Integumentary System

The integumentary system serves to protect the body from the outside world. It regulates
body temperature, protects against disease, and retains and disposes of bodily fluids. The skin is
composed of the epidermal, dermal, and subcutaneous layers. Hair and nails are also parts of the
integumentary system.
The epidermis, outer layer of skin, is composed of epithelial cells, most dead. These cells
are constantly subject to scraping and wearing away, and are constantly replenished by cells
from the lower layers. The protein of these cells is called keratin, and it is that protein that is
responsible for the texture of skin. The color of human skin is determined by the presence of
melanin in the lower layers of the epidermis. Levels of melanin, which absorbs UV radiation, is
determined by heredity and the amount of exposure to UV rays. The dermis, the inner layer of
skin, is composed of living cells, as well as sensory neurons, which sense things such as
temperature and pressure; blood vessels, which nourish living epithelial cells and regulate
temperature; muscle fibers; hair follicles; and glands, which produce sweat and oil. The
subcutaneous layer is composed of fat cells that act as insulators and energy reserves. Nails and
hair are also composed of keratin; nails protect the ends of fingers and toes and hair protects and
insulates the body. The color of hair is also decided by the presence of melanin.
 Integumentary System
Disease: Psoriasis
Psoriasis is a relatively common chronic, non-contagious skin disorder in which skin
cells multiply up to ten times as fast as usual. This causes there to be a higher volume of dead
cells on the surface, which then builds up as red plaque, with white scale. It typically occurs with
on knees, elbows, and scalp, as well as the torso, palms, and soles of feet. The lesions can be
itchy and crack and bleed. The condition is difficult to treat, and has cycles of flare-ups and
remissions over time. There is no cure.
 Skeletal System
The skeletal system is made up of 206 bones. Each bone has a unique shape and size,
specialized to their function in the body. Bones provide a framework against which the muscles
can pull, give structure to the body, and protect internal organs. Bones also store minerals
valuable in the metabolic process, and produce red blood cells in the marrow.
Bones make up less than twenty percent of our body mass. They are covered by a tough
membrane called periosteum, a network of blood vessels and nerves. Compact bone lies
underneath, supporting the bone under stress; it is composed of Haversian canals, cylinders of
mineral crystals and protein fibers wrapped in osteocytes (living bone cells). Bone marrow is the
interior layer of bone, which is either red or yellow. If red, it produces red blood cells and some
white blood cells. Yellow marrow is mostly fat, an energy reserve.
Bones develop from cartilage, a tough flexible connective tissue. The skeleton is entirely
cartilage until the third month of fetal development, at which point osteocytes form, releasing
minerals that turn the cartilage to bone, a process known as ossification. Almost all fetal cartilage
is replaced by bone, with the exception of the nose, outer ear, and in between bones.
Cartilage is present at joints, where the bones come together. Connective tissues called
ligaments are also present, holding the bones in place. Ligaments are elastic; they stretch under
pressure and allow mobility of a joint. Tendons, on the other hand, are not elastic. Tendons hold
bones to muscles, and are made of collagen, like ligaments. Also present at joints under
tremendous stress, such as the knee, is synovial fluid, which protects bone from damage by
friction.
The human skeleton is composed of two parts, the axial and appendicular skeletons. The
axial skeleton is composed of the bones of the skull, ribs, spine, and sternum. It consists of 80
bones. The appendicular skeleton is composed of the bones of the arms and legs, the scapula,
clavicle, and pelvis. The appendicular skeleton is composed of 126 bones.
 Skeletal System Disease:
Bursitis
Bursitis is the inflammation of a synovial fluid sack, bursae, in the body. When bursitis
occurs, movement in the inflamed region is very painful. Making the disease worse is the
fact that the movement of tendons and muscles over the inflamed bursae worsen the problem
by creating a cycle. Bursitis is usually caused by repetitive movements and excessive
pressure. It can lead to other inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis. Traumatic
injury is another cause of bursitis. It is treated with rest, ice, anti-inflammatory drugs, and
pain medication in non-infected cases. Surgery is used for removal in extreme cases, and
bursae will grow back in a few weeks without the inflamed growth.
 Muscle System
Muscles make up one-third of our body weight. They make the body move, and
therefore push food and blood through the body. Without muscles, the body could not function.
There are three types of muscle tissue.
A muscle fiber is a single, multinucleated cell. Muscle fibers consist of threadlike
structures called myofibrils; myofibrils are made of protein filaments myosin and actin, which
overlap to form the striations seen in muscle tissue. These filaments are anchored at the Z line;
from one Z line to the next is called a sarcomere. Sarcomeres are units of contraction; filaments
shorten the length of the sarcomere through the attachment of myosin heads to points of actin
filaments; this contraction in all sarcomeres in a muscle causes coordinated contraction. The
force of the contraction is controlled by the number of fibers stimulated.
Skeletal muscle controls mobile parts of the body, and this tissue is composed of muscle
fibers. Dense groups of skeletal muscle fibers are called fascicles. Fascicles bound by
connective tissue form skeletal muscles, for which movement is voluntary. Smooth muscles wall
the stomach, intestines, and other internal organs. These cells are spindle-shaped, single
nucleates that form sheets of tissue without striations, and connective tissue does not form
tendons in these muscles. These muscles contract involuntarily. Cardiac muscles wall the heart;
this muscle is striated, yet each cell has one nucleus. Specialized muscle cells send electric
signals through muscle tissue, causing a rhythmic heartbeat.
 Muscle System Disease:
Muscular Dystrophy
Muscular dystrophy is a condition in which the voluntary (skeletal) muscles degenerate
with time. It is caused by an absence of dystrophin, a protein that helps keep muscle cells intact.
Other symptoms accompany the progressive weakening of muscle, among these: calf pain,
limited range of movement, loss of bladder control, and scoliosis. . Muscular dystrophy is an X-
linked genetically transmitted disease, so it usually affects boys It is presents itself around 2-6
years of age, and there is no cure. Survival rarely outstrips 30 years of age. Physical inactivity
worsens the disease, so physical therapy and orthopedic instruments, such as leg braces, are often
used to prolong life. Depending on the type of the disorder, life can last through middle age with
only mild disability, or death can occur even in infancy.
 Circulatory System
The circulatory system serves to transport cells through the body. This is done through
the movement of two fluids, blood and lymph. The blood, heart, and blood vessels make up the
circulatory system.
The main organ of this system is the heart. This muscular organ is slightly larger than a
fist. It is positioned between the thoracic cavity and the sternum, and between the two lungs.
The pericardium, a tough saclike membrane, surrounds the heart. The septum divides the heart
into two sides, each with an upper chamber, an atrium, and a lower chamber, a ventricle. The
atriums and ventricles are separated by atrioventricular valves. On the right side, this valve is
called the tricuspid valve. On the left, it is the bicuspid, or mitral valve. When the blood leaves
the ventricles, it flows through semilunar valves. On the right this is the pulmonary valve; on the
left it is the aortic valve.
The blood flows into the heart from the superior and inferior vena cava, into the right
atrium. It then flows through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. From the right ventricle
it flows through the right semilunar valve into the pulmonary artery. It then circulates through
the lungs, picking up oxygen. It then enters the pulmonary vein and flows into the left atrium.
From the left atrium it flows into the left ventricle, through the mitral valve. Once in the left
ventricle it flows through the left semilunar valve into the aorta.
The blood vessels are a vast network which keeps the blood flowing in one direction
through our bodies. The large, muscular vessels which carry blood away from the heart are
called arteries, which have three layers to pressurize blood flow away from the heart. This force
blood exerts on the walls of vessels is blood pressure. There are two types of blood pressure,
systolic and diastolic. Systolic pressure is the pressure that occurs when ventricles contracts,
usually 120 mm of Hg for males and 110 mm of Hg for females. Diastolic pressure occurs when
blood pressure is high enough to keep t he arteries open even though the ventricles are relaxed;
this usually runs 80 mm of Hg for males and 70 mm of Hg for females. The main artery, the
aorta, splits into smaller arteries, which then spread into smaller vessels known as arterioles.
These arterioles then branch into capillaries, though the walls of which the exchange of nutrients
and wastes occur. Blood flows from the capillaries into larger vessels called venules, and these
venules flow into still larger vessels known as veins, large vessel that bring blood back to the
heart. All veins lead to either the superior vena cava, which drains the head and upper body parts,
or inferior vena cava, which carries all blood from the lower body. Veins are also formed of
three layers, and contain valves so that blood does not flow backward, as it is under less pressure
than in the arteries.
Blood itself is composed of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
Plasma is the liquid in blood, and cells receive their nourishment from substances carried in
plasma. Plasma also carries hormones, wastes, and various proteins. Red blood cells,
erythrocytes, transport oxygen, synthesize iron-containing cells called hemoglobin, and do not
contain nuclei. White blood cells, leukocytes, defend the body against disease, and are formed in
the red marrow, lymph nodes, and spleen. There are specialized leukocytes, such as phagocytes
that engulf invading organisms and antibodies which destroy substances that can cause disease.
Platelets are essential to the formation of blood clots.
 Circulatory System
Disease: Myocardial
Infarction
Myocardial infarction, more commonly known as a heart attack, is the interruption of
blood flow to the heart, which causes some heart cells to die. The most common cause if
blockage of a coronary artery, due to the buildup of lipids along the walls of the arteries. The
following restriction of blood supply causes a lack of oxygen, which causes the cells to die,
infarction, in the heart, myocardium. Symptoms include chest pain, shortness of breath,
coughing, vomiting, palpitations, and fatigue. To diagnose, chest x-rays, electrocardiograms, and
blood tests assess damage to the heart tissue. Small cases are treated with oxygen and aspirin. In
patients with emergency situations or multiple blockages, bypass surgery is performed.
Myocardial infarction is the leading cause of death for both men and women worldwide. Risk
factors include tobacco smoking, old age, high blood pressure, obesity, excessive alcohol
consumption, and chronic high stress levels.
 Respiratory System
The respiratory system transports gases to and from the circulatory system. External
respiration is the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and blood; internal respiration is the
exchange between the blood and cells of the body. This system carries oxygen for use aerobic
respiration, and eliminates carbon dioxide produced in that process.
The lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. They are covered by the pleura,
located in the thoracic cavity, bounded by the diaphragm, a thin layer of muscle. External
respiration begins in the mouth and nose, where air passes into the nasal cavity, where it is
prepared for use by the body. It then moves to the pharynx, which contains passageways for
food and air; the epiglottis keeps food from traveling down the air passage, the trachea. At the
top of the trachea is the larynx, which produces sound when air is forced passed two ligaments
that stretch across the larynx, is the voice box. The trachea branches into two bronchi, each of
which leads to a lung. Within the lungs, the bronchi branch into bronchioles, which end in
clusters called alveoli. Capillaries surround each alveoli, exchanging gases.
Inspiration occurs when air is taken into the lungs; your chest expands as your diaphragm
pushes down on the abdomen; this increases the volume of the thoracic cavity, reducing pressure
inside and allowing air in. During expiration, the reverse occurs. As the diaphragm and rib
muscles relax, the lungs deflate, increasing pressure, forcing air out until pressure is equal inside
the cavity and out.
 Respiration System
Disease: Pneumonia
Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition in the lung. It is characterized by the
inflammation of the alveoli, and the presence of fluid in the lungs. Pneumonia can result from a
variety of causes, including infection with bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites and chemical or
physical injury to the lungs. Typical symptoms associated with pneumonia include cough, chest
pain, fever, and difficulty in breathing. Diagnosis includes x-ray tests, symptom display, and
blood tests. CT scans can be used to differentiate between pneumonia and other diseases.
Bacterial pneumonia is treated with antibiotics. Corticosteroids are commonly used in aspiration
pneumonia; there are no known effective treatments for viral pneumonias. Pneumonia can be
prevented by vaccination and smoking cessation. Pneumonia usually lasts two to four weeks.
 Immune System
The immune system fights off invading pathogens and prevents the growth and spread of
cancers. It consists of white blood cells, lymph, and the organs pertaining to these fluids. Skin
and mucous membranes also are a part of this system. Mucous membranes are the epithelial
tissues that protect interior surfaces of the body; mucus is a sticky fluid that traps pathogens.
Skin acts as a tough shield against pathogens’ sweat destroys the cell walls of bacteria.
Bone marrow manufactures millions of new white blood cells each day; some remain
there to specialize while others travel to the thymus to mature. Lymph nodes are located through
the body along lymph vessels and contain large numbers of white blood cells; they filter
pathogens and expose them to white blood cells. The spleen filters pathogens from the blood.
White blood cells of the immune system are known as lymphocytes, which are either B cells
(stay in bone marrow) or T cells (travel to thymus).
Immunity is resistance to a specific pathogen. Immunity is acquired by survival of
infection by a pathogen. Another method of acquiring immunity is through vaccination; vaccines
contain modified forms of pathogens that can no longer cause disease. They contain antigens to
stimulate an immune response, therefore creating memory cells, should the disease ever present
itself in a viable form.
 Immune System Disease:
Allergies
Inappropriate response to an otherwise harmless antigen is an allergy. Antigens
are any substance the immune system recognizes as a potential pathogen and that trigger
responses. Antigens that can trigger these reactions include, but are not limited to, pollen, dust
mites, various foods, and animal dander. These reactions are characterized by watery eyes,
wheezing, and sneezing. Drugs called antihistamines counteract the effects of these inappropriate
reactions. For most, allergies are simply irritating, but they can be fatal.
 Excretory System
The kidneys are the main organ of the excretory system. The excretory system not only
excretes waster but also maintains homeostasis through regulation of water and solids in blood.
The main waste products are carbon dioxide and nitrogenous compounds; lungs excrete the
carbon dioxide and kidneys eliminate the nitrogenous waste.
Kidneys have three main parts; the cortex (outermost part), medulla (inner two-thirds),
and renal pelvis (center). Blood enters through a renal artery and leaves through the renal vein.
The most common waste is urea, a nitrogenous product made by the liver. The substances
removed the kidneys- urea, water, minerals- form urine. Urine is made in nephrons, the
functional units of the kidneys. Each nephron has a cup-shaped structure, a Bowman’s capsule,
which encloses a bed of capillaries. The capillary bed, a glomerulus, receives blood to filter
through the renal tubule, a long tube with permeable walls. The renal tubule consists of the
proximal convoluted tube, the loop of Henle, and the distal convoluted tube. The large surface
area provides for exchange of materials. Blood is forced out of the glomerulus into the
Bowman’s capsule during filtration, which forces water, urea, glucose, vitamins, and salts
through thin walls of the glomerulus into the Bowman’s capsule. These materials selectively
flow back into the renal tubule, in a process called reabsorption. Secretion is the passing of
substances from the blood into the filtrate.
Urine from the collecting ducts flows though the renal pelvis into a narrow tube called a
ureter, which lead from each kidney to the urinary bladder, a muscular sac that stores the urine.
Muscule contractions force urine out of the body by means of the urethra. At least 500 mL of
urine must be eliminated each day to maintain homeostasis.
Lungs carry out detoxification, altering harmful substances to make them n on-poisonous.
They are also responsible for excretion of substances such as onion, garlic, and other strong
spices. Also, some salt is lost through perspiration.
Excretory System Disease:
Wegener's
Granulomatosis
Wegener’s granulomatosis is a form of vasculitis (blood vessel injury) that results in
damage to the kidneys and lungs. It is caused by an autoimmune attack to an antibody known as
ANCAs in small and medium sized vessels. Diagnosis can be delayed due to variability of
symptoms. These symptoms include rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (severe injury to the
kidney's glomeruli), swelling on the elbows, pain or swelling of the joints (often misdiagnosed as
RA), pulmonary nodules, chronic renal failure, hearing loss, and nose pain. Histopathological
examinations are required, and differential diagnosis is extensive. The two required symptoms
for diagnosis are granulomatosis (a roughly spherical mass of white blood cells that form when
the immune system attempts to wall off substances that it perceives as foreign but is unable to
eliminate) in the respiratory tract and vasculitis of the small- to medium- vessels. Steroid
treatment is often used, as are corticosteroids.
 Digestive System
The digestive system is responsible for breaking down the food we consume into
molecules form which our necessary nutrients can be derived. This process occurs in the
gastrointestinal tract, which begins at the mouth and winds it way through the body, ending at the
anus. There are also some organs along this tract that aid in digestion, and are therefore part of
the digestive system, but are not a part of the tract, such as the liver.
There are many organs in the digestive system; the mouth is where the food enters the
body. Mechanical digestion, the grinding of the food by the teeth and tongue, occurs here,
although chemical digestion also takes place, through the saliva. The salivary glands, both those
lining the mouth and the three major glands around the mouth, produce saliva, a mixture of
water, mucus, and salivary amylase, which breaks some starches down into disaccharide maltose
while still in the mouth. Once thoroughly chewed, the food enters the esophagus to travel to the
stomach; it must first pass past the epiglottis, a flap which covers the opening to the trachea, to
prevent the entrance of food into the windpipe. Separating the esophagus and stomach is the
cardiac sphincter, which controls the flow of food into the stomach.
The stomach is a bag of smooth muscle that kneads in upon itself to churn food, and is
lined with gastric pits, which release secretions (mucus, digestive enzymes, hydrochloric acid)
into the stomach. The stomach’s chemical digestion is carried out by gastric fluid, mainly pepsin,
a low pH enzyme that splits proteins into peptides. Mucus secreted protects the organ from the
hydrochloric acid, and prevents pepsin from digesting the wall’s proteins. Food in the stomach is
turned into chyme, a paste like substance containing various nutrients. The pyloric sphincter then
allows chyme into the small intestine. The small intestine is composed of the duodenum,
jejunum, and ileum. The small intestines combine chyme with secretions from the liver and
pancreas to break peptides into amino acids and disaccharides into monosaccharides. The villi,
small projections in the small intestines, are lined with capillaries which pick up these nutrients
and carry them around the body. The large intestine, or colon, is made up of four parts, the
ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid colon. The large intestine
absorb the minerals and vitamins produced by the bacteria that live there, and slowly pass the
remaining wastes towards the rectum, solidifying them along the way, creating feces.
The liver secrets bile, a fluid that is crucial to the digestion of fats, breaking them into
small droplets. This bile travels to the gallbladder, where it is stored and concentrated until
chyme is present in the small intestine. The pancreas secretes pancreatic fluid, which helps break
down nutrients in chyme in the small intestines. Pancreatic fluid changes the pH of chyme from
an acid to a base, and many of the fluid’s enzymes are then activated by the higher pH.
 Digestive System
Disorder: Cholelithiasis
(Gallstones)
Gallstones form when something in the bile hardens, which usually occurs after eating. A
gallstone's size can vary and may be as small as a sand grain or as large as a golf ball. Gallstones
contain between 30% and 70% of cholesterol. In most cases the other majority constituent is
calcium salts such as calcium carbonate, palmitate phosphate, and/or bilirubinate. Researchers
believe that gallstones may be caused by a combination of factors, including inherited body
chemistry, body weight, gallbladder motility (movement), and perhaps diet; cholesterol
gallstones develop when bile contains too much cholesterol and not enough bile salts; increased
levels of the hormone estrogen may increase cholesterol levels in bile and also decrease
gallbladder movement, resulting in gallstone formation.
Signs of a gallstone attack may include nausea, vomiting, or pain in the abdomen, back,
or just under the right arm. Gallstones are most common among older adults, women, overweight
people, Native Americans and Mexican Americans. The most common treatment is removal of
the gallbladder. Cholesterol gallstones can sometimes be dissolved by oral ursodeoxycholic acid,
but it may be required that the patient takes this medication for up to two years. Fortunately, the
gallbladder is an organ that you can live without, however, as many as 20% of patients develop
chronic diarrhea post-surgery.
 Nervous System
The nervous system controls mental and physical activity, and much of homeostasis. The
nervous system is composed of neurons, specialized cells that transmit information throughout
the body. Nerve cells have threadlike projections that allow them to quickly transmit
information, called axons. Axons bundled together form a nerve.
The brain is responsible for overseeing daily operations of the human body. The largest
portion of the brain is the cerebrum, which coordinates muscle activity. It is composed of two
cerebral hemispheres, which are connected by the corpus callosum, a heavy band of axons. The
four lobes of the cerebrum are the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. The outer layer
of the cerebral hemispheres is the cerebral cortex, is important to sensory processing and motor
responses and is highly folded. Beneath the fold of the cerebral cortex lies the white matter,
which is composed of the axons of the cortical neurons. Below the cerebellum the brainstem
links the spinal chord and the cerebrum. The upper part of the brain stem, the thalamus, directs
most incoming sensory signals to the proper cortex. The stem then narrows, and in that narrowed
stem lay the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata; the midbrain is a center for visual and
auditory information; the pons is a relay center for the neurons of the cerebral hemispheres and
the cerebellum; the medulla oblongata serves as a relay center and control. The cerebellum
coordinates muscle action, particularly the timing of contractions. The brain is protected by three
layers collectively known as the meninges, the dura mater, arachnoid layer, and pia mater, from
outside in.
The spinal chord is a column of nerve tissue that starts in the medulla oblongata and runs
down the vertabrae column, sheathed in white matter with a grey matter interior. The nerves of
the spinal chord have a dorsal root and a ventral root; the dorsal roots contain neurons that carry
signals to the central nervous system from the sensory receptors.
The nervous system is composed of the central and peripheral nervous systems. The
central system is composed of the brain and spinal chord; the peripheral, the neurons that are not
included in the brain or spinal chord. The spinal chord passes messages from the brain to the
body and from the body to the brain. Peripheral neurons that collect information and send it to
the central system are called afferent neurons; efferent neurons transmit information away from
the central system.
Sensory receptors are neurons that are specialized to detect a stimulus. Sensory division
of the peripheral system is composed of sensory nerves and the interneurons that connect them to
the central nervous system. Spinal and cranial nerves enable the flow of sensory information to
the central nervous system.
Motor neurons connect and carry information to muscles and glands. The motor division
allows the body to react in response to information relayed by the sensory division. The motor
division is composed of the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The somatic nervous
system controls the movement of skeletal muscles, both voluntary and reflexive. Reflexes are
involuntary, often protective, movements. When a sensory receptor is tapped sharply, or
otherwise activated, an impulse is sent to the spinal chord, which activates a motor neuron,
causing the muscle to contract, and also activates an interneuron than calms the corresponding
muscle, which makes the body move in response to the stimuli. This is a spinal reflex; it involves
only the spinal chord and neurons, not the brain. The autonomic nervous system controls the
smooth muscles of blood vessels and organs, through the sympathetic and parasympathetic
divisions. The sympathetic division shunts blood from one part of the body to another, activated
by physical or emotional stress. The parasympathetic division controls the internal environment
under normal conditions, conserves energy.
 Nervous System Disease:
Huntington’s Disease
Huntington’s disease is an autosomally-inherited, dominant disorder. It is a progressive
neurodegenerative genetic disorder, which affects muscle coordination and some cognitive
functions in which the patient begins to exhibit symptoms in the third to fourth decade of life.
The mutation of the Huntingtin gene codes for a different form of the protein, whose presence
results in gradual damage to specific areas of the brain. The exact way this happens is not fully
understood. It begins to reveal itself through a tendency to fidget which over months and years
develops into jerky, movements.. Genetic testing can be performed at any stage of development,
even before the onset of symptoms. Huntington’s disease usually progresses over a 10 to 25 year
period. As the disease progresses it leads to dementia and usually death from incurrent infection.
Although the disorder itself is not fatal, complications such as pneumonia, heart disease, and
physical injury from falls reduce life expectancy to around twenty years after symptoms begin.
There is no current cure or effective treatment for Huntington’s disease, but as Huntington’s
disease has been conclusively linked to a single gene, gene silencing is potentially possible and
researchers have shown that when the influence of mHTT is reduced, symptoms improve.
Experiments have yielded some positive results using this technique in animal models and
preliminary human clinical trials. As the disease progresses and a person's ability to tend to their
own needs reduces, carefully managed multidisciplinary caregiving becomes increasingly
necessary. Weight loss and eating difficulties due to dysphagia and other muscle discoordination
are common, making nutrition management increasingly important as the disease advances
Huntington’s disease is much more common in people of Western European descent than in
those from Asia or Africa.
 Sensory Organs
The sense organs- eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and skin- receive stimulus and convert those
stimuli to electrical messages that are sent to the brain. These signals are sent to the appropriate
cortexes of the cerebellum for processing.
The ear detects sound and maintains balance. The auditory canal connects the inner ear
with the tympanic membrane (eardrum); air passing through causes the membrane to vibrate.
The Eustachian tube is an opening to the throat that equalizes pressure on both sides of the
tympanic membrane. Vibrations of the tympanic membrane are registered by the oval window,
which separates the middle and inner ears; the cochlea, a coiled tube consisting of three fluid-
filled chambers; and the organ of Corti, which is the organ for hearing. Vibrations move hairs in
a fluid, different parts of which are stimulated by different pitches. Balance is maintained by the
three semicircular canals which are filled with fluid and lined with hair cells; the brain decodes
the degree and direction of the bend of the hair cells to determine the orientation of the head.
The eyes receive light and transmit signals to visual parts of the brain. The structures of
the eye work together to focus light on the retina (the inner layer). The outer layer is a clear
protective sheath known as the cornea. Light passes through the cornea into the pupil, the
opening to the interior; the pigmented iris surrounds the pupil. After the pupil, light passes
through the lens, a crystalline convex structure that bends the rays of incoming light to focus the
image onto the retina. Within the retina are rods that respond to dark light, and cones, which are
stimulated by bright light and respond to different colors. The optic nerve carries visual
information from the retina to the thalamus.
Specialized chemoreceptors allow us to perceive taste and odor; taste buds sense taste
and are embedded between papillae (bumps) on the tongue. Olfactory receptors in the nasal
passage sense molecules that bind to specific olfactory receptors; signals from the receptors
travel to the amygdala, an area in the olfactory cortex.
 Endocrine System
The endocrine system consists of the glands that produce the chemical messengers, or
hormones, of the body. Endocrine glands are ductless glands located throughout the body that
secrete fluid into the bloodstream through the fluid in the body.
The pituitary gland is regulated by the hypothalamus, and these two organs are the
primary regulators of the endocrine system. The anterior pituitary gland produces ACTH,
adrenocorticotropic hormone, controls cortisol production form the adrenal glands; thyroid
stimulating hormone, TSH, controls thyroid hormone production (T3 and T4) from the thyroid
gland; luteinizing hormone control the gonads, ovaries or testes, to regulate sex hormone
production(estrogen/testosterone) and ovulation/spermatogenesis; prolactin, PRL, which
regulates breast milk production, and growth hormone, which regulates cell growth. The
posterior pituitary makes antidiuretic hormone, ADH, which regulates thirst and salt balance, and
oxytocin, which controls contractions in childbirth.
The thyroid gland secrets thyroid hormone, which control the metabolism. It regulates
weight, energy level, heart rate, bowel habits, emotions, hair/skin metabolism and sleep. The
thyroid also secretes calcitonin, which is important for bone growth and health.
The parathyroid glands (four) secrete parathyroid hormone, which regulates calcium
metabolism as well.
The adrenal glands make aldosterone, which controls blood pressure, salt, and potassium;
cortisol is critical for life and maintains normal blood pressure and weight, as well as regulating
carbohydratemetabolism; catecholamines provide the body’s “fight or flight” mechanism and
also regulate blood pressure and heart rate.
The pancreas’s endocrine functions are the secretion of insulin and glucagon which
maintain normal blood sugar and control carbohydrate metabolism.
The gonads (ovaries and testes) are responsible for sex hormone production (estrogen/
progesterone/ testosterone); they secrete eggs/ sperm to allow for reproduction. They are
important for secondary sex characteristics, such as breast development in females and facial hair
growth in males. Estrogen and testosterone regulate secondary sex characteristics, and
progesterone builds up the endometrial lining of the uterus to maintain a pregnancy.
 Endocrine System
Disease: Hyperthyroidism
Hyperthyroidism is a condition in which the body has too much thyroid hormone.
Symptoms include weight loss, increased energy, heat intolerance, frequent bowel movements,
insomnia, infrequent periods, increased heart rate, anxiety, tremors, and increased sweating. The
condition is most commonly caused by Graves’ disease, a condition in which the body creates an
antibody that stimulates the body to produce thyroid hormone. Other causes include an
overactive thyroid nodule or thyroiditis, an inflammation of the thyroid gland. Treatment options
include beta-blockers, drugs that control the symptoms of hyperthyroidism but not the hightened
levels themselves. Affected individuals can take medicine that affects the body’s ability to
produce thyroid, or receive radioactive iodine. The thyroid is the only organ in the body which
uses iodine, so the thyroid traps all the iodine, effectively killing the thyroid while leaving the
rest of the body unharmed. Surgery to remove the thyroid is also another viable option for
treatment.