Chapter 1

Introduction: Matter and Measurement

By
Dr. Hisham Ezzat Abdellatef
Professor of Pharmaceutical Analytical Chemistry

The Study of Chemistry

What is chemistry?
Chemistry is the study of the properties and behavior of matter.
Matter anything that occupies space and has mass.
Classification of Matter
States of Matter
Shape Volume
Gas indefinite indefinite
Liquid indefinite definite
Solid definite definite

The basic difference between these states is the distance between the bodies.
Gas bodies are far apart and in rapid motion.
Liquid bodies closer together, but still able to move past each other.
Solid bodies are closer still and are now held in place in a definite arrangement.
Gas Liquid Solid

low density high density high density

easy to hard to hard to
expand/compress expand/compress expand/compress
fills container takes shape of rigid shape
container

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Pure Substances and Mixtures
Mixture combination of two or more substances in which each substance retains its
own chemical identity.
Homogeneous mixture composition of this mixture is consistent throughout.
Heterogeneous mixture composition of this mixture varies throughout the
mixture.
It is also possible for a homogeneous substance to be composed of a single substance
pure substance.
Element A substance that can not be separated into simpler substances by
chemical means.
Compound A substance composed of two or more elements united chemically in
definite proportions.
The smallest unit of an element is an atom.
Atom the smallest unit of an element that retains a substances chemical activity.

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Separation of Mixtures
Mixtures can be separated by physical means.
Filtration.
Chromatography.
Distillation.

Elements

There are 114 elements known.

Each element is given a unique chemical symbol (one or two letters).
Carbon C, nitrogen N, titanium Ti.
Notice that the two letter symbols are always capital letter then lower case letter
because:
CO carbon and oxygen.
Co element cobalt.
Some elements have been given symbols based on their names in Latin,
Element Symbol Latin name
sodium Na natrium
potassium K kalium
iron Fe ferrum
copper Cu cuprum
silver Ag argentum
tin Sn stannum
gold Au aurum
mercury Hg hydrargyrum
lead Pb plumbum
Allotropes
one element can occur in several different forms ( allotropes)

element Allotrope
oxygen O, nascent oxygen
O2, oxygen gas
O3, ozone
carbon Graphite
diamond

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Properties of Matter
Physical and Chemical Changes
Physical Property (Change) A property that can be measured without
changing the identity of the substance.
Example: melting point, boiling point, color, odor, density
Physical changes do not result in a change of composition.
Chemical change (chemical reaction) the transformation of a
substance into a chemically different substance.
When pure hydrogen and pure oxygen react completely, they form pure water.
1. Units of Measurement
International System of Units (SI Units)
There are two types of units:
1. fundamental (or base) units;
2. Derived units.
7 base units in the international system of unit (SI system.)
SI base unit
Base quantity Name Symbol
length meter M
mass kilogram Kg
time second S
electric current ampere A
thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
amount of substance mole Mol
luminous intensity candela Cd

SI derived units
Derived units are obtained from the 7 base SI units.
Example:

Examples of SI derived units

SI derived unit
Derived quantity Name Symbol
area square meter m2
volume cubic meter m3
speed, velocity meter per second m/s
acceleration meter per second squared m/s2
wave number reciprocal meter m-1

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SI prefixes
Factor Name Symbol Factor Name Symbol
1024 yotta Y 10-1 deci d
1021 zetta Z 10-2 centi c
18
10 exa E 10-3 milli m
1015 peta P 10-6 micro
12
10 tera T 10-9 nano N
109 giga G 10-12 pico P
106 mega M 10-15 femto F
3
10 kilo k 10-18 atto A
102 hecto h 10-21 zepto Z
1
10 deka da 10-24 yocto Y

Mass and weight

Mass is the measure of the quantity of matter that an object contains. This is not
the same as weight which is dependent on gravity.
Weight measures a force

Temperature
Kelvin scale - Used in science. - Same temperature increment as Celsius scale.
o Lowest temperature possible (absolute zero) is zero Kelvin.
o Absolute zero: 0 K = -273.15oC.
Celsius Scale- Also used in science.
o Water freezes at 0oC and boils at 100oC.
o To convert: K = oC + 273.15.
Fahrenheit Scale - Not generally used in science.
Water freezes at 32oF and boils at 212oF.
Converting between Celsius and Fahrenheit
( ) ( )

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Volume

The units for volume are given by (units of length) 3.

i.e., SI unit for volume is 1 m3.
A more common volume unit is the liter (L)
1 L = 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3 = 1000 mL.
We usually use 1 mL = 1 cm3.

Density
Density mass per unit volume of an object.

2. Calculation with Chemical Equations

The Mole:
A mole (symbol mol) is defined as the quantity of a given substance that contains
as many molecules or formula units the number of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon -12.

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 e.g. number of ethanol molecules in 1 mole ethanol = number of carbon atoms in
12g carbon -12 (which is called Avogadro's number NA).
NA = 6.02 X1023
A mole of a substance contains Avogadro's number (6.02 X10 23) of molecules (or
formula units). The term mole, like a dozen. A dozen of eggs equal 12 eggs and a mole
of ethanol equal 6.02 X 1023 ethanol molecules.
It is important when using the term mole to specify the formula of the unit, e.g: a
mole of O atoms contains 6.02 X 1023 O atoms. A mole of 02 molecules contains 6.02 X
1023 molecules, that is 2 X 6.02 X 1023 O atoms,

Finally, the mole can also be defined in terms of volume, for the gas phase only.
Thus, a mole of any gas occupies under the same conditions of temperature 0C and
one atmospheric pressure (ST.P.) 22.4 liters irrespective of the nature of that gas.

n= number of moles. M.wt = molecular

N= number of molecules, ions or atoms. weight.
NA= Avogadros number m = mass in grams.

Example 1.5 :
How many grams of Cu are there in 2.55 mole of Cu?
Solution: 1 mole Cu = 63.5 g Cu
. g u
o . mo e u x = g u
mo e u

Example1.6:
What number of moles of aluminum is present in 125 g of Al?
Solution: 1 mole Al = 27.0g Al
mo A
o mo e A = gA x = . mo A
. gA
Example1.7:
How many carbon atoms are there in a 1.0 carat diamond? Diamond is pure
carbon and one carat is exactly 0.2g.
Solution: 1 mole C = 12.01 g C
1 mole C = 6.022 X 1023 atoms C
mo . x atoms
atoms = . g x x
. mo
= . x atoms

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3. Percentage Composition of Compounds
Suppose that A is part of something that is part of a whole. It could be an element
in a compound, or one substance in a mixture. We define the mass percentage of A
as follows:

mass of A in the who e

x
mass of the who e

Example1.8:
What is the percentage of Fe in Fe2 O3?
Solution: One mole of Fe2 03 contains:
2 mole Fe = 2 X 55.8g Fe = 111.6g Fe
3 mole O = 3 X16.0 g O = 48 g O
the sum of the masses of one mole = 159.6 g Fe2O3
the percentage of Fe in Fe2O3 is
. g e
x = . e in e
. g e

Determining Molecular Formulas:

Date from the chemical analysis of a compound are used to derive the empirical
formula of the compound. The analysis gives the properties by mass of the elements
that make up the compound.
The simplest or empirical formula indicates the atomic properties of the compound.
The number of moles of each element present in a sample of the compound is readily
obtained from the mass of each element present. The simplest whole- number ratio by
moles is used to write the empirical formula. The molecular formula of a compound is a
multiple of its empirical formula.

Molecular weight = n x empirical formula weight

Where n is the number of empirical formula units in the molecule.

Example 1.9 :
A 1.26 g sample of pure caffeine contains 0.624g C, 0.065g H, 0.364g N and
0.208g 0. What is the empirical formula of Caffeine, and if the molecular weight of
caffeine is 194. What is the molecular formula?
Solution: We calculate the number of moles of each element present in the
sample.
mo
mo e = . g x = . mo
. g

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 mo
mo e = . g x = . mo
. g
mo
mo e = . g x = . mo
. g
mo
mo e = . g x = . mo
. g

division of each of these values by the smallest value (0.013) gives the ratio.
4 mole C : 5 mole H : 2 mole N : 1 mol O

The empirical formula of caffeine is C4H5N2O.

The formula weight indicated by C4H5N2O is 97.
n= =
The molecular formula of caffeine is C8H10N4O2

4. Stoichiometry: Mole - Mass Relations in Chemical Reactions

The quantitative relationships between reactants and products in a balanced
equation are known as Stoichiometry.
The chemical equation for the combustion of ethanol, C2H5OH
C2H5OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O
Tells us that
1 mole C2H5OH + 3 mole O2 2mole CO2 + 3 mole H2O
In this example, we can write six equivalencies
1 mole C2H5OH ~ 3 mole O2.
1 mole C2H5OH ~ 2 mole CO2.
1 mole C2H5OH ~ 3 mole H2O.
3 mole O2 ~ 2 mole CO2.
3 mole O2 ~ 3 mole H2O.
2 mole CO2 ~ 3 mole H2O.

Thus, the balanced equation provides quantitative relation-ship among the

reactants and products.

Example1.10:
a) How many moles of O2 are needed to burn 1.8 mole C2H5OH?
b) How many moles of water will form when 3.66 mole CO2 are produced during
the combustion of C2H5OH?

Solution:
a) 1 mole C2H5OH ~ 3 mole O2
O2 needed for combustion = 1.8 x 3/1 = 5.4 mole O2
b) 2 mole CO2 ~ 3 mole H2O
H2O formed = 3.66 x 3/2 = 5.49 mole H2O.
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5. Limiting Reactant; Theoretical and Percentage Yields
Often reactants are added to a reaction vessel in amounts different form the molar
proportions given the chemical equation. In that case, only one of the reactant is
completely consumed at the end of the reaction. The limiting reactant is the reactant
that is entirely consumed when a reaction goes to completion. Other reactants are in
excess and remain partially un-reacted. The mole of product are always determined by
the mole of limiting reactant.

Example1.11 : How many moles of H2 can prepared from 4 moles of Fe and 5 moles of
H2O?
3 Fe + 4H2O Fe3 O4 + 4H2
Solution: The first step is to determine which reactant limits the reaction. The chemical
equation shows that 3 mole Fe = 4 mole H2O. We will compare the amount of
reactants given in the problem with the amounts shown in the relationship. The
amount of Fe given in the problem is 4 moles which is
mo e e
= .
mo e e
time the amount stated in the stoichiometric relationship derived from the equation. The
5 moles H2O given in the problem is.
mo e
= .
mo e
time the amount stated in the relationship derived from the equation
The H2O limits the extent of the reaction since a smaller proportionate.

4 mole H2O ~ 4 mole H2

5 mole H2O ~ 5 mole H2

Percent Yield:

Frequently, the quantity of a product actually obtained from the reaction is less
than the amount calculated. It may be that portions of the reactants don't react, or react
in a way different from that desired (side reaction). The percent yield relates the amount
of product that is actually obtained (the actual yield) to the amount of product that
theoretical calculation would predict (The theoretical yield).
actua yie d
ercent yie d = =
theoretica yie d

Example1.12:
How many grams of N2F4 can theoretically be prepared from 4.0g of NH3 and
14.0g of F2?

The chemical equation for the reaction is

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2NH3 + 5F2 N2F4 + 6HF
and if 4.8g of N2F4 is obtained from the experiment, what is the percent yields?
Solution:
. .
mo e = = . mo e mo e of = . mo e
. .

The stoichiometric relationship derived from the chemical equation is 2 mole NH 3

= 5 mole F2
We compare the number of moles supplied with these quantities
. mo
mo
. mo
= .
mo
The F2, therefore is the limiting reactant, since a smaller proportionate amount has
been supplied
? g N2F4 = 0.368 mol F2
from the equation 1 mole N2F4 = 5mole F2
104g N2F4 = 5 mole F2
. x
g = = . g .
. g
the percent yie d is x = .
. g

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