Farming System

Farming systems represent and appropriate combination of farm enterprises viz. Cropping systems.
Livestock, fisheries, poultry. Forestry and the means available to the farmer to raise them for
increasing profitability.
Farming system therefore designates a set of agricultural activities organized while preserving
land productivity, environmental quality and maintaining desirable level of biological diversity and
ecological stability. The emphasis is more on a system rather than on gross output.
In other words farming system is a resource management strategy to achieve economic and
sustain agricultural production to meet diverse requirement of the farm household while preserving
the resource base and maintaining high environmental quality. The farming system in its real sense
will help the following ways to lift the economy of Indian agriculture and standard of living of the
farmers.
Farming system specially refers to a group combination of enterprises in which the products and or
the by products of one enterprise serve as the inputs for production of other enterprise.
The Characteristics of Farming System Research
1. It is holistic or system oriented,
2. It is problems solving: involvement of farmers in problem identification and solving process,
3. It is farmer participatory,
4. It envisages location specific technology solutions,
5. It is for specific client group small/ marginal farmer,
6. It adopts bottom up approach,
7. It compasses extensive on farm activities, collaboration between farmer and scientist,
8. It is gender sensitive,
9. It ultimate objective is sustainability,
10.It focuses on actual adoption,
11.It recognizes interdependence among multiple clients.
Points to be Considered while Choosing the Enterprises for Integrated Farming System (IFS):
1. Soil and climatic feature of an area/ locality.
2. Resource availability with the farmers.
3. Present level of utilization of resources.
4. Economics of proposed integrated farming system.
5. Farmers managerial skill.
6. Social customs precaling in the locality

Definition and Objects of Cropping Scheme

Definition:

The paln according to which crops are grown on individual plots of a farm with an object of getting
maximum return from cash crop without impairing the fertility of soil is known as cropping scheme.
Objects of Cropping Scheme:
Cropping scheme provides an idea before hand about the following:
i) What crop is to be cultivated in a farm.
ii) What amount of area is allotted for a particular crop?
iii) The relative claim for acreage of the competitive crop.
iv) Selection of crops as per the facilities available for power, irrigation, inputs, labour
transport etc.
v) Utilization of inputs and other resources available on the farm without wastage.
vi) Preparation of budger for each crop.

Principal or Characteristics of a Good Cropping Scheme:

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i) Area under Individual plots: The areas of individual plot for each crop should be approximately are
same year after year. Unless price variation.
ii) Number of Plots: The number of plots should be equal to the duration or multiple of it. When the
total duration of rotation in cropping scheme is 4, then the number of plots may be 4 or minimum of it.
i.e 8, 12, 16 and so on.
iii) Selection of crops: Cropping Scheme is related to the profitable use of productive resources and
management.
iv) Profitable crops: the rotation should be planted around most profitable around most profitable
crops.
v) Meet the requirement: The cropping scheme should be so planned as to provide maintaence of soil
fertility and other physical chemical properties.
vi) The scheme should have one leguminous crop in year in its rotation for the maintainace of soil
fertility and other physical chemical properties.
Selection of Crops:
Selection of crops depends on the situation of the farm to obtain maximum profit.
a) Near a city: Farm is near the city, farmer should grown vegetable on at least 60% of the net
cultivable area remaining 10-15 % under fodder.
b) Near a sugar factory: 60% areas under sugarcane or under sugar beet remaining are on 60% area
remaining area of orchards.
c) Near a canning factory: farmer should grow oil seed crops g.nut, sunflowers.
d) Near dairy farm: The farmer should grow fodder crops. 10-15% area under oil seeds and pulses in
order to supply concentrate to the dairy cattle along with fodder.
e) Near cold storage: Farmer should grow potatoes onion, vegetable, etc.
f) Near highway/ rail way station: Farmer can cultivable perishable crops like vegetables.
Zaid crops:
Those crops grown from February to May are called Zaid crops. Irrigation needs of these crops are
usually higher than Kharif and rabi crops.
Example of cropping Scheme: Cropping scheme for a farm of 10 ha which is situated near a city and
have all facilitate for intensive cropping, soil- sandy loam.
Net Cultivable area= 9 ha (10 % area under building & layout).
Cropping Scheme:
Plot No. Kharif Crop Ha Rabi crop ha Zaid Crops Ha
1 Maize 2 Potato 2 Sesamum 2
2 G.nut 2 Wheat 2 Moong 2
3 Brinjal 2 Cabbage 2 Chilli 2
4 Radish 2 Cauliflower 2 Watermelon 2
5 Bhendi 1 Pea 1 Cucumber 1
Total 9 9 9
Total cropped area= 9+ 9 +9 = 27 ha cropping Intensity Index or CII.
Cropping intensity % = Total cropped area / Net cultivable area= 27 / 9 8 100 = 300%.

Calendar of Operation:
A graphic or tubular presentation showing the kinds of farm operations to be performed during the
season and specified time limits within work most done.
Principal of Sustainable Agriculture:
1. No fight with nature, but co-operation with them.
2. Living soil- maintain the soil health.
3. Lessen the use of outside and distant Resources.
4. Diversity and adjustment: The diversity of all plants and animal should be preserved and increased.
5. Durable livelihood: durable lemmatization about how much resource can be utilized by man in an
area.
6. Self- Dependence: The new knowledge and technology should be increase self- confidence, which
help for effecting planning of resources.
Component of Sustainable System:

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A wide chain of critical environment threats is posing challenges to the mankind all over the world\.
Some of these threats are degeneration of soil, water, forest and marine resources essential for
increasing production of food, fodder, \fibre, fuel, timber etc. Degradation of the natural resources is
the main issue threading sustainable developments of agriculture. Causes of resources base
degradation: following are the main reasons of derogation of natural resources. Major component of
sustainable system (Role of IFS in sustainable agriculture):
They are as follows:
i) Soil and water conservation to prevent degradation of soil productivity and lengthening crop
growing season for optimum crop production.
ii) Efficient use of limited irrigation water: without leading to the problems of oil, salinity, alkalinity
and high ground water tables.
iii) Crop rotation to mitigate weeds, diseases and insect problems to increase soil productivity and
minimizes soil erosion.
iv) Integrated nutrient management that reduces the need for chemical fertilizer improves the soil
health and minimizes environmental pollution by conjunctive use of organics, in organics and bio
fertilizer.
v) Integrated pest management that reduce the need for agro- chemical by crop rotation, weather
monitoring, use of resistant cultivators, planning time and biological pest control.
vi) Management systems to control weeds by preventive measure, tillage, timely Intercultivation and
crop rotation to improve plant health.
All such ecologically sound practices require more information, trained labour and management skills
per unit production than current input intensive agriculture.
Difference between Sustainable and Modern Agriculture:
Particulars Sustainable agriculture Modern agriculture
Item Sustainable agriculture Modern agriculture
Farm yard manures, compost,
vermicompost, green manure, bio- fertilizer
Plant Nutrient and crop rotation are used. Chemical fertilizers are used.
Cultural methods, crop rotation and
Pest control biological methods are used. Toxic chemical are used.
High diversity, renewable and High productivity and low diverse
Inputs biodegradable inputs are used chemicals are used fragile ecology.
Ecology Stable ecology easily broken
The rate of extraction from forests, The rate of extraction exceeds threat of
fisheries, underground water source other regeneration. Falling of trees, deforestation,
renewable do not exceed the rate of overgrazing and pollution of water - bodied
Use of resources regeneration. takes.
Quality of food
material Food material are safe Food material contain toxic residue.

Sustainable Agriculture
In India progress in agriculture was through exploitation of resources to serve the interest of rules in
the power. In the post- independence era, we were faced with the difficult task of feeding an
increasing population and were burned by recurring import of food grains. Attending self- sufficient
in food grain production was the challenges and a goal before Agriculture scientist. The element of
strategy to achieve self- sufficiency in food production within a short time were to expand the area
under cropping, make large investments in development of water resources, develop input supplies
and market infrastructure. Developments and promotion of high yielding varieties responsive to high
inputs was the cornerstone for green revolution of 1970.
We are self sufficient in food grain production. Now the question arises whether to follow the same
strategies, which resulted in green revolutions or to redefine them. Consideration of our past
achievement new challenges and the related development worldwide can answer this question.

1. Although we are now self sufficient in food grain production, the per capital availability has not

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increased significantly and a large fraction of population are still below poverty line due to lack of
purchasing capacity.

2. At the present, growth rate of 2 % per annum, we will be about 1.3 billion by 2025 and 1.6 billion
by 2060. hence there is need to produce more from shrinking resources base.

3. Major gains in productivity and production in the past three decades have been from areas, which
had no serious limitation to production (adequate irrigation productive soils, ideal climate etc.)
productivity and production increases was moderate in eastern and central India and Deccan plateau.

4. Even in areas with no serious limitation for production, technology adopted for enhancing
productivity has also simultaneous weekend the resource base resulting in a series of second
generation problems.

Modern crop production technology has considerably raised output but has created problems of land
degradation pesticide residue in farm produce, gene erosion, and atmosphere and water pollution. The
natural resources base is degraded and diminished and the quality of the environment sustaining
human life is adversely affected. Agricultural production has sustained man and great civilization. The
history of the world reveals that great civilization flourished along irrigation sources and
mismanagement of these resources saw the extinction of these civilizations. With expanding
population and rapid depletion and degradation of the natural resource base. Sustainable agriculture
has assumed very great significance. The task of meeting the needs of the present generation without
eroding the ecological assets of the future generation is receiving up priority by environmental
planners.
The world sustainability is now widely used in developments circles. But what does it really mean?
According to a dictionary meaning sustainability refers to keeping an effort going continuously, the
ability to last out and keep from falling. In the context of agriculture, sustainability basically refers to
the capacity to remain productive while mainating the resources base. For example, the Technical
Advisory Committee og the Consultative group on International Agricultutal Research ( TAC/CGIAR)
States: Sustainable agriculture is the successful management of resources for agriculture to satisfy
human changing needs, while maintaining of enhancing the quality of the environments and
conserving natural resources.

Judging Agricultural to be Sustainable if it is:

1. Ecological sound: which means that the quality of natural resources is maintained and the
vitality of then entire agro-ecosystem form humans, crop and animal to soil organism is
enhanced.
2. Economically viable: which means that farmers can produce enough for self- sufficient and
or income is measured not only in terms of direct farm produce ( yield) but also in terms of
function such as conservation resources and minimizes risks.
3. Socially just, which means that resources and power are distributed in such a way that the
basic needs of all the members of society are met and their rights to land use, adequate capital
technical assistant and market opportunities are assured.
4. Humane: Which means that all forms of life (plant, animal, human) are respected.
5. Adaptable: which means that rural communities are capable of adjusting to the constantly
changing condition for farming populating growth, policies, market demand. Etc.
Definition: There are many definition of sustainable agriculture. Simply stated
Sustainable agriculture is a term that refers to a type of farming
that meets the needs of the present without disturbing the ability of
those to come in future to meet their own. It involves economic
profitability, environmental health and social and economic equity.
2. In order to feed the burgeoning population more food has to be produced and this to be done
without enhancing the resources base. Expanding agriculture to ecologically fragile area
means Greater threat to environment. According to some workers sustainable agriculture is

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 minimal dependence on synthetic Fertilizer, pesticide and antibiotics. It is also considered as a
system of cultivation with the use of manure, crop rotation and minimal tillage.

Production, Factors affecting the production and Factors of Production

Production, in Economics is one of the important activities whatever human being is received goods
as a natural gift cannot be consumed as such. It requires some processing and then and then only it is
consumed. Through processing we transform some goods and services in to another one for example
sugarcane into sugar, Cotton into cloth etc. In economics, sugarcane or cotton are termed as inputs
factor or raw material while sugar or cloth are termed as output or finished product. Thus the term can
be defined as under.
1. Production means transformation of inputs (goods and services) into output.
2. Production of wealth or value.
3. Production means creation (addition) of wealth or value.
It may consist not only goods but also services.
Factors affecting the production: Following factors affect production.
1. Natural factors: like climatic conditions, soil type affect production. Production can be
diminished due to natural calamities like flood, drought etc.
2. Technical progress: Can positively influence production. Use of improved variety, fertilizers,
insecticides etc. can give us more production.
3. Political factors: also affect production positively or negatively. Decisions pertaining to
taxation, investment or fiscal. Policies of Govt. influence production.
4. Infrastructure facilities: Like transport, credit, storage etc. are also equally important to
have more production.
5. Character of people: determines productivity. The hard workers and sincere workers always
produce more and hence it is very important factor which influences production.
Factors of Production:

For undertaking production following important factors are required

1. Land 2. Labour 3. Capital and 4. Organization or Enterprise

Details of factors of production are explained in next topics
Factors of Production Land
Land: Dr. Alfred Marshall defined land is meant no merely land in the strict sense of the word, but
whole of the materials and forces which nature gives freely for mans aid in land, water, in air and
light and heat.

Land stands for all nature, living and lifeless. It includes all natural resources that human being get
free from air, water and land. In short, the terms land refers all that nature has created on the earth,
above the earth and below the earths surface.

Importance of Land: Land a factor of production is of immense importance. Land is the original
sources of all material wealth. The economic prosperity of a country is closely linked with the
richness of her natural resources. The quality and quantity of agricultural wealth a country depends on
nature of soil, climate, rainfall. The agril products are the form the basis of trade and industry.
Industry also depends upon availability of coal-mines or waterfall for electricity production. Thus all
aspects of economic life i.e. agriculture, trade and industry are generally influenced by natural
resources which is called as Land in economics. The importance of land is therefore too much as it
is influencing finally the standard of living of the people.

Peculiarities of Land: Land as a factor of production is quite peculiar, it possess some importance
feature, they are-
1. Land is free gift of nature: Land is not produced or man-made resource (agent). Therefore,
that we have to accept is as it is. It is after all free gift of nature.

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 2. Land is limited in area: Land surface of the world is remaining unchanged. In Holland,
some land has been reclaimed from the sea. But these efforts have produced a negligible
result as compared with the total area already in existence.
3. Land is permanent: Land as factor of production is not easy to destroy. The other factors are
destructible but land cannot be completely destroyed.
4. Land lacks mobility: Land cannot move bodily from one place to another. It lacks
geographical mobility.
5. Land is of infinite variety: Land is not man-made. Land is of infinite variety. For example,
soil may be of different types, climate elements like temperature, rains received in different
part is always varying.
Factors affecting productivity of land: Different pieces of land differ in quality or productivity. The
productivity depends upon following factors.
1. Natural factors: The factors like soil, climate, rainfall, topography influence the productivity.
The sandy soil with low rainfall always yield less but it is not so in cause of black cotton soil.
It always yields more.
2. Human factor: Man is always trying his best how maximum output can be obtained from
land. So many deficiencies are always tacked good yields. This human effort is very
important to increase the productivity.
3. Situation factor: The location of the land many a times determines the productivity. The
fertile land in remote corner of the country perhaps may not be cultivated but the land having
less fertility but located nearby marked can give a good yield.
Factors of Production Labour
Labour: It can be defined as any exertion of mind or body undergone partly or wholly with a view to
earning some good other than the pleasure derived directly from the work.
In short labour in economic means that any type of work performed by a labourer with an intention to
earn income.

Peculiarities of Labour: The important peculiarities of labour are as under.

1. Labour is inseparable from the labourer: Here labour means a quantum of work performed
while labourer means who perform the work (e.g. labour). Therefore, the labours work has to
be delivered in person.
2. Labourer sells his services not himself: If labourer is employed means an employer only
pays in the form of wages on account of services received from the labourer. Thus labourer is
only selling his services not himself.
3. Labour is more perishable than other commodity: If time passes, it lapses forever.
Therefore a day lost which out work means the days work gone for ever. That is why many
times workers have to accept lower wages rather than earn nothing.
4. Labourer has not the same power of bargaining as their employers. This is because labour can
not be stored up and labourers are poor and ignorant.
5. Man, not a machine: A labourer differs from machine. He can not render services like
machine. After all labourer is man and he has feelings and likings. If good surrounding, health,
recreation is provided, he can work efficiently otherwise he will not work efficiently.
6. Less mobile: Generally labourer does not want to leave his home. It is therefore labour is
such less mobile a compared to other factors.
7. Supply Independent of its demand: The supply of labour is always independent of its
demand and cannot be easily and quickly increased or decreased. If supply of labour is
surplus, their numbers can be reduced only by a painful process of starvation. But when
sudden increase demand for labour, as during war, wages will rise but supply can not be
quickly increased.
8. Labourer differs in efficiency: Like machinery every worker can not render same quantum
of work labourer they very inefficiency and therefore wages differ from labourer to labourer.
Factors of Production Labour (Labour Efficiency)
Labour Efficiency: The efficiency of worker (Labour) depends on two set of factors.
a) His power to work: The labour capacity or power to work depends on the following factors.

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 1. Inherent quantities: A man inherits some quantities from the racial stock to which he
belongs. Some races are known to be hardier than other. These qualities largely the outcome
of climate and natural environment.
2. Acquired qualities: By education, general or technical a worker can acquire some qualities.
An honesty, intelligence, health, strength of the body, sense of responsibility etc are acquired
qualities and these can increase the efficiency of the labourer.
3. Earnings: If a worker is having good wages with help of which he can improve his diet as
well as living standard. This will improve his health and he will be capable of doing more
work.
4. Factory environment and equipment: If the factory is neat, well ventilated and its
equipped with modern machinery the worker can work more effectively and produce quality
products.
5. Hours of work: It has been provide that long hours mean low efficiency. Labourer is not a
machine, he is human being and hence for getting sizeable work appropriate hours of work
required to be given to the labour.
6. Labour organization: A good trade union having constructive approach can improve the
labour efficiency.
b) Will to work: The workers will to work is strengthened by his ambition to rise, his desire to make
the most of an opportunity the inducement of bonuses or profit sharing schemes and sense of duty.
Thus the more earnest he is, the greater is his productivity.
Factors of Production Capital
Capital: Capital has been as that part of persons wealth, other than land, which yields an income or
which aids in the production of further wealth.

1) Capital and Wealth: The capital is required in production. In modern economy the production
depends not only on land and labour but capital is also equally important. It is also important to note
that if wealth is not used in production process it is not said to be a capital. For example, basically
tractor is capital asset as it can be used in cultivation (production) of farm, but due to some reason the
same is kept unused (idle) for one or two year it can not termed as capital for that particular year. It is
only wealth. Thus, the unused wealth can not be considered as capital. Hence all capital is wealth but
all wealth is not capital.

2) Money and capital: In the ordinary language, capital is used in the sense of money. No doubt
money is wealth and part of wealth used in production is called capital. But here in production process
money is not used as such and hence it can not be termed as capital. Only by using money we are
purchasing capital assets and hence money itself is not capital.

3) Capital is produced means of production: It is man made instrument of production. Just like land
and labour, capital as factor of production is not original. Since it is man-made it is not freely
available.
Characteristics of capital:
1) Capital is man made factor of production.
2) It involves time element.
3) Capital may be fixed: i.e. it is durable use pre use producer goods e.g. machinery, well in
agriculture.

It may be working: i.e. it is single use producers goods e.g. seed, fertilizer in agriculture.
Function of capital:

1) Supply of raw material: The working capital required in production process represents raw
material.

2) Supply of appliances and equipment: The fixed capital goods.

3) Provision of subsistence: If capital is available to the poor person, he can utilize it and run his

7
family very well. Supposes only 5 to 6 goats maintain by a poor person it will give him sizeable
income to survive his family.

4) It also employment means of transport:

5) Supply of employment: If ample supply of capital is made, it will enhance production which will
in turn give employment.
Importance of capital:
1. In modern economy capital is very important factor of production which is essential to
undertake production.
2. Without capital other factors of production (like land, labour) will become handicap.
3. On the contrary, if apple supply-capital is made the production and productivity can be
increased substantially.
4. The economic development of any country does not solely depend upon the available land
and labour but how much capital is made available is also equally important.
5. The under-developed countries remained, under-developed due to lack of capital.
6. The ample supply of capital gives boost to production.
7. When more production is there, more economic activities can he initiated and as a result,
more employment opportunities can be created.
8. More employment further helpful for minimizing the poverty or improving standard of living
of the people.

Seed
A seed (in some plants, referred to as a kernel) is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering
called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is the product of the
ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth
within the mother plant. The formation of the seed completes the process of reproduction in seed
plants (started with the development of flowers and pollination), with the embryo developed from the
zygote and the seed coat from the integuments of the ovule.

Objective: Multiplication of quality seed under vigilant supervision of breeder of seed certification
agency to distribute quality seed of notified varieties for sowing purpose. Seed of notified varieties are
multiplied in four tier system by the involvement of ICAR Institutes / State Agricultural Universities,
State / National Seed Corpora tion and Seed Certification Agencies.
1. Nucleus seed: Nucleus seed: This is cent per cent genetic pure seed with physical purity produced
under the direct supervision of the concerned plant breeder.
2. Breeders seed: This is the progeny of the nucleus seed multiplied in large area under the
supervision of plant breeder and monitored by a committee. It provides cent per cent physical and
genetic pure seed for production of foundation class. Golden yellow coloured certificate is issued for
this category by the producting agency.
3. Foundation seed: Progeny of breeders seed in handled by recognized seed producing agencies in
public and private sector under the supervision of Seed Certification Agency in such a way that its
quality is maintained according to the prescribed standard. Seed Certification agency issues a white
colour certification for foundation class seed. Foundation seed is purchased by Seed Corporation from
seed growers. Foundation seed can again be multiplied by Seed Corporation in the events of it s
shortage with similar seed certification standard.
4. Certified seed: Progeny of foundation seed produced by registered seed growers under the
supervision of Seed Certification Agency by maintaining the seed quality as per minimum seed
certification standards. Seed Certification Agency issues a bleu colour (Shade ISI No. 104, azure blue)
certificate.
5. Nucleus seed: is the handful of original seed obtained from selected individual plants of a
particular variety for maintenance and purification by the originating breeder. It is further multiplied
and maintained under the supervision of qualified plant breeder to provide breeder seed. This forms
the basis for all further seed production. It has the highest genetic purity and physical purity.
Seed Quality

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Thompson (1979) defined seed quality as a multiple concept comprising several components and their
relative importance in different circumstances and laid much emphasis on
The basic components of seed quality are:
1. Superior, high yielding variety
2. Genetic pure (high purity level)
3. High germination percentage
4. Free from seed-borne diseases
5. Free from insect pest
6. Free from other crop seed
7. High seedling vigor
8. Good consumer acceptability
9. Free from noxious weed seed
10. Free from inert matter
11. Safe moisture content
12. Of good physical appearance
13. Field inspected and certified
14. Seed size, weight and specific gravity

Seed quality characters: A good seed should have the following quality characters.
1. Improved variety: It should be superior to the existing variety i.e. the yield should be higher by
20-25% than the existing variety or it should have some desirable attributes like disease resistance,
drought resistance, salt tolerance etc., with good yield potential.
2. Genetic Purity: The seed should be true to type. The seed should possess all the genetic qualities /
characters, which the breeder has placed in the variety, genetic purity has direct effect on the yields. If
there is nay deterioration, there would be proportionate decrease in the yield or performance.
3. Physical Purity: Physical purity of a seed lot refers to the physical composition of the seed lots. A
seed lot is composed of pure seed, inert mater, broken seeds, undersized seeds, soil and dust particles
weed seeds, OCS etc. Higher the content of pure seed better would be the seed quality. Pure seed
together with germination gives the planting value of the seed lot.
4. Seed germination and vigour: Seed germination refers to the ability of a seed when planted under
normal sowing conditions to give rise to a normal seedling. Seed vigour refers to the sum total of all
seed attributes that give effective plant stand in the field. Higher germination percentage and vigour
gives adequate plant population and uniform growth, which have profound effect on, yield and
determine the planting value of the seed.
5. Freedom from weeds and other crop seeds: This is an extension of physical purity described
earlier. There are certain weed species, which are very harmful to the crop and once established they
are difficult to eradicate. An absolute freedom from seed of such species is highly desirable and is one
of the important criteria for determining the planning quality of seeds.
6. Seed health: Seed health refers to the presence or absence of disease organisms or insect pests on
the seed. The quality of a seed lot depends on its health, hence the seed should be free from seed
borne disease and insect pests.
7. Seed moisture: The seed moisture is the most important factor in determining the seed germination
and viability during storage. At high seed moisture content there is high incidence of pest attack and
at moisture content above16% seed get heated and the viability is lost. Hence the HGseed should be
stored at safe moisture levels of 11-13%
8. Seed size, weight and specific gravity: Seed size, weight and specific gravity has been found to
have positive correlation with seed germination and vigour in many crops. Therefore the seed should
be bold with high specific gravity.
9. Seed Colour: The colour of the seed often reflects the condition during seed maturation. The
farmers from ancient times have regarded good normal shine as invariable quality guides. The colour
and shine deteriorates only when the weather conditions are adverse during maturation or when
insects infest the crop or when it is handled badly. The seed lots having high genetic purity, high
germination and with a minimum amount of inert matter, weed seeds and other crop seeds and are
free from diseases is said to be of high quality and if it is lacking of these it is said to be of low quality.

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The factors that determine seed production location are:
Climatic
Agronomic or soil
Biological
Social economic factors
A. Two important phases are recognized in plot development
The vegetative: stems, branches, leave etc.
The Reproductive: inflorescence, flower and seed.
The two are somehow antagonistic.
The purpose of producing seed is equally important. Some crops are grown for fruit or seed, cereals or
pulses while others for their vegetative parts, grasses for leaves, jute for stems, cassava etc
To decide on the location of seed production enterprise, a number of factors have to be considered.
These are climatic factor, Agronomy, biological, social and economics factor.
Climatic factors: light, temp, rain (water supply), wind.
Light: three aspects of light:- duration, intensity and colour.
Day length: flowering is influenced by day length, if flowers are kept in wrong day length, they
remain vegetative, no fruit formation. The amount of cloud cover throughout the year is very
important.
Note:- Sunshine provides suitable conditions for pollination, drying of seed and ripening of fruit seeds.
Temperature: some crops species have a critical temp. to switch from vegetative to reproductive
phase. The chilling in winter makes some crops to produce flowers in summer. Temperature
influences i) sowing time especially in the soil.

Rainfall : Water is necessary by a seed crop during the period of vegetative phase followed by a
relatively dry period for reproductive phase. In a dry area, irrigation is the supplements for rain. The
advice is that we can guide against excessive and inadequate supply. Note that flowering, pollination
and seed setting are helped by moderate humidity but drier atmospheric conditionings are for
subsequent ripening.
Wind: strong winds especially. during reproductive phase can cause severe crop losses through
lodging, sheltering and shedding of fruit or seeds. Is aggravated during heavy rain which soaks
ripening ears in maize and increase the tendency to fall over.

B. Agronomic factors or soil factor

Soil should be fertile, neither acid nor alkaline deep and well drained to avoid water logging but
retentive enough not to dry out easily. It should also be free from soil borne pests and diseases.
Eelworms and for leguminous crop, it should have correct strains of rhizobium for nodulation.

C. Biological factors
Consideration must be given to the population of insect for pollination e.g bees. Avoid areas where
plant diseases, insect pest and depredation of wild animals and birds are prevalent.

D. Social and Economic factors

Regions, Districts with large farms are preferred. The farms must be free of tenure (ownershipdispute)
and should have equipment necessary for all operations e.g from sowing to harvest.

POLLINATION
Pollination is an important agronomic practice in seed production or multiplication. Pollination is the
transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma. In most species, there are several hundred times as
many pollen grains as there are female ovules to be fertilized. An ovary may contain one or many
ovules. Maize and rice contain ovules per ovary, Soyabean, cowpea, tomato, water melon have more
than one ovules in each ovary.
Modes of pollination varies among crop species. Some are self pollinated and others are cross
pollinated. Wind and insects e,g bees, butterflies etc are the chief pollinating agents of cross
pollinating types. When pollen grains pollinate the same flower or another flower on the same plant,

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the result is self pollination but when they pollinate flower on another plant, the result is self
pollination but when they pollinate flower on another plant, the result is cross-pollination.
The pollination methods are determined by the floral biology and flower capability.
In pollination of F1 hybrid seeds:- In many cases, controlled pollination is necessary especially in
cross- pollinated spp. Detasselling and male sterility are used in maize hybrid seed production. Hand
pollination is also used to produce smaller breeder seeds. In some crop species e.g onion, cotton, etc
honey bee-hives are built in close proximity to seed crop to enhance insect pollination.
The practical implication of cross pollinations is that the seed multiplication field must be
adequately isolated from contaminants if pure seed is to be production. In self pollinated crops, the
extent of natural crossing is so low that no protective measure or long isolation distance is required,
except of minimal distance to avoid physical mixing of seeds.
Seed
A seed (in some plants, referred to as a kernel) is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering
called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is the product of the
ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth
within the mother plant. The formation of the seed completes the process of reproduction in seed
plants (started with the development of flowers and pollination), with the embryo developed from the
zygote and theseed coat from the integuments of the ovule.

Seed structure

:
Factor effecting Seed germination
Water. Water is a basic requirement for germination. It is essential for enzyme activation, breakdown,
translocation, and use of reserve storage material. In their resting state, seeds are characteristically low
in moisture and relatively inactive metabolically.. For example, this value in corn is 30%, wheat 40%
and soybeans 50%. Once that critical seed moisture content is attained in the seed, sufficient water is
present to initiate germination and the seed is committed to that event and can not turn back. If the
internal moisture content decreases below the critical moisture content, seeds will essentially decay in
the soil.
Soil Air- is composed of about 20% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide, and about 78% nitrogen gas. If
one provides different proportions of each of these gases under experimental conditions, it soon
becomes clear that oxygen is required for germination of most species. Carbon dioxide concentrations
higher than 0.03% retard germination, while nitrogen gas has no influence.

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Temperature. Seed germination is a complex process involving many individual reactions and
phases, each of which is affected by temperature. The effect on germination can be expressed in terms
of cardinal temperature: that is minimum, optimum, and maximum temperatures at which germination
will occur. The minimum temperature is sometimes difficult to define since germination may actually
be proceeding but at such a slow rate that determination of germination is often made before actual
germination is completed. The optimum temperature may be defined as the temperature giving the
greatest percentage of germination in the shortest time. The maximum temperature is governed by the
temperature at which denaturation of proteins essential for germination occurs. The optimum
temperature for most seeds is between 15 and 30oC. The maximum temperature for most species is
between 30 and 40C. Not only does germination have cardinal temperatures, but each stage has its
own cardinal
*** There is a characteristic temperature range needed for proper germination of seeds in a given
soil type. It is about 5 to 400 C.
Light or darkness can be an environmental trigger for germination and is a type of physiological
dormancy. Most seeds are not affected by light or darkness, but many seeds, including species found
in forest settings, will not germinate until an opening in the canopy allows sufficient light for growth
of the seedling
Type of germination
Epigeous
In epigeous (or epigeal) germination, the hypocotyl elongates and forms a hook, pulling rather than
pushing the cotyledons and apical meristem through the soil. Once it reaches the surface, it straightens
and pulls the cotyledons and shoot tip of the growing seedlings into the air. Beans, tamarind, and
papaya are examples of plants that germinate this way.

Hypogeous
Another way of germination is hypogeous (or hypogeal), where the epicotyl elongates and forms the
hook. In this type of germination, the cotyledons stay underground where they eventually decompose.
Peas, gram and mango, for example, germinate this way
Factor effecting plant growth
The amount of plant growth and range of distribution is a function of the environment and its limiting
factors. Many plant problems are caused, directly or indirectly, by environmental stresses.
Light
When describing light, we generally talk about three characteristics: Quantity, quality and
duration.Quantity refers to the concentration of sunlight and is dependent upon the seasons. The
amount of sunlight a plant receives directly affects its photosynthetic ability. More light (up to a
certain point) will cause more photosynthesis.
Quality describes the color, or wavelength, of the light that is reaching the plant. Think of a rainbow
broken up by tiny droplets of rain. Red and blue light have the most effect on plant growth. Very little
green light is absorbed into plants (which is why most plants appear green) and therefore, green is the
least effective light for plants. Blue light is responsible for vegetative (or leaf) growth, while red and
blue together stimulate flowering.
Duration, also called photoperiod, refers to the amount of time a plant is exposed to sunlight.
Interestingly, it is not the length of the light period, but the length of uninterrupted dark that is
critical for floral development. There are three classifications for plants that relate their flowering
response to the duration of darkness: Short-day, long-day and day neutral. Generally, short-day (or
long-night) plants requires less than 12 hours of day length while long-day (short-night) plants require
a day length that exceeds 12 hours. Day-neutral plants flower regardless of duration.
Temperature
Temperature affects the productivity and growth of a plant depending upon whether the plant variety
is a warm-season or cool-season crop. Low temperatures can result in poor growth, since
photosynthesis is slowed. Temperatures that are too high can cause the products of photosynthesis to
be used more rapidly than they are being produced. Based on their ability to withstand cold, plants are
considered either hardy or non-hardy. Unseasonably low temperatures can cause serious damage to
non-hardy plants
Water

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Water is essential for photosynthesis, as it transports nutrients throughout the plant and helps the cell
walls maintain turgor pressure. Water helps to open and close stomata, or tiny pores, regulating
transpiration and also provides roots with the necessary pressure for growth. Physiologically, water
provides hydrogen ions that are necessary for the continued production of adenosine triphosphate.
Nutrition
Not to be confused with fertilization, plant nutrition refers to the basic chemical elements needed for a
plant to survive. Fertilization is the process of supplementing nutrition. Plants require 18 elements for
normal growth. There are the macro-nutrients, so named for the large quantity used by plants: Carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen, are found in air and water. Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium,
calcium and sulfur are made available through the soil.
The nine remaining elements are used in much smaller amounts, but are no less important for plant
survival. The micro-nutrients are: iron, zinc, molybdenum, nickel, manganese, boron, copper, cobalt
and chlorine. The micro-nutrients are all made available by the soil.

Water is equally important for plants. It performs the following important functions in plants:
Water is the most abundant material in a growing plant. The weight of water contained in a plant is
usually four or five times the total weight of dry matter. Water is one of the constituents of many of
the complex substances found in plants but it is interesting to note that liquid water is never found in a
pure state in the environment of living organisms.
1. Water is essential for the germination of seeds and growth of plants.
2. During the process of photosynthesis, plants synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and
water. Therefore, water is one of the essential components for the plant.
3. Water acts as a solvent for fertilizers and other minerals, which are taken up by the plant roots in
the from of solution. Thus, water serves as the medium in which plants absorb soluble nutrients from
the soil.
4. Water serves as medium for transport of chemicals to and from cells.
5. Water pressure in plant cells provides the firmness to the plants.
6. is the medium for the transfer of plant gametes (sperms swim to eggs in water, some aquatic plants
shed pollen underwater)
7. plant movements are the result of water moving into and out of those parts (i.e., diurnal movements,
stomatal opening, flower opening)

PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Increase in the size of living organisms is commonly called growth. Many physiological processes
play an important role during growth of plants. In plants seed germinates and develops into a seedling
and later it assumes the shape of an adult plant.
Growth may be defined as an irreversible permanent increase in size, volume or mass of a cell or
organ or whole organism accompanied by an increase in dry weight.
Types of growth

Primary and secondary growth-. The mitotic division of meristematic cells present at the root and
shoot apex increases the length of the plant body. This is called the primary growth.
The secondary meristem increases the diameter of the plant body and it is called the secondary
growth.
Unlimited Growth- The root and the shoot system of plants grow continuously from germination
stage to the death or throughout the life span of the plant. It is called
Unlimited or indeterminate type of growth.
Limited growth - The leaves, fruits and flowers stop growing after attaining certain size. This is
called limited or determinate type of growth.

Stages of growth-seed germination to a complete plant

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Vegetative growth- The earlier growth of plant producing leaves, stem and branches without flowers
is called vegetative growth/ Phase.
Reproductive growth- After the vegetative growth, plants produce flowers which is the reproductive
part of the plant. This is called reproductive growth/phase.

****Growth curve It is an S shaped curve obtained when we plot growth against time. It is also
called sigmoid curve. This curve mainly shows four phases of growth
It consists of five distinct phases.

1. Lag phase an initial lag period during which internal changes occur that are preparatory to
growth/ The increase in size or weight is very slow or negligible during this period.
2 log phase/grand period of growth/exponential phase- where maximum growth is seen in a short
period.
3. The diminishing phase/ decreasing growth rate- where growth will be slow and subsequently a
phase in which growth rate gradually diminishes.
4. Stationary / steady phase/plateau phase- a point at which the organism reach maturity and
growth ceases/growth stops.
5. Senescence phase- later senescence and death of organism sets in, giving rise to another
component of the growth curve.

Plateau phase IV

V Senescence

Climate is the pattern of variation in temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, precipitation,
atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods.
Climate can be contrasted to weather, which is the present condition of these variables over shorter
periods.

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Agronomic principles
1. Selection of a Agro-climatic Region
A crop variety to be grown for seed production in an area must be adapted to the photoperiod
and temperature conditions prevailing in that area.
2. Selection of seed plot
The plot selected for seed crop must be free from volunteer plants, weed plants and have good
soil texture and fertility The soil of the seed plot should be comparatively free from soil borne
diseases and insects pests.
3. Isolation of Seed crops
The seed crop must be isolated from other nearby fields of the same crops and the other
contaminating crops as per requirement of the certification standards.
4. Preparation of Land
Good land preparation helps in improved germination, good stand establishment and
destruction of potential weeds. It also aids in water management and good uniform irrigation.
5. Selection of variety
The variety of seed production must be carefully selected, should possess disease resistance,
earliness, grain quality, a higher yielder, and adapted to the agroclimatic conditions of the
region.
6. Seed treatment:
Depending upon the requirement the following seed treatment may be given
a. Chemical seed treatment.
b. Bacterial inoculation for the legumes.
c. Seed treatment for breaking dormancy.
1. Time of planting
The seed crops should invariably be sown at their normal planting time. Depending upon the
incidence of diseases and pests, some adjustments, could be made, if necessary.
2. Seed Rate
Lower seed rates than usual for raising commercial crop are desirable because they facilitate
rouging operations and inspection of seed crops.
3. Method of sowing
The most efficient and ideal method of sowing is by mechanical drilling.
4. Depth of sowing
Depth of sowing is extremely important in ensuring good plant stand. Small seeds should
usually be planted shallow, but large seeds could be planted a little deeper.
5. Rouging: Adequate and timely rouging is extremely important in seed production. Rouging in
most of the field crops may be done at many of the following stages as per needs of the seed
crop.
7 .Weed control: Good weed control is the basic requirement in producing good quality seed.
Weeds may cause contamination of the seed crop , in addition to reduction in yield:
8. Disease and insect control: Successful disease and insect control is another important factor in
raising healthy seed crops. Apart from reduction of yield, the quality of seeds from diseased and
insect damaged plants is invariably poor.
9. Nutrition:
In the nutrition of seed crops, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and several other elements
play an important role for proper development of plants and seed. It is, therefore, advisable to
know and identify the nutritional requirements of seed crops and apply adequate fertilizers.
10. Irrigation
Irrigation can be important at planting for seed crops on dry soils to ensure good uniform
germination and adequate crop stands. Excess moisture or prolonged drought adversely
affects germination and frequently results in poor crop stands.
11. Harvesting of Seed crops:
It is of great importance to harvest a seed crop at the time that will allow both the maximum
yield and the best quality seed.
12. Drying of seeds:

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In order to preserve seed viability and vigour it is necessary to dry seeds to safe moisture
content levels.Storage of raw seeds: The best method of sowing seed for short periods is in
sacks or bags in ordinary buildings or godowns.

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