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  • Harmonograph - A Visual Guide To The Mathematics of Music

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    Originally published in Wales by Wooden Books Ltd. In 2003. First published in the United States of America in 2003 by Walker Publishing company, Inc. Printed on recycled paper.

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    Harmonograph - A Visual Guide to the Mathematics of Music

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    Originally published in Wales by Wooden Books Ltd. In 2003. First published in the United States of America in 2003 by Walker Publishing company, Inc. Printed on recycled paper.

    Hak Cipta:

    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
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    2K tayangan32 halaman

    Harmonograph - A Visual Guide To The Mathematics of Music

    Diunggah oleh

    dundun
    Originally published in Wales by Wooden Books Ltd. In 2003. First published in the United States of America in 2003 by Walker Publishing company, Inc. Printed on recycled paper.

    Hak Cipta:

    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
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    Copyright © 2008 by Anthony Ashton Allright reserved, No part of this book may be reproduced or teamied in any form or by any means, elctoni or mechanical ieluding phococopying, recording, oe by any information storage and retneral tem, without penminion in wnting frm the Pur ‘Oniginaly published in Wales by Wooden Books Lain 2003; ist publihed inthe United States of American 2003 by ‘Walker Pblshing Company, In. Published simultaneously in Canada by Ftzheney and Whites ‘Markham, Onaiio CSR ATS Prioted on recyled paper For tfiemition about permton to reprctce selections fom his book, se o Permisions, Walker & Company, #5 Hon Sree, New York, New York 10014 inary of Congres Catal gng-o-Publition Dats Ashcon, Anthony. Hamonogaph a val gide tothe mathematics of music / ‘Anthony Aston. ISDN 0-8027-1408-9 (lk. paps) 1, Hamanogeaphs. 2. Muse theory—Mathemais, 1. Te Qc228 3.478 2008 yaL2—keal 200082260 ‘Visit Waller a Company's Web site st wor walerbooks com Printed in the United Stes of Amerie HARMONOGRAPH ‘A VISUAL GUIDE TO THE MATHEMATICS OF MUSIC Anthony Ashton ‘nse an = Walker ¢ Company New York Deeictedt olin, An a, ad Ege CONTENTS Towoducion The Diacovery of Harmony “The Mosochord of Craton ‘Overtoes and ners Whole Tenet and Halfiones Arangingehe Harmonies Lisajous Figures ‘The Pendulum Two Hazmonogrphs Simple Unison Nese Union Roary Unit: ‘The Lien Ocawe—24 The Rotary Ocuive—21 “The Lael Fith—32 ‘The Roary ith—32 ‘The Fourth 43, Further Harmonics Amplinude ‘Tuning Troubles Equal Temperament The Kaedophone Chad Paes Resonance Picttes Appendix A: Tung, and Intervals Appendix B: Modes nd Equations ‘Appendix C: Tables of Patterns ‘Appendix D: Buln» Harmonogmph INTRODUCTION Many of the drawings inthis hook were produced by a simple scientific instrument known as a harmonograph, an invention zcributed to a Professor Blackburn in 1844, Toward the end of the nineteenth century these instruments seem to have been jn vogue. Vietorian gentlemen and ladies would attend soiées for conversasiones, gathering around the instruments and fexclaiming in wonder as they watched the beautifal and mysterions drawings appear. A shop in London sold portable models that could be folded into a case and taken to a purty ‘There may well be some of chese instruments hidden in attics all over the world From the moment I fist aw drawings of this kind 1 was hooked. Not only hecause of their strange beauty, but be cause they seemed to have a meaning—a meaning tha became clearer and deeper as I found out how to make and operate 2 harmonograph. The instrament draws pitures of musical harmonies, inking sight and sound However, before going any Further I fel should isue a health waming. Ifyou too are tempted co fllow this path, beware! Te is both facinating and time-consuming, have acknowledged my debt to the book Hannonic Vibrations It was coming actos this book in a library soon afer the end of the second world wae thit introduced me tothe harmonograph Seeing thatthe book had been published by a fim of scientific instrument makers on Wigmore Street I went one day to se if 1 they were sill there. ‘They were, though reduced merely to making and selling projectors, went into the shop and held up imy library copy of the book for the elderly man behind the “Have you any copies of this book lef?” I asked him, He stared at me as though I were some sore of ghost and shualed away without a word, reeuring in afew minutes with 4 dusty, unbound copy of the book “That's marvelous,” I said, “how mch do you want for ie “Take it" he said, “it's our lst copy, and we're closing down So I have always fle that somedhy I must write this book: Ginn, 2002 THE DISCOVERY OF HARMONY on passing a blacksmith To understand what the harmonograph does we need fist to lance at the elements of musical theory ythagoris, some 2.500 years ago, is credited with discovering ‘hut the pleasing experience of musical harmony comes when the ratio of the frequencies consis of simple numbers, A tale tells how while taking a walk he pased a blacksmiths shop. Hearing familar harmonies in che ringing tones of the hammers on the anvil, he went in and was able to determine t was the weights ofthe hammers that were responsible for the relative nots ‘A hammer weighing half as much as another younded a note twvice as high: an ecave (2:1). A pair weighing 3:2 sounded beau, ih apare, Simple ratios made appealing sounds The pictures opposite show experiments the philosopher went on t0 make (rom Gafirio’s Thence Music, 1492), a he found that all simple musical instruments work in much the same way, whether they are struck, plucked, or blown, Deeply impressed by this link berween music and number, Pythagoras drew the metaphysical conclusion that all nature consist of harmony arising fom number, precttor so the ‘modem physici’s assumption that nature conforms 10 laws cexpresed in mathematical form. Looking atthe pictures you vwillsee that in every example—hammen, bell, cups, weights, or pipes—the same numbers appear: 16, 12,9, 8, 6, and 4, These numbers can be paired in quite a ew ways all of them pleasant to the ea, and, a we shall ee ao pleasant t the ey. THE MONOCHORD OF CREATION a singular string theory There are seven octaves in the keyboard of a piano and neatly leven in the total ange of sound heard by the average person, ‘The highest note of each octave as frequency twice that ofthe first so the frequencies increase exponentially, on a scale begin- ning at 16 oscillations per second (16 Hertz) with the lowest ‘organ note and ending with about 20,000 per second, Below 16 Hertz we experience rhythm. A range often octaves represents about a thousandfold increase in frequency (2"° = 10%) ‘There i a hint here of what we can think of as the great monochond of the univers, also on a scale, this time stretching from 2 single quantum duewation at the bottom, to the observable universe at the top, passing through the various ‘ocaves” of atom; molecule; quantities of solid, liquid, and escous matter; creatures great and small planes; stars; and galaxies. Here too the scale is exponential, but usually measured in powers often, and covering a range of more than 10. ‘Robert Fludd’s seventeenth-century engraving (opposite) tell a simile story: The musical scale follows che same exponential ‘of the univer, OVERTONES AND INTERVALS harmonic ratios in and outside the octave How are musical scales constructed? Listen very carefully as you pluck a string and you will hear not only the main note, or tn, but ako a mulkitade of other harmonics, the ovriones ‘The principle is one ofharmonic resonance, and aes not oly strings and singing hammers, but columns of air and plates too. Touching a string with a father a che halfway or thir point, a shown below, encourages regularly spaced stationary point, called nodes, and an overtane can be prodiced by bowing the shorter side. ‘The fis three overtones are shown oppor (ep) Musicians, however, need notes with interval alittle closer together than the overtone series, which harmonize within an jctave, The lower diagram opposite shows the overtone series ‘on che efi and the intervals developing within the octave on the ‘ight, in order of increasing disonance, ar complexity ‘All discord harmony not understood” wrote Alexander Pope. The brain seems to grasp easily the relationships implicit in simple harmonies, an achievement bringing pleasure; but with increasing complexiy it ters and then fal, and flare is always unpleasint: For most people enjoyment fides as discord incre «5, toward the end of the series opposite. And, as we shall sce, thae is wiiere the harmonograph drawings fide to. WHOLE TONES AND HALFTONES the fifth and the octave get their names Pythagors’s hammers hide 2 set of relationships dominated by fctaves (21) ifs (3:2), and fourths (4:3). ‘The fith and fourch combine to make an octwve (3:2x¢43 2:1), and the diference between them (3:24:3) is elled a whole tone, value 98. ‘A mtural pater quickly evolves, producing seven discrete nodes (or notes), separated by two hones ad five whole tones, like che sua, moon, and five planets ofthe ancient world ‘The fith (3:2) naturally divides into a major tied and minor third (9:2=5:4655), che major chird basically consisting of ewo ‘whole tones, and the minor third of a whole tone and a halfone ‘The ehieds can be placed major before minor (to ive the major scale shown inthe third row, opposite) ox i other ways, Depending on your harmonic moves, or melody, diferent tunings appear, for example wo perfect whole tones (9:8x9:8= 81:64) are not in fic che perfect majo tind 54, but ae slightly sharp as 81:80 (the syronc or spnptic comma, the Indian sr, or ‘oma of Didyma), which willbe discused mote liter. Simple ratios, the octave and filth, have given rise to a basic scale, a pattem of whole tones and halftones and, depending on wherein the sequence you all home, seven modes ate posible. wend el fr per ae eee ee ‘etki ht pa ig af ins ch a fe mrss na od) a pn 3 eso mea ‘lana pon cs ete thn i hp ne 19 ee eit dace Lente tefanh Dea re se SEE ets mt (80 palpeatpedy a preatyeagean ARRANGING THE HARMONIES the power of silence “The simple ratios ofthe primary overtones and undertones can be ploted on an ancien grid known as a lambdoma (appa, op), afer the greck letter h. Some interval are the same (8:4=6:3= 4221), and i€ Fines are drawn theough these it quickly becomies apparent thatthe ideniies converge on the silent and mysterious ratio 0:0, which i outside the diagram. ‘A further contemplative device wed by dhe Pythagoreans was the Tetnkiys, a eriangle of ten elements arranged in four rows (1424344810), ‘The basic form is given opposite, lower left the ft three rows producing the simple intervals, In another lambdoma (opposite, ue righ), numbers are doubled down the lef side and tripled down the right, creating tones horizontally separated ftom theie neighbors by perfect fis, Aer th trinity (1, 2, and 3) notice the numbers produced, 4, 6, 8, 9,12, and then look again at the picture on page 5, Below are interval postions on a monochord. LissAJOUS FIGURES sound made shape Im the mid-nineteenth century, Jules Lisjous, a French mathematician, devised an experiment: He found that ifa small minor was placed at the ip of cuning fork, and a light beam was aimed at it, che vibration could be thrown onto a dark sercen. When the mining fork was stuck, «small verdial ne was produced, and if quickly cast sideways with another mitror it produced a sine wave (blow, Tisajous wondered what would happen if instead of cating the wave sideways he were to place another tuning fork ¢ right angles to the first to give the lateral motion, He found that tuning forks with relative quencies in simple ratios produced beau shapes, now known as Lissajous figures, (On the seroen (opposite, rp), we see the octave 2:1) a8 figure igh, and below it various plas ofthe major and minor third "These were some ofthe fist fleeting pictures of harmony, which were doubiles fila to Profesor Blackburn when he devised the harmonogmph, THE PENDULUM keeping time A fundamental law of physics (in one formulation) states cat lft to itself any closed system will always change toward a sate of ‘equilbvium fiom which no further change i posable ‘A pendulum isa good example. Pulled off center to start itt ina sate of extreme disequilbium. Released, the momentum ofits swing carries it chrough to nearly the same point on the other side. Asi swings i loses enengy in the form of heat fom fiction at the fulcrum and brushing agains che air. Eventuily the pendulum rans down, finally coming to rest in a sate of equilibrium at the center of ts swing Going back 500 yeas, Galileo, watching a swinging lamp in the cathedral of Pisa, realized the fequency ofa pendulums beat depends on it length: The longer che pendulum the lower the frequency. So the frequency can be varied at will by fixing the ‘weight at diferent height. Mose imporcant, as the pendalm runs down, the frequency stays the same. Here, therefore, isa perfect way to represent a musial tone, slowed down by a factor of about 3 thousand to the level of human visual perception. For a simple harmonograph two ppendulums are used to represent a hamony, one with the weight kept at its lowest point, while che weight on the other is moved to wherever it will produce the required ratio. ‘As we shall see, the harmonogrph combines theie «vo vibrations into a single drawing, just as two musical tones sounded together produce a single complex sound. 16 aff. Te total gh f fe ri pede fot ea a fe ope 9s poten om co nm te aad ipccergs fam > 58 ms as Cl ite amr, Og 9 pee oa hlel ‘iene a ae ks Rereteeinmiia sie || ameh om mL He (eo item tog ro age Grek te Se ecm ee eel ee rene ee cae see Ame hoe eo la 2 ox mae GMO /| \ Srccloenmcte eee eee oie b Fepoey)ne igel ‘ela flrs eyo eae Tore poe eg Two HARMONOGRAPHS lateral and rotary In the simplest version of the hatmonograph two pendulum are sspended through holes in a table, swinging at right angles «© tone another, Projected above the table, the shaft of one pendulum caries «platform with a piece of paper clipped coi, ‘while the shaft ofthe other pendulum caries an arm with a pen, As the pendulum swing, the pen makes a drawing that isthe resule of their combined motion (opposite, sie). Both pen- dulums begin with the same length, one is chen shortened by sliding dhe weight upward and securing it with a clamp at various points, The harmonic rtios can be displayed in turn By using ehree pendulums, however, two circular, or rotary rmovements can be combined, with fascinating ress (oppor righ side), Two of the pendulims swing at right angles a8 befor, bt are now both connected by arms to the pen, which in all ary designs describes a simple circle Sinusted under the circling pen, the third and variable pendulum is mounted on gimbals, a device fmiliar to anyone who has had fo use a compass or cooking stove at sea, Here ie 2c 38 2 rotary bearing, enabling the pendlum carrying the table to swing in a second circle under the pen. As the penis lowered the two circles are combined on the pape ‘A further source of variation i alo introduced here, for the two circular motions can swing in the sime (concurrent) of opposite (countercurrent) directions, producing drawings with wony different characteristics u ake Rorary © Hormona SIMPLE UNISON—1:1 and the arrow of time ‘The simplest harmonogaph deawing is produced when both pendulum are the same length and the able is stationary, With the pen held off the paper both pendilums are pulled back to their highest poins. One is released, followed by the other when the fine i tits midpoint. The penis then lowered onto the paper to produce a circle developing into a single spr Ifthe two pendulum are released together then the reslt will be a sight diagonal line across the paper, the “closed” phase fof the harmony, as opposed to the circular “open” phase. At intermediate phase poins elliptical forms appear (below) The running-down of harmonograph pendulum is an exact panllel to the fading of musical notes produced by plucked strings, and can also be though of as graphically representing the “aprow of ime” (opps), with the unchanging ratioe of the frequencies representing the etemal chanicter of natural lw. ‘The characteristics of the drawings result fom the meeting of the running-down process sith the laws represented by the various frequency ratios, We sce chat musi, ike the world, is formed fromm unchanging mathematical principles deployed in time, creating complexity, variety, andl beauy. 20 NEAR UNISON lateral phases and beat frequencies ‘A source of pleasing variety in harmonograph drawings comes ftom small deparares from perfect harmonies. This seems to involve a principle widespread in nature as well a in the work ‘of many artists. There is particular charm in the near mis ‘An example ftom music suggest isei7here. When two notes are sounded in near unison, the slight diference in their fiequencies can offen add richness or character to the sound. ‘The two reeds producing a single note in a piano accordian have slightly different frequencies, the small departure from unison causing beas, a warbling or dhrobbing sound (se page 53) Set the weights for unison and then shorten the variable pendulum slightly. Swing the peadulunss in open phase, pro- ducing 2 circle wening into an increasingly narrow ellipse and then a line. IF the pen is allowed to continue, the line will change into a widening ellipse, circle, and a line again at eight angles to the fist, And so on. The instrument is working its ‘way through the phases of unison shown on page 20, fhe variable pendulum is then farther shortened in sages, a series of drawings lke those opposite will be produced. The repective pattem represents beats with increasing frequency 3¢ the discrepancy between the notes widens. Eventually the series fades into a scribble that is a fir epresentation of discord, ‘hough even here there isa hint of some higher number pater, For most people this fading of vintal hamiony occurs at about the same point a the audible harmonies fide, 2 Rotary UNISON— and shells Unison in contrary motion produces a straight line across the paper, like che closed phase of lateral unison, From cone motion there comes a mere dot that cums ito line struggling toward the center, pen and paper going around together At fist this is disappointing. However, changing to. nea unison is richly rewarding, In contrary motion come a variety ‘offbeauifl, often shel-lke, forms with fine eros hatchings. For best results ft dhe pen off che paper well before the pendulums reach equilibrium, Surprisingly, ftom concurrent near-miss motion there come various spherical oF egg-shaped forms. To produce an egg shape thould be lowered when i is dnwdhng a the center.” Tt the pe then spirals is way outwards, reaching 2 limit before returning as ‘the pendlums run down, Becaute the lines tov d the perimeter get closer together, the drawing appears three dimensional THE LATERAL OCTAVE—2:1 figure eights and wings After unison the next harmony to try ithe octave. Here there 's a technical dificuly: The variable pendulum has to be very short, and because of the greater amount of friction involved it runs down quickly. The rick i to add a weight to the top of the invariable pendulum, which slows it dav (ie tle pag) The variable pendulum can then be longer, Unfortunately this means that for the oceave, and other ratioe where one pendulum is going much fer than the other, the theoretical markers have to be ignored, and the right point found by trial and error ‘With one pendulum beating twice as fist and at right angles to the other, the octave in open phate takes the fon ofa figure «ight (a coincidence), repeated in diminishing size asthe pend Tm runs down both pendulum are released atthe same dine to produce the closed phase, the resule sa cup-shaped line that develops into a ‘beau winged form with fine cross hatchings and interference pattems. Small adjustments produce trking variations. ‘The octave is the fist overtone (te page 8). 6 THE Rotary OcTAVE—2:1 hearts and triangles From rotary motion with a 2:1 ratio come some of the most ‘beautifal of all harmonograph. drawings: simple, graceful, and ‘often surprising. Remember, all that is happening here is that ‘ovo Grcular motions, one almost exactly cwice as fst asthe ‘other, are being combined. Contry motion produces a trefoil shape with many’ fine ‘variations (apse, rg). Starting with a smaller size or amplitude jin the Fister rotation prodices a tangle, or pyramid ‘The octave in concurrent motion produces a heart-shaped form with a simple inner loop (below; lf and opposite, Ie). Here there is a link with the ancient uadition of che music of the spheres for this isthe shape an observer on Uranus would ascribe to the movement of Neptune, or vice-versa, Thisis because the pplness orbic the Sun concurrently, Uranus in 84 years and [Nepeune in 165, approximately representing an octave. "Neat mises in the ratios of rotary drawings set the designs spinning (peste, loro) THE LATERAL FIFTH—3: and the second overtone 3:1 Next 10 be ied is the harmony of che fifth, intermediate berween the simplicity of unison and octave and che more complex harmonies that follow Te will be seen fom the open phase dawing opposite chat the fifty as three loops along the horizontal side and two along the vertical. The number of loops on each side gives the ratio, 3:2, Looking backat the ocave, here are cwo loops to one, and with unison there is only one loop, however you look at it. This is the general rule forall lateral harmonograph ratios, and if 3 hhurmony appears unexpectedly during experiments, it can usually be identified by counting the loops on two adjacent sides, The fh ako appears a8 31, the second overtone, afith above hae drawings of 3:1 on page 3, Drawing ratios outside the octave may require a twin-elipeic harmonograph (see page $8). The phase-shifed pair below are phic: ifyou go cros-eyed they will appear theee dimen XK) 0K) | (@ AI DC the octave (8 open and THE ROTARY FIFTH—3:2 encircled hearts and fives ‘The loudness of musical tones is represented on the har- monograph by amplitude, the relative sizes of the two circular motions. In rotary drawings this is much more imporant chan ‘phase, which simply orien the whole design on the page. ‘The third drawing below shows 2 rotary fh in contrary ‘motion where the higher-fequency, fster-moving pendulum thas a much wider swing. In che spiky drawing to its right i is the other way around, At equal amplitude al ines pas through the center fie table on page 55) ‘The top four drawings opposite show rotary forms of 32, concurtent on the lef, and countercurrent om the right. The second row shows the effect of a near missin the harmony, ‘which makes the pattems spin ‘The lower two images opposite are of the second overtone, 3:1, a fifth above the octave (3:1=2:13:2). The concurrent version is on che lef, countercurrent on the right With concurrent pictures, the number of switk in the mide Js given by the diference between the two numbers ofthe ratio, So the concurrent patterns forthe primary mica intervals 2:1, 3:2, 43, Se, and 5:6 all have a single heart at their center THE FouRTH—4:3 with thirds, sixths, and sevenths By now it will be evident chat each harmony displays iss own distinct aesthetic character, Unison is simple and assertive, The octave introduces am emphatic Pourish, and the fifth, while sil fuel simple, has added elegance With the fourh the pattem becomes more complicated though the design is stil recognizable without counting the loops. The upper digram opposite shows the fourth in open phase, the lower in closed phate. An increasing sophistication becomes apparent, and some of the closed phase and near-miss variants have a strange, exotic quality Incoducing the perfect thins of diatonic ening increases the 14 is found below the fourth, the in 4 = 16:15. A fourth and major third (4:3x5:4) produce the major complexity. The major thd between them, dito halfone, working Out a 4 sath, 53, a minor thie (65) below the octave and a minor fifth. Likewise, fourth and a minor whole tone (109) above t third (4:3x6:5) creat below the octave anda hlfione (16:15) above the fifth. A fifth and a major third (3:2x5:4) produce the major seventh, 15:8, while a 6h and a minor thd (3:2%6:5) give the minor ‘minor sh (8:5), a major third (5:4) seventh, 5. These are the elements ofthe diatomic, oust, scale, fcaee FURTHER HARMONICS seven-limit and higher-number ratios ‘As the numbers in the ratios increase it becomes hander to distinguish the harmonies one from another at a glance: T loops have to be counted, and slight variations produce sesthetic value. A typical example, 7:5, is shown opposite top. Rotary motion produces sees of increasingly complex drawings, influenced by relative feequency, amplitude, and direction. In contrary motion the total number of loops equals the sum of the ewo numbers of the ratio, With concurrent motion the nodes tn inward, and their number is equal tothe difference between the two numbers ofthe fatio, The contaty deawings below show a fourth (4:3), another fourth, a major sixth (5:3) and a major third (5:4). "The pictures ‘opposite show unequal amplitude drawings of the perfect -venth 8:3 (an octave and a fourth) andthe ratio 7:3 which is found in seven-limit taning (nae covered in this book) Two octaves and a major third (4:1 x5:4) equal 5, the Fourth fovertone, which diffs from four Sits (:2)4 as 80:81, the sytonic comma (see page 10). In mean tone tuning, popular

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