value of forensic science. Gerry and Jennie addressed
issues relating to the use of the acid phosphatase (AP) test, an initial
screening test for the presence of semen. Given that only an estimated
20% of rape cases are reported and of those, only 20% arrive at a
forensic provider for work (2001 British Crime Survey) it is clearly of
paramount importance to maximise the chances of nding relevant
evidence in each case.
The AP screening test detects the presence of a substance found at
especially high levels in human semen, acid phosphatase. The primary
obstacle with the use of this test in forensic investigation is that
vaginal material itself can contain some AP activity and, although this
usually gives a slightly different reaction in the test, it can on occasion
be confused with what might be expected from semen in trace
amounts. The AP test used by forensic laboratories is used practically
as it was when it was rst described by Stuart Kind 50 years ago,
although there are a number of variations on the theme. Typically this
doi:10.1016/j.scijus.2009.12.003
would involve dampened paper applied to the item of interest,
pressure applied, resulting in the transfer of water and semen
(if present) to the paper and then the application of AP.
In the research conducted by BFF members, many different
parameters were investigated including how long the reaction may
take, the strength of the reaction, the paper used, the quantity of
water and direct application of the reagent to items. One member of
the BFF conducted a literature search on cut-off times for AP reactions
and found that only one paper had been published which suggested
that if there had been no reaction after 2 min then the test should be
regarded as negative. However, there appeared to be no mention of
why this specic time was selected. This resulted in the decision that
reaction times would be a wholly worthwhile variable to look into.
The type of paper used was also investigated. Papers tested included
Ford's Gold Medal Blotting Paper, Whatman No.1 Qualitative Filter
Paper, Whatman Grades 1 and 3 Filter Papers and Banner Blotting
Paper. Items tested were seeded with previously frozen semen. The
tests showed that there was not a great deal of difference in the papers
at 2 min and between 5 and 10 min. What was established is that the
longer the AP is left to react, the greater the dilution of semen that is
detectable. After several hours, faint purple reactions and purple
speck reactions were obtained. At 4 h it was possible to detect a 1-in-
1000 dilution on Whatman Grade 3 Filter Paper. Some of the ndings
from these studies have meant that many BFF laboratories no longer
have a two-minute cut-off point.
Another variable considered in the experimental studies was the
amount of water used to dampen the items under test and which
items should be dampened: to wet the paper, to wet the exhibit or to
wet both? These tests involved trying out variations on 32 different
types of fabric, including a cotton facecloth, poly/cotton t-shirt,
polyester eece, carpet, suede jacket, wool sweater, double layer
cotton knickers, elastane top, polyester skirt, and a corduroy skirt. In
general, the reactions seemed to be quicker when the exhibits and
blotting papers were wet but semen was still detected when the wet/
dry methods were tested. There were no denitive conclusions
relating to whether fabric type is likely to affect the results.
Some recommendations included considering the specic circum-
stances of the case in question, assessing expectations, gathering
information, consideration of the fabric type, approach to search and
recovery, time since deposition, time to deposition (for vaginal
drainage stains) and potential for primary and/or secondary transfer.
In another series of tests, fresh semen at a series of dilutions was
seeded on pairs of knickers which were then placed in bags and put in
a cupboard for a week. These were then tested for AP using the blot
method, a spray method and direct aerosol application of the reagent.
 Conference report
Direct application of the reagent proved to be the most sensitive
method with the added benet of the ne mist not penetrating the
garment through to other surfaces, thus making it easier to say on
which layer of fabric the stain originated.
Tests were also done to try to establish whether the AP method had
any adverse effects on the likelihood of obtaining DNA proles. It
appeared that the method did not affect the uptake of haematoxylin and
eosin and the ability to retrieve STR DNA proles was not affected. Work
is still ongoing in this area. There is also a number of projects underway
studying if a woman's age could be a factor in determining whether false
positive AP results are obtained. The tests are being carried out on
semen-free vaginal material on knickers that have been worn for a day.
Women in a range of age-groups and at different times in their cycles
have provided samples, and there is still a great deal of research to do.
Future research projects intend to examine indirect testing
followed by direct testing of samples, direct testing of live samples,
washed samples (under different washing conditions) and visualising
semen on dark items.
A blast from the past semen detection 70's style
methylumbelliferyl phosphate, a screening tool in
the detection of semen stains revisited
Sarah Jones, FSPG BFF Member, SPSA Forensic Services, Aberdeen
Historically the chemical basis for the forensic identication of
semen has been built on the acid phosphatase (AP) activity of seminal
uid. The earliest type of screening test used on medical swabs and
clothing, used in the 1950s and 1960s, was the Brentamine test. Some
advances in semen detection were made in the 1970s, in particular,
Adams and Wraxall [1]. Their method found that seminal AP could be
distinguished from other phosphatase activities (such as vaginal) by
electrophoretic mobility. The separation of seminal AP from other
phosphatases was visualised in the gel using 4-methyumbelliferyl
(MUP) and long wave UV light. Over the years the use of MUP has
diminished in favour of the Brentamine and AP tests, but does that
mean forensic biologists are missing out on a useful forensic tool that
could provide a complementary test useful in certain circumstances?
The use of MUP as a method for the detection of semen has now
been evaluated in comparative studies involving other routinely used
chemical and uorescent techniques. The studies considered issues
relating to sensitivity, the effect of substrates, the potential for false
positives, the effect of washing, labour-intensiveness, health and
safety hazards, and whether the direct spraying of MUP had any
detrimental effect on the recovery of DNA.
This study found the Brentamine test to be very effective in
detecting semen stains on a wide range of substrates and it also
proved to be very specic. It did demonstrate however that the
screening of large areas of substrates can be extremely time-
consuming, using the blotting method, and that direct application of
Brentamine raises some serious health and safety concerns. Visualis-
ing stains on dark fabrics also proved to be rather difcult. Direct
application of MUP showed itself to be a possible alternative due to
the benets of it being a quick technique when screening large areas
for semen, and it can also be easily visualised on darker fabrics.
Fluorescence methods, LED torches and Alternative Light Source
(ALS) methods were also considered. Serial dilutions of semen were
carried out to look at variations in sensitivity on a range of substrates.
Light sources were only effective down to a 1-in-50 dilution, whereas
MUP gave a strong reaction on carpet down to a 1-in-5000 dilution. AP
also worked at a 1-in-5000 dilution but the reaction was not as strong
as with MUP. MUP detected stains on all substrates tested except for a
white cotton bed sheet, due to some strong background uorescence.
AP detected some stains on all substrates.
The potential for false positive reactions was also investigated and
with MUP these materials included saliva, sweat, coffee and toothpaste,
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and with AP included tea, urine, vaginal material and bleach. The effect
of washing the substrates was investigated, some with and some
without powder. Both MUP and AP were only able to detect stains where
powder had not been used. Crime-Lites (LED based torches) and ALS
methods worked very well regardless of whether washing powder had
been used. These tests were carried out after some garments had been
washed at 22 C and some at 40 C. Substances which were shown to
produce false positives using Crime-Lites and ALS methods were blood,
saliva, sweat, urine, vaginal secretions, coffee and toothpaste.
In summary, MUP showed sensitivity to semen at a wide range of
dilutions, on a variety of substrates but was less specic than AP testing;
however, increasing the number of MUP sprays may increase sensitivity.
AP blotting was sensitive, specic and effective on all substrates with
few false positives, but was poor at detecting semen on items washed
with washing powder. AP is also time-consuming and laborious for large
areas. Crime-Lites were sensitive to semen on carpet and cotton to a
dilution of 1-in-50, stains on non-absorbent items were easily detected,
and stains on absorbent substrates were less easily detected.
In conclusion, the studies demonstrated that direct spraying of MUP
onto items is a useful complementary screening test to AP blotting,
Crime-Lites, ALS, and especially when screening large areas. It is
important to consider a range of issues when choosing the most
appropriate method of screening for seminal stains. It seems that AP
mapping is the most reliable and sensitive method to detect the presence
of semen, but if the item is large initial use of Crime-Lites or ALS may be
more appropriate. It is also critical that the type of substrate being
examined should be used to determine the choice of detection method.
In relation to the effects of MUP on later DNA recovery there is a
requirement for further work.
Transfer and persistence of semen and the washing machine
Gerry Davidson, FSPG BFF Secretary, Forensic Science Service (Chorley)
This presentation reected on how the persistence of semen can
affect the ndings in sexual offence casework. Results from the
research carried out by members of the BFF in relation to the transfer
and persistence of constituents of seminal uid, such as acid
phosphatase (AP), prostate-specic antigen (PSA), and spermatozoa
were reported, in addition to how these ndings might impact on the
interpretation of ndings in forensic casework.
Gerry opened the presentation by posing the question, Is it enough
to nd out if semen is present and who it could have come from? We
were asked to consider how forensic biologists are currently interpret-
ing the presence of semen from an individual. Gerry suggests that if the
scientic ndings are not properly considered within the context of the
case then it becomes possible that the courts could be misled. It is
important to address whether any semen found is offence-specic, so it
is necessary to address issues relating to the transfer and persistence of
semen. Regarding intimate swabs there is published persistence data
available which allows scientists to consider time since intercourse (TSI)
and therefore whether the ndings are related to a specic offence. The
studies conducted here included examining the effects of washing
garments on the persistence of semen, AP and PSA. Also considered was
the potential for the transfer of constituents of semen onto clothing
during washing.
Semen was applied to the gussets of new cotton knickers and on
clean bed sheets, then left to air-dry. The subsequent wash cycles
contained three semen-stained items, three new and clean items, and
a portion of a bed sheet with eight semen-stained areas. Three clean
lab coats were also added to the wash to simulate a full load. The wash
cycles consisted of, rstly, a 10-min wash in cold water, a rinse and a
gentle spin without powder; secondly, a 65-min wash at 40 C with a
non-biological detergent. After wash one AP gave a positive reaction
in less than 50 s from all semen-seeded areas, PSA gave positive
reactions and 4+ heads were detected. After wash two, AP activity did
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not persist, PSA activity was only detectable in one of 12 items and
sperms were found in signicantly reduced amounts.
So, what about the transfer of semen and spermatozoa when
washing with stained items? After wash one AP activity was detected on
some knickers, PSA on some and sperm was found in many areas. In
wash two no AP or PSA activity was detected but traces of sperm were
found in 4 out of 13 areas tested. These ndings support previously
published literature. Most importantly the ndings once again raise the
question of whether semen detected is offence-specic. The forensic
biologist needs to carefully consider their expectations in any given case.
Transfer of dry semen stains was also considered. It is evident that
this is a possibility but of course the amounts transferred will be
dependent on the initial amounts present on a garment. In one case
example presented, a child had alleged that a male had put his hand
down her knickers and digitally penetrated her. Vulval swabs and the
girl's knickers were submitted for forensic testing and screening tests
gave negative results for semen but an incomplete DNA prole was
generated from the samples which matched a relative who was not a
suspect in the case. Normal domestic activities that could explain the
transfer of spermatozoa were considered and this drove the BFF to do
further research on washing machines. So, a range of tests were
carried out, including things such as children's pants being stored in
washing baskets with semen-stained items, and being washed with
semen-stained items. Where the pants had been stored and washed
with semen-stained items, trace amounts of sperm were detected.
Swabs were also taken from the door, the drum and the seal of the
washing machine and sperm was detected.
From the experiments where children's knickers had not been stored
with or washed with semen-stained items, single spermatozoa were
detected on four out of 13 pairs. Where the knickers had been stored in a
washing basket with semen-stained items but not washed with them,
no spermatozoa were found. In the next experiment whereby the
knickers had been stored and washed with semen-stained items, trace
amounts of spermatozoa were found on the inside and outside of the
four pairs examined. On swabs taken from the washing machine door,
occasional spermatozoa were found on the door, drum and seal.
These ndings further highlighted issues relating to the potential
for the transfer and persistence of semen and sperm and raised the
question, What is likely? Evaluation of the results in the context of
the case is critical and accurate expectations based on the information
available should be developed to ensure that the evidential value of
the ndings is appropriately realised. And nally, a rule for one case is
by no means a rule for another.
Stable RNA markers for the identication of body uids
Dr. Dmitry Zubakov, Erasmus Medical Centre, the Netherlands
The primary motivation for this ongoing research is to develop a
reliable method of tissue identication in forensic casework in order
to uncover important insights into crime reconstruction and thus play
a role in crime detection.
Blood and saliva are sources of human biological materials
commonly found at scenes of crime. Blood stains are commonly tested
in forensic casework using a range of methods such as the KastleMeyer
(KM) or Leucomalachite Green (LMG) tests, which are indicative but not
able to identify blood. The nature of these presumptive tests is such that
there is potential for false positives to be obtained. Saliva stains can be
detected using other similar types of presumptive test and again are not
sufcient for identication of saliva.
Some methods for the identication and quantication of mRNA in
human tissue exist which make gene-expression proling possible.
Despite beliefs that mRNA is highly prone to degradation, some recent
studies have shown that it is possible to isolate RNA of sufcient quality
and quantity from biological stains that are months or even years old. Dr.
Zubakov and his colleagues performed whole genome gene-expression
analysis on degraded blood and saliva stains using an Affymetrix
Microarray system which encompasses 54,000 human transcripts. The
most stable mRNAs were then selected following microarray data
analysis using the GNF SymAtlas expression database. This is a web
application for publishing experimental functionalisation datasets
integrated with a exibly searchable gene-centric database. Genes
were selected only if they were abundantly and exclusively expressed in
the target tissues. Using these very strict criteria, the team identied
stable tissue-specic mRNA markers from ve genes for saliva and nine
genes for whole blood. This was done whilst also considering the
degradation stability of mRNAs. Expression of the candidate genes
remained high enough to be detected after 180 days of stain storage.
The results were validated using Real-Time Polymerase Chain
Reaction (RT-PCR) and reproducible amplication was achieved for all
the saliva and blood-specic markers. The experimental method also
included an approximate estimation of the markers' detection
sensitivity relative to the starting amount of stain material. As little
as 0.05 cm of tissue spotted with blood allowed the detection of the
blood-specic mRNA markers. Unlike previous similar studies, these
candidate genes were selected from many thousands of human mRNA
transcripts based on real experimental data upon gene-expression.
Zubakov et al. [11] demonstrate in their research paper that the
candidate genes identied do indeed provide informative mRNA
markers for blood and saliva identication for stains of up to 180 days
of age. It is also suspected, however, that the proposed markers will
successfully identify much older stains. The research team now
propose that these markers could be applied in forensic casework for
stains of at least six months of age.
The medical practitioner's perspective and implications for the
forensic biologist
Dr. Debbi Rogers, Chair of the Forensic Science Committee, Faculty of
Legal and Forensic Medicine, and Mary Newton, Forensic Science Service
(London)
The Faculty of Forensic and Legal Medicine (FFLM) was established
to promote for the public benet the advancement of education and
knowledge in the eld of forensic and legal medicine. It seeks to
develop and maintain for the public benet the good practice of
forensic and legal medicine by ensuring the highest professional
standards of competence and ethical integrity. The principal purpose
of the FFLM is to ensure that all relevant forensic samples are collected
in a way that maximises the recovery of potential forensic evidence
whilst minimizing the stress to an examinee. Their principal objective
is to maintain guidelines on forensic sampling that will be updated
regularly when appropriate. Currently these are in the form of the
published Guidelines for the collection of forensic specimens from
complainants and suspects. The contributors to this document meet
every six months to review and update the advice.
The presentation concentrated on some of the difculties facing
Forensic Physicians as they attempt to collect any available and
relevant forensic evidence, and also provoked debate on why the yield
of forensic evidence from complainants and suspects of sexual
offences is so low. The normal volume of a single ejaculate is between
2 and 7 ml, and contains approximately 50120 million spermatozoa.
Given this data it becomes difcult to understand why yield of
evidence is so low. Here are some of the dilemmas put forward by Dr.
Debbi Rogers and Mary Newton:
Are collection techniques adequate?
What affects persistence?
What contamination issues should be addressed?
How should samples be packaged and stored?
Where, when and how should skin swabs be taken?
What, if any, control samples should be taken?
 Conference report
With skin swabs in particular, it can be challenging to determine
exactly where to swab for body uids, cellular material and lubricant
as the Forensic Physician is often reliant on taking a history of the
assault from a traumatised person who may be tired, unsure,
reluctant, and/or under the inuence of drink and/or drugs.
For many years Dr. Rogers has used the Wood's Lamp which emits
ultra-violet light at 360 nm wavelength. Santucci et al. [9] reported the
Wood's Lamp as being of use in rape evaluations as it supposedly causes
semen to uoresce. In relation to the taking of control skin swabs best
practice guidance is currently to use the double swabbing method
(damp then dry swab) on an area of skin adjacent to but not in contact
with the stained area of skin. If multiple areas of skin are to be sampled
then the area between the shoulder blades can be used. So when should
swabs be taken? It is important to rst establish if this type of
examination would be relevant. It is crucial to have evidence to
demonstrate that it is worth subjecting an examinee to additional
trauma. Previously published literature, such as Rutty [8] An Investiga-
tion Into the Transference and Survivability of Human DNA Following
Simulated Manual Strangulation with Consideration of the Problem of Third
Party Contamination can be used to help reach these decisions. It is
important to consider whether the individual has washed, and whether
they have any piercings which could yield useful evidence.
What about intimate samples? Currently FFLM guidance says that
with female genitalia two vulval, two low vaginal, two high vaginal and
two endocervical swabs should be retrieved. Nevertheless, how long after
an incident should an examiner subject individuals to such an intimate
examination? Decisions here need to be based on vaginal persistence
research. Davies and Wilson [5] reported that semen can be found up to
seven days post-coitus, and this is still the guidance used today.
Consideration ought to be given to whether these papers are still valid.
In relation to the persistence of female DNA on the penis, Cina et al.
[3] reported that it is possible to detect female DNA on the penis up to
24 h post-vaginal contact. Dr. Rogers suggested that there is variation
in sampling methods used but that the FFLM guidance is such that
samples should be taken if the vaginal contact was within 48 h, even if
the subject has bathed.
Willott and Allard [10] published data that attempted to clarify the
persistence of spermatozoa on vaginal, anal and oral samples taken at
known times after alleged intercourse in sexual offence cases. Their
data demonstrated persistence of spermatozoa up to 120 h for
internal and external vaginal swabs, up to 65 h (113 h in one
exceptional case) on rectal swabs, up to 46 h on anal swabs and 6 h
for oral swabs. It is this type of research and data-gathering that can
assist both the Forensic Physician and the Forensic Biologist to assess
the value of each examination and test and indicate the signicance of
the results when giving evidence in a court of law.
Interpretation and expert opinion
Graham Jackson, Advance Forensic Science
There is a wide range of ways of expressing expert opinion. The
type of expressions used by forensic scientists would appear to
depend not on only the ndings from their examinations but also on
individual partiality for certain words and phrases. For example:
The ndings are consistent with the act of anal intercourse.
The body has been identied as that of.
The suspect probably handled the knife.
Explanations have a position in the investigative phase of an
enquiry, whereas sound appraisal of the weight of evidence requires
formal propositions based on prosecution and defence positions.
Explanations clearly have a role but have severe limitations as well.
The presentation considered the hierarchy of issues, the classica-
tion of opinions, and looked at what information forensic scientists
require to formulate their opinions. If new information were provided,
103
for example, how might that change a scientist's opinion on an issue?
How do scientists reason in these situations? Mr. Jackson invited the
conference delegation to consider how such a wide range of individuals
might view a particular scenario. This scenario was to consider the
likelihood that we believed Mr. Jackson was once a semi-professional
footballer. The audience was able to select any of the following options:
Certainly not
Very likely not
Likely not
50/50
Likely was
Very likely was
Certainly was
There was a broad array of views as might have been expected. Once
views had been expressed, the audience was provided with some new
information, that he had once broken his ankle and injured his knee and
then everyone was asked to reconsider their opinions. Mr. Jackson
reasons that the Bayes Theorem can be used to help scientists to
appraise this kind information logically. This approach exists to help
scientists interpret ndings robustly and is underpinned by an
evaluation of a likelihood ratio (LR). The Theorem offers a logical
framework to evaluate the signicance of new pieces of information and
to update one's uncertainty about a questioned event. The concept of the
LR is of central importance in the model. Jackson et al. [7] state that:
It is a measure of the weight of scientic observations the LR
changes the prior odds of an uncertain event into the posterior odds of
that event. In essence, the LR can be likened to a weight that is added,
depending on whether it is greater than or less than 1 in numerical
value, to one or other of the pans of the scales of justice. The
likelihood, or probability, that it was a particular defendant who left a
crime stain depends not only on the strength of the scientic evidence
but also on the combined strength of the other non-scientic
evidence. If a scientist gives a view on the probability of the origin
of a crime stain, then that view may be limited and potentially
misleading because it will, almost inevitably, be based on limited
knowledge of the totality of the evidence in a case.
The process begins with a consideration being given to the questions
that are of importance. The courts then have two propositions to
consider. 1) The Prosecution proposition is that the defendant left the
crime stain. 2) The Defence proposition is that some other, unknown
person left the crime stain. The court will have heard all the background
circumstances, which would be termed as prior odds. The posterior
odds come after the scientic evidence and Bayes uses the LR to move
from prior to posterior. This is a sound and transparent way of
appraising evidence and it is the magnitude of the LR which implies
support for one or other of the propositions that the scientist has
considered. This approach allows a demonstration of consistency and
impartiality to the courts within a logical structure of reasoning through
consideration of events offered by both the prosecution and defence.
Mr Jackson does not imply that all case circumstances can be forced
into this seemingly inexible framework, but does propose that it assists
in clarifying the rationale behind the scientic work in these situations.
Both sides of the story
Dr. Helen Davey, Keith Borer Consultants
Dr. Davey's presentation reected on issues related to forensic
science in defence work, and provided information on how defence
scientists work and the kinds of ethical dilemmas encountered. This
type of work is highly variable in nature and primarily comes via
solicitors, but sometimes via Counsel's recommendation. It is usually
funded privately or through the Legal Services Commission. Instruc-
tions can be especially general Check out the forensic ndings, or
they can be highly specic Give consideration in regard to transfer
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and persistence of DNA and what is the current published knowledge
in this area, or Find out what size the t-shirt is and comment on
whether it could have been worn backwards.
The duty of a forensic scientist is to the court, to address the issues on
which they have been instructed, but also to advise if a particular
weakness is identied. It is not to provide or suggest a defence but to
inform about the limitations of the tests undertaken. Dr. Davey considers
the role of a defence scientist to be exactly the same as that of a scientist
who has examined the casework rst, with the single distinction being
that there is often a different version of events to consider.
Acquiring complete information, including the version of events
from the defendant is often very difcult, and is not always followed
up. The seeking out of information is crucial to any investigation in
order that meaningful conclusions can be drawn from any forensic
ndings. The frequency of the no comment interview, which seems
to be the advice of most legal representatives, is unhelpful. It hinders
the process of robust interpretation of results. Unfortunately, the
current drivers of cost reductions and decreasing casework turn-
around times in the forensic marketplace are acting against good
practice. It can result in quick-x solutions to prove a prosecution case
rather than an investigation of both versions. The obvious dilemma
here is that injustices work both ways. Failure to convict the guilty is
equally as dreadful as failure to acquit the innocent.
In one casework example, Dr. Davey reported a sexual offence case
that had two very clear alternative propositions, but where the defence
alternative was not investigated. A girl alleged that she was raped on a
sofa by a male friend in his house. Relevant medical samples and
clothing were taken during a forensic medical examination. The
defendant's version of events was that he claimed to have had
consensual vaginal intercourse with the girl and that he had had
occasional sex with her over a nine-month period on the bed in his
home. The bed sheets were not retrieved. Later in the case, the mattress
was recovered from the man's home and was examined by Dr. Davey's
laboratory. Twenty-one areas of body uid staining were detected and
these were submitted for DNA proling resulting in mixtures of DNA
from the defendant and the complainant. This previous sexual history
became the distinguishing factor between their accounts. Dr. Davey felt
that in this case the onus was on the suspect to prove his innocence.
There also appears to be a large disparity between the ways in
which information contained in forensic reports is used. Prosecution
reports are fully disclosed and used in the case, and contain details of
unused materials. In contrast, defence reports are only sometimes
disclosed and are used for cross-examination and as leverage to
encourage a plea. Ultimately, the fate of the report in relation to
disclosure is out of the experts' hands.
To conclude the presentation, Dr. Davey invited opinions from the
audience as to whether there is a role for a new professional body to
regulate these direct and seemingly irresolvable conicts presented
by the system in which forensic scientists work.
The transfer of DNA through non-intimate, social contact
Sarah Jones, FSPG BFF Member and Kirsty Scott, SPSA Forensic Services
(Aberdeen)
Can DNA end up on a penis through non-intimate social contact? It
is well documented in the literature that the potential for low levels of
DNA to be deposited by contact presents the uncertainty of how it got
there. It is entirely possible for secondary, even tertiary, transfer (to
underwear for example) of DNA to occur where a defendant and
complainant have had legitimate contact. However, the issue remains
to what extent transfer of DNA can occur in this manner. The
possibility of this type of transfer creates tricky interpretational
problems in, for example, allegations of rape where the evidence
comprises DNA that matches to that of the complainant on the
accused's penile swabs and/or underwear, and where the two parties
were in each other's company prior to the alleged incident.
The lack of research and literature in this area to demonstrate what
might be expected to transfer through non-intimate social contact as
opposed to as a result of sexual activity was the principal trigger for this
research project, which started three years ago. The aim of the project is
to investigate the extent to which DNA may transfer innocently in
order to provide reporting ofcers with some valuable information
when evaluating alleged rape cases where the complainant and accused
have spent time in each other's company preceding the said event.
Experiments included a male and female volunteer who were
asked to simulate non-intimate social contact and the amount of
female DNA detected on the male's underpants and penile swabs was
then scrutinized. During the experiments, social contact was
simulated under varied conditions and female volunteers were
selected after their shedder status had been observed. A shedder
and a non-shedder were selected. Prior to the social contact the male
was asked to shower, dress in a brand new pair of underpants and
normal clothes. Both male and female volunteers washed their hands
prior to the contact, then following the contact the male simulated
urination and continued to wear the underpants for another 5 min.
Here are some examples of the experiments:
1) min of face-touching, 3 min of handholding and immediate
urination.
2) 2 min of face-touching, 3 min of handholding then urination after
fteen minutes.
3) 1 min of handholding then immediate urination.
Following the experiments, the male volunteer's penis (shaft) was
swabbed using a damp then a dry swab and these were combined for
analysis. The front inside, front outside, back inside and waistband of the
underpants were also sampled for evidence of DNA transfer. In scenario
one, as above, 33% of the underwear sampled indicated transfer of
female DNA (50% exhibited 15+ alleles). 67% of the penile swabs
demonstrated transfer of female DNA (15 alleles). On the samples
taken from the inside front of the underwear there were two mixed
proles out of six samples with the male being the major component
and at least two people in the minor. The female could not be eliminated
from the minor. The results were the same from the outside front of the
underwear samples. On four out of six of the penile swabs, the major
prole came from the male with a minor matching the female.
In scenario two, as above, all the DNA proles detected had a major
male and the female volunteer was not detected on any samples from
the underwear or penis. In scenario three, as detailed above, again no
female DNA was detected. From the underwear, a large amount of
unknown DNA was also detected, so in later experiments the underwear
was UV cross-linked to remove any contamination. A repeat of the rst
experiment was carried out using a different male volunteer and this
time there was no evidence of transfer of female DNA.
These early results showed that transfer of DNA through non-
intimate social contact can occur, but only when the conditions such
as the nature and length of time of contact, time delays, and shedder
status, are maximised. When more realistic social scenarios were
simulated, the female's DNA was not detected on the underwear or
penile swabs. There is much further work to do, but this has at least
provided a good basis on which to continue work.
Discussion groups
Medical examinations can we improve the collection of samples and
the interaction between medical practitioners and scientists?
Facilitated by Dr. Debbi Rogers, Mary Newton, Anne Baird, and
Gwen Teppett
Forensic sampling by Forensic Physicians is largely steered by the
contents of medical kits and any associated instructions or training
 Conference report
given. Sampling processes have progressed over time due to advances
in forensic science, and the demands of different forensic disciplines
such as bres, lubricants, DNA etc. These developments have been
very diverse across the UK and Ireland. The aim of this discussion
group therefore was to canvass views on the range of options
available for sampling and collection of medical samples that could
then be included in a universally available medical examination kit.
The rst topic of discussion in this group was considering the necessity
for control swabs in medical examinations. Points put across included
that the taking of control swabs can almost double the time it takes to
conduct a medical examination of a complainant thereby increasing the
stress experienced by him or her. Perhaps it is worth investigating how
often control samples are examined at the forensic laboratory.
Penile swabs could mini-taping be an effective method of evidence
recovery? It was mentioned that this could be another interesting and
useful study for BFF member laboratories to carry out. Also discussed were
the methods of taking penile swabs and what areas should be sampled.
There are no current guidelines but it was proposed that if the pubic hair is
visibly matted then this should either be swabbed or cut and the penis
should be swabbed to the base. Further, should the pubic area be taped for
other particulate evidence? Currently guidelines dictate that this area
should have any visible debris removed and should then be combed.
Primarily the discussion group considered the most effective
methods of evidence collection whilst considering how most
effectively to minimize trauma to victims.
The future of forensic biology is the evaluative role of the
forensic scientist under threat?
Facilitated by Louise McKenna, Gerry Davidson and Martina McBride of
the FSPG Body Fluid Forum
An essential part of the role of forensic scientist is in assisting the
customer to understand the signicance of forensic results within the
context of the case. The truth, however, is that the majority of forensic
laboratories, instead of distinguishing between weak and strong
evidence, persist in using terms such as the semen could have could
from.. or the ndings are consistent with.. It is becoming
increasingly imperative that stakeholders are adequately informed of
the importance of forensic evidence in case context. Conversely, it is
becoming increasingly apparent that there are ever-increasing pres-
sures to produce more results in shorter time-frames, thereby deecting
resources further away from time-consuming interpretation.
This discussion group looked at the threats to the evaluative role of a
forensic scientist and indeed, where the possibilities lie to explore
opportunities to enhance appreciation of the provision of robust and
reliable scientic services to the Criminal Justice System. In the struggle
to produce forensic results as quickly and inexpensively as possible, are
we jeopardising the critical role of the forensic scientist as an evaluator?
The evaluation of DNA transfer, using a case example
Facilitated by Sarah Jones and Julie Allard of the FSPG Body Fluid Forum
The discussion was based on the following Case Scenario:
Ann Foster says that she met an old acquaintance, Frederick Stone,
in a bar on 1st April 2008 and that they spent the evening drinking
and dancing. They had not seen each other in the past year. At about
midnight, they left the bar together to catch a bus home. On the way,
he forced her into an alleyway and had unprotected vaginal
intercourse with her against her will. He then disappeared.
She reported this to the police immediately and was medically
examined 5 h after the alleged incident when vaginal and anal swabs
and her clothing were taken. She is unsure as to whether he ejaculated
inside her.
105
Frederick Stone was arrested on suspicion of rape on 2nd April
2008 and penile swabs and underwear were taken from him that day,
8 h after the alleged rape. He denies having sexual intercourse with
Ann Foster. He says that they drank and danced together for a few
hours in the bar that evening.
The rst police submission was vaginal swabs and clothing from
Ann Foster and reference DNA samples from both parties.
A subsequent police submission consisted of penile swabs and a pair
of underpants from Frederick Stone. The police request was to Conduct
an examination for DNA from Ann Foster in order to prove rape.
Firstly, the discussion group proposed the following as the most
signicant points for discussion:
1) What are the issues to address?
2) Will examining the items from the suspect be worthwhile?
3) Would you want any further information before starting your
examination of the suspect's items?
4) What ndings would you expect?
5) How would you interpret these and report them to the Court?
Relating to discussion point one, there was a consensus that the
issues to address are quite clear in this scenario. The most likely
alternatives to consider would be whether any forensic evidence
could have transferred between the individuals as a result of non-
intimate social contact or as a result of sexual intercourse. After a little
debate, the group agreed that it would be valuable to have more
information before deciding what, if any, items from the suspect
would be worth examining. The gathering of information such as
whether the complainant had washed, bathed or was menstruating at
the time of the alleged assault would be very useful for example. It
would also be elemental to determine as far as possible that the
correct items of clothing had been collected for examination.
On considering the expectations, the group argued about what
could be construed by the absence of any evidence when the items
were examined. Would the transfer of materials be likely and if so
what quality of results is likely to be seen for example, it may be
likely that a weak DNA prole could be generated from penile swabs
had social contact occurred, but that a strong prole might only be
expected where intimate contact had occurred.
Overall, this was a useful debate, particularly to observe such a
cross section of especially wide-ranging thoughts and opinions on one
relatively straightforward scenario.
The detection of semen and saliva traces by chemiluminescence
Marie-Pierre Milon, Institut de Police Scientique, University of Lausanne
There is no doubt that the detection of biological traces deposited at
crime scenes or on items that are subsequently recovered from crime
scenes is problematical. Nevertheless, the detection of biological traces
is crucial in forensic science, which stresses the consequence of research
such as this. The paper presented by Marie-Pierre demonstrated
investigations into the use of chemiluminescence to allow the detection
of biological uids such as semen and saliva.
Chemiluminescence is the emission of light with limited emission
of heat as the result of a chemical reaction. An established example of
chemiluminescence in a laboratory setting is the Luminol test, where
evidence of washed blood can be seen when Luminol reacts with
haemoglobin in blood stains. The reagents tested in this study are
Europium, and 4-Methylumbelliferyl (MUP) which are luminescent
under ultra-violet light.
A notable nding from this research shows that the colour of the
surface on which a stain is deposited can have quite an inuence on the
detectability of the stain. Some of the substrates tested were black
cotton, green corduroy, white cotton and grey sweatshirt material.
Where saliva was under test, the materials included cups and bottle
necks but luminescence was not systematically detected. The
106 Conference report
interaction with MUP resulted in a white chemiluminescent reaction at
365 nm 1 h after its application. The situation was quite different with
semen-seeded samples; even when only small quantities were available
(5 l), reactions create a vivid and instantaneous bluewhite chemilu-
minescence when in contact with MUP at 365 nm (UV). This was also
the case where the samples underwent drying for periods of six and ten
days. Specicity studies were also conducted and examples of false
positives were shown. The samples tested included deodorant, washing
powder, soap, a selection of amino acids, and cauliower.
Following application of the reagents to detect the biological
traces, DNA quantications showed a reduction in DNA quantity but
with saliva, this reduction was not signicant. Using the SGM+ DNA
proling technique the DNA proles generated were of good quality.
Some of the conclusions drawn from this Masters research and
presented during this session included that Europium applied to
semen traces was of limited use due to a high number of false positive
results, whereas MUP provided excellent specicity and high reaction
stability even after long periods of time (still visible after ve months)
with no decrease in sensitivity. Despite some of the limitations, the
use of these reagents applied to the detection of semen and saliva
traces is a resource worthy of note in forensic science.
mRNA proling for the identication of body uids
Dr. Cordula Haas, Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Zurich
RNA in forensic science is a promising area of research. Currently, the
unequivocal identication of the cellular origin of crime-scene samples
used for DNA proling is rarely possible. The paper presented here gave
a comprehensive account of research at the University of Zurich into the
use of mRNA as a method for the identication of body uids. Some
body-uid specic mRNA markers have been successfully amplied in
both fresh and old samples. Dr. Haas described details of the project
including a summary of the methods and commercial kits used, the
primers designed, the tissue-specic markers used and the results. The
ndings imply that forensic mRNA testing can be reliable and robust.
Dr. Haas also mentioned some other potentially viable and
advantageous uses of mRNA proling in a forensic setting. For example,
Bauer et al. [2] have published research and data on the degradation of
RNA as an indicator for post-mortem interval. Other studies have
examined pre-mortem changes in gene-expression to assist in diagnosis
of the cause and mechanisms of death.
mRNA or Messenger RNA is a copy of the information carried by a
gene on the DNA. A number of studies have already identied mRNA
markers for the most relevant body uids in a forensic context; blood,
semen, saliva, vaginal material and menstrual blood. To date several
enzymatic and immunological detection methods have been devel-
oped to determine the type of body uid present in crime-scene
stains. Persistent obstacles with these types of tests are their poor
specicity and sensitivity, so their use has been limited. These
conventional methods are also labour-intensive and must be
performed in a series rather than a parallel manner. This project
concentrated on the verication of reverse transcription PCR
(Polymerase Chain Reaction) methods for the identication of body
uids based on published data, the specicity of body-uid markers,
their performance on old stains, the suitability of the markers applied
to crime stains and the sensitivity of the assays used. Articial stains as
well as real crime stains were examined during this research.
Most cell types have a unique pattern of gene-expression, which is
demonstrated by the occurrence, and relative profusion of specic RNA
types. If the type and abundance of mRNA can be detected in crime-
scene stains, it would be entirely possible to identify the body uid
under examination. However, many of the stains commonly encoun-
tered at crime scenes involve diverse mixtures of different body uids
(e.g. semen and saliva, semen and vaginal material). Sampling separate
areas of these mixed stains could result in misleading ndings, thus, a
condition of using mRNA expression proling in routine forensic
analysis is the ability to co-extract DNA and RNA from the same stain.
The methods used in the research included total mRNA extraction,
reverse transcription, end point PCR and Real-Time PCR. For each body
uid tested, two tissue-specic markers were used in a multiplex. The
sensitivity of the multiplex assays was tested using different amounts of
dried stains on cotton swabs. The stability of samples was tested using
stains that were up to two years of age. Plotting the age of the stains
against peak height proved that stains up to this age would be suitable
for mRNA proling due to the apparent stability of the mRNA during this
period. Testing specicity using a range of known markers for vaginal
secretions, menstrual blood, blood, semen and saliva, produced
compelling results because specicity was demonstrated for all marker
genes. Thirteen articial stains were identied correctly and DNA
proles were produced evidencing the possibility for simultaneous DNA
isolation without the loss of material. The methods used here were
applied to casework samples and the results were analogous to those
seen from traditional enzymatic and immunological tests. The advan-
tages over the more conventional tests are high sensitivity and
specicity and the ability for co-extraction of DNA and RNA.
Body uid identication and forensic biology research in
New Zealand
Dr Sally Ann Harbison, ESR, Mt Albert, Auckland, New Zealand
ESR (Environmental Science and Research) are a government owned
New Zealand Crown Research Institute. ESR's work includes operational
scientic services and research into communicable disease, food safety,
human biosecurity, pharmaceuticals, and public health surveillance
amongst others. The forensic branch is the sole provider of forensic
services to the New Zealand Police and they are the custodians and
managers of the New Zealand DNA Databank. The New Zealand Police
buy the services of the ESR facility at a commercial rate along with
Customs and private clients such as insurance companies.
ESR undertakes forensic casework and offers services in crime scene
investigation, forensic biology and DNA, physical evidence, illicit drugs,
and toxicology. There are fty staff in the biology department who have
expertise in autosomal DNA analysis tests such as SGM+ (Applied
Biosystems) and AmpFISTR Identiler. They also undertake Y-STR DNA
proling and low level DNA Analysis, focusing on ngerprints and palm-
prints stored by the police, and cartridge cases and documents. The DNA
Databank contains proles from around 85,000 individuals and 19,500
crime-scene stain DNA proles. Samples taken from individuals are
submitted from the New Zealand Police when persons are convicted of
crimes that are listed in the Criminal Investigation (Bodily Samples) Act
2003 or from those who volunteer to provide a sample.
Currently, Dr Harbison's major research area is the population
genetics of Polynesia and DNA evidence interpretation. A student at
the centre is studying the uniqueness of bacterial colonies in saliva in
an effort to determine if this could be of use in a forensic context.
Relating to the location, identication and reporting of body uid
evidence, Dr Harbison rst described the initial three steps under-
taken with each sample in question.
1) use of non-specic or presumptive tests could the stain be blood?
2) species of origin
3) DNA proling
Some considerations during step one are whether or not the stain is
visible, and if so, what it looks and smells like. The scientists at ESR are
proponents of the use of Luminol and use this wherever appropriate. For
the presumptive testing of saliva, Phadebas is used and for semen, AP
(acid phosphatase) testing. Hematrace tests are used if a quick result is
needed at a scene of crime to presumptively test for human blood.
Relating to the identication of semen, a positive identication is
recorded only when microscopic examination reveals the presence of
 Conference report
sperm or the P30 antigen test result is positive and correlates with the
AP results. With saliva, visual inspection and the detection of salivary
amylase using phadebas is the basis for reporting results as merely a
probable or possible saliva stain. Identication per se is not possible
using these methods due to the potential for false positive results.
Although it does not come up in casework often, the laboratory uses
Merckognost Urea Test Strips, colour and odour of stains to presump-
tively test for urine, and the Edelman's test, colour and odour for faeces.
An evaluation of the presence of body uids and subsequent DNA
proles are only made as opinion evidence and only when
circumstances allow. Caveats related to this are also included at the
beginning of each evidential statement.
In addition to the aforementioned services and research, within
the Forensic Biology Research Programme at ESR is the study of what
plant materials are associated with crime scenes and how they might
be best collected, stored, extracted and identied. This type of work
has been done historically using the microscopic analysis of pollens,
but pollen lends itself to DNA analysis. The researchers intend to
conduct geographical studies of locations around New Zealand to
determine pollen proles on a large scale. Furthermore, the group is
looking into the genetic variability of cannabis using DNA markers to
identify and/or differentiate between plants to establish links
between seizures and crops. If it is found that there is adequate
variability present in the New Zealand cannabis population the
researchers may continue investigating this potential service further.
Foreign DNA under the ngernails
Colin McAlister, Forensic Science Service
Fingernail samples taken from the hyponychium can be a good
source of biological material as DNA is transferred and can accumulate
during violent and sexual assaults and could therefore be of interest in
police investigations of such crimes. Actions of restraint and violence can
facilitate the transfer of biological material between victims and suspects.
Samples also typically contain many cells from the sampled individual
although there is much potential of foreign DNA being transferred from a
second individual. Previous legitimate contact between victim and
suspect could cast reasonable doubt over whether a mixed DNA prole
from such ngernail samples originated from an assault or from previous
social contact. In court it has become increasingly evident that prior
contact between a victim and a suspect before an alleged sexual assault is
being used to reinforce the case for the defence.
The paper presented by Mr. McAlister gave an overview of the
investigations carried out by the Forensic Science Service to measure the
frequency of non-donor DNA under ngernails given certain scenarios.
The offence of sexual assault by digital penetration is described as,
Non-consensual manipulation, fondling or penetration of the body
orices by the suspect's ngers including anal, vaginal and oral areas.
As far as we know, 19% of sexual assault investigations involve
allegations of digital penetration and that ngernail samples are
collected in 46% of cases. These gures demonstrate that a study such
as this is entirely worthwhile and could provide information to aid
sexual assault investigators.
A preliminary study considered the persistence of DNA under
ngernails after digital penetration. These investigations showed that
victim's DNA was detectable up to 24 hours after penetration. The
incidence of foreign DNA under the ngernails of the general population
has previously been examined by Cook, O & Dixon, L.A. [4]. Interestingly
6% of samples produced mixed DNA proles. Other studies, Malsom
et al. (in review) have demonstrated that 37% of samples taken from co-
habiting couples also contained foreign DNA. Research underway
intended for publication by Mr. McAlister considers the transfer
(incidence of DNA under the ngernails after digital penetration) and
persistence (of DNA under the ngernails after digital penetration
following different sampling intervals post penetration) of DNA.
107
The study examining the transfer and persistence of DNA following
digital penetration included the taking of four samples per experiment
per couple; pre-experimental swabs from both hands, experimental
samples from the right hand and control samples from the left hand. The
materials and methods used during experimentation included QIAgen
QIAmp Mini-Kit, Picogreen, AmpFISTR SGMPlus (28 Cycle), 3130xl
Genetic Analyser CE and Genemapper software.
Results
High quantities of DNA were always transferred. Fifteen out of
sixteen samples gave full female DNA proles with no male alleles and
one out of sixteen samples gave a full female DNA prole with male
drop-in. Signicant factors that were found to affect the results
included dish washing and hand washing. Nail length and showering
were factors shown not to affect the ndings.
Conclusions
DNA is always transferred.
6 h full female proles were always recovered
12 h full female proles produced in of couples
18 h mixed proles produced from most samples
Hand washing was the main lifestyle factor affecting persistence
but persistence is dependent on a wide range of characteristics and
habits of the individuals.
Overall, the ndings conrm that ngernail evidence collection is
valuable. This type of research allows the collection of indispensable
data on background levels of the incidence of foreign DNA under the
ngernails of individuals in the general population. This is funda-
mental in determining the evidential value of mixed DNA proles
taken from ngernail samples following sexual assaults. This
particular study involving co-habiting couples also gives an indication
of whether mixed DNA proles are more likely to be seen between
couples who are in a more intimate relationship. It is this kind of
information that will help to decrease uncertainty as to the origin of
DNA linking a victim and a suspect.
Prostate-specic antigen: biology, detection and forensic application
Professor Richard O'Kennedy, School of Biotechnology, National Centre
for Sensor Research, Dublin City University
The prostate gland, which is only present in males, is a walnut
sized gland located in the pelvic area. It is positioned just underneath
the outlet of the bladder and is in front of the rectum. It surrounds the
urethra and can be felt during digital rectal examinations.
The cells of the prostate produce prostate-specic antigen (PSA),
which is used as a biomarker of prostate cancer. PSA is present in small
quantities in the serum of normal men, and is often found at elevated
levels in the presence of prostate cancer and in other benign disorders of
the prostate, such as benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Prostate-
specic antigen (PSA) is the best serum marker currently available for
the detection of prostate cancer and is the forensic marker of choice for
determining the presence of azoospermic semen in some sexual assault
cases. Another benet of PSA detection in a forensic context is that it is
relatively stable in the vaginal environment when compared with
prostatic phosphatase. PSA is secreted into seminal plasma by the
prostate gland and varies in concentration from 0.3 to 3 mg per
millilitre. Most PSA in the blood is bound to serum proteins. A small
amount is not protein-bound and is called free PSA. In men with prostate
cancer the ratio of free (unbound) PSA to total PSA is decreased. PSA is
also present in the blood and vaginal uid at very low levels and is
present in high concentrations in breast milk and amniotic uid. PSA
also is found in the serum of women with breast, lung, or uterine cancer
and in some patients with renal cancer.
108 Conference report
If cancer is suspected in a male following the detection of raised
PSA levels in the blood and a digital rectal examination, a biopsy is
often offered. The tissue samples taken during biopsy are then
examined under a microscope to determine whether cancer cells are
present, and to evaluate the microscopic features of any cancer found.
This results in a score being given, called the Gleason Score. Cancers
with a higher Gleason score are more aggressive and have a worse
prognosis.
The majority of current-day assays for PSA detection are processed
on large analysers at single testing sites, meaning that samples must be
sent away for testing. The use of these methods in a clinical setting
means that there can be long delays for patients awaiting results. In a
forensic setting these problematical delays are slowly but surely leading
to the development of novel biosensor detection methods that are
suitable for the miniaturisation of assays for various targets, including
PSA. According to Healy et al. (2007) [6], a biosensor is an analytical
device that brings together an immobilised biological sensing material
and a transducer, to produce a quantiable signal that is proportional to
the concentration of the analyte. Biosensors comprise three distinct
components: (i) a biorecognition element, usually an antibody, to
recognize and bind the analyte or analytes of interest; (ii) a transducing
element that converts the interactions of biomolecules (e.g. antibody
and antigen) into a quantiable signal; and (iii) a readout system.
It is not the determination of the levels of PSA that is of importance in
forensic investigation, but the capability to detect PSA in samples that
have been recovered from crime scenes or victims of crime. These
samples will often be contaminated with dirt, other debris and oftentimes
other bodily uids, making PSA detection a challenge. PSA assays in
forensic examinations also need to have only a limited sensitivity due to
the low levels of PSA sometimes present in other body uids.
With a nod to the popular Pimp my Ride television programme,
Professor O'Kennedy described his research and work in the
engineering of polyclonal, monoclonal and re-combinant antibodies
as Pimp my Antibody! Richard described the automated robotic
screening technology that can be used to analyse up to 4000 clones
per day, using custom designed software. This gives the ability to
produce a huge selection of antibodies. Using instruments such as
BIAcore and Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) technology, Richard
and colleagues have been able to investigate the characteristics of
each antibody of interest. The characteristics of importance are the
ease of antibody production, stability, sensitivity and the capacity for
improvement. The specicity of antibodies of particular interest can
be altered to make them more stable.
It seems that recent developments in biosensor technology are
beginning to facilitate the evolution from centralised to mobile PSA
testing. In the future, it is entirely possible that technology will offer
real-time detection and measurement, meaning results will be
available within minutes. This kind of laboratory-on-a-chip device
has the capacity to integrate the functions of a laboratory into a
portable device that could provide prompt and precise sample
analysis of minuscule samples in every type of setting and location.
The use of mini tapes in forensic casework
Carol Weston, FSPG BFF Member, SPSA Forensic Services, Glasgow
Mini Tapes have been used for the recovery of cellular material from
items relating to criminal investigation for a number of years. Through
the activities of the Body Fluids Forum (BFF), mini tapes have now been
introduced to many other forensic laboratories across Europe. This
method of DNA recovery has now become an effective adjunct to other,
older methods of recovery such as cutting and swabbing items. Taping
items has been a much used method of recovery to date but using the
type of acetate lifts used for the recovery of bres. These tapes would be
examined manually, microscopically, and then any skin cells detected
would be removed manually. Unmistakeably, this was a time-
consuming and ddly undertaking that also increased risks of
contamination to the material being recovered and later to be tested.
Mini tapes consist of a 20 mm 20 mm adhesive tape mounted on
one end of a 20 mm 50 mm acetate strip. The adhesive end is
pressed rmly and repeatedly over the sampling area of interest. The
adhesive part can then be placed in a snap cap tube in preparation for
DNA extraction. These tubes are suited to automation, making this
method advantageous for more reasons than one.
These mini tapes are small, easily produced, they concentrate DNA,
and benecially no freezing or drying of samples is required. Assess-
ments carried out by a number of BFF laboratories has compared mini
tapes as a method of cellular material recovery, against cutting and bulk
extraction, and the ndings have demonstrated such benets in so
many circumstances that all BFF laboratories are now using mini tapes
to recover cellular material alongside the more traditional methods.
The SPSA Glasgow forensic services laboratory prepares its own mini
tapes for use in forensic casework. A member of staff wearing full
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) makes the mini tapes using a
laminar airow cabinet and each batch produced is quality-control tested
for any DNA contamination. Many other BFF laboratories also make their
own mini tapes, but there are also now commercially available kits.
In the Glasgow laboratory these mini tapes were originally used for
DNA recovery in volume crime cases, which equates to approximately
ve thousand cases per year in that region. Practitioners have found
that this quick and cost-effective method excels at the recovery of
DNA from fabric, particularly large areas. They have also found that
this is a suitable method for use on some non-porous substrates such
as mobile phones and knife handles. They are even effective at
recovering blood from non-porous items, such as aky blood on glass.
Mini tapes are certainly not always the best method of recovery
of cellular material; it depends on the substrate in question, with
cutting and swabbing still being the most appropriate method in
many cases.
The best use for mini tapes is when looking for wearer DNA. This
can be collected effectively from collars and cuffs of clothing, coats,
jumpers, gloves, hats, masks, socks and underwear. When user DNA
is required, mini tapes can be an effective method of recovery of skin
cells from items such as hairbrushes, toothbrushes, handles of
weapons and cigarette lighters. Relating to DNA recovery from
crime scenes, mini tapes can be an excellent method of evidence
retrieval from car steering wheels (particularly where there is a lot of
stitching), and ligatures etc.
Carol described a case involving the successful use of mini tapes,
the murder of Wei Wong. Wei Wong was struck on the head with a
glass bottle resulting in death, after which the assailants ried
through the pockets of the victim and stole personal items. The inside
of the victim's trouser pockets were mini taped and sufcient DNA
was recovered to produce a DNA prole that was then searched
against the National DNA Database (NDNAD) and matched to an
individual, resulting in an arrest.
The paper presented demonstrated clearly the benets of this new,
supplementary method of DNA recovery that can be used effectively
in a variety of settings.
References
[1] E.G. Adams, B.G. Wraxall, Phosphatases in body uids: the differentiation of semen
and vaginal secretion, Forensic Sci. 3 (1) (1974) P57P62.
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