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Department of Chemical Engineering

CHE 617 Chemical Process Safety Loss Prevention

CHAPTER THREE
IndustrialHygiene
Dr.Yaser Dahman

PhasesofIndustrialHygiene

IDENTIFICATION:determinationofthepresenceor
possibilityofworkplaceexposurestopotentialhazards
andmethodsofcontact(Vapors,dust,noise)

EVALUATION:determinationofthemagnitudeofthe
exposure

CONTROLMEASURES:applicationofappropriate
technologytoreduceworkplaceexposurestoacceptable
levels

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OccupationalExposureLimits

Typicalprojectsinvolvingindustrialhygieneare:

Monitoringtoxicairbornevaporconcentrations

Reducingtoxicairbornevaporsthroughtheuseofventilation

Selectingproperpersonalprotectiveequipmenttopreventworker
exposure

Developingproceduresforthehandlingofhazardousmaterials

Monitoringandreducingnoise,heat,radiation,andotherphysical
factorstoensurethatworkersarenotexposedtoharmfullevels

airborne concentration. The mass of particulate substances or fibers, or the vapor percentage of dissolved
pollutants in a specific volume of air. As the concentration increases, the risk of inhalational exposure rises.
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32IndustrialHygiene:Identification
MSDS
Lists the physical properties of
a substance that may be
required to determine the
potential hazards of the
substance
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Available from
(1) chemical manufacturer,
(2) commercial source
(3) private library developed
by the chemical plant
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MaterialSafetyDataSheets(MSDS)

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Figure 3-1 Material safety data sheet. Most companies use their own MSDS format.

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33EvaluatingExposurestoVolatileToxicants
Monitoring
ForcontinuousconcentrationdataC(t)theTWA(timeweighted
average)concentrationiscomputedusingtheequation:

where
C(t)istheconcentration(inppmormg/m3)ofthechemicalintheair
tw istheworkershifttimeinhours

assumethattheconcentrationCi isfixed(oraveraged) overtheperiod

oftimeTi ,theTWAconcentrationiscomputedby:

ThecombinedexposuresfrommultipletoxicantswithdifferentTLV
TWAsisdeterminedfromtheequation:

where
n isthetotalnumberoftoxicants,
Ci istheconcentrationofchemicali withrespecttotheothertoxicants
(TLVTWA)istheTLVTWAforchemicalspeciesi

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ThemixtureTLVTWAcanbecomputedfrom

EvaluationofWorkerExposurestoDusts
The main reason for sampling for atmospheric particulates is
to estimate the concentrations that are inhaled and deposited
in the lungs. Sampling methods and the interpretation of data
relevant to health hazards are relatively complex
Dust evaluation calculations are performed in a manner
identical to that used for volatile vapors

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Example35
DeterminetheTLVforauniformmixtureofdustscontainingthe
followingparticles:

Solution
FromEquation34:

(millions of particles per cubic foot)

Special control measures will be required when the actual particle

count (of the size range specified in the standards or by an industrial
hygienist) exceeds 6.8 mppcf
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EvaluatingWorkerExposurestoNoise
Thedifferenceinintensitylevelsindecibelsisgivenby:

where
Iistheintensityofonesound
I0 istheintensityoftheanothersound

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EstimatingWorkerExposurestoToxicVapors

Figure 3-2 Mass balance for volatile vapor in an enclosure.

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Thedynamicmassbalanceonthe volatilespeciesis

Atsteadystatetheaccumulationtermis0,andEquation36is solved
forC:

where
mrepresentmass
p representdensity
subscriptsv andb denotethevolatileandbulkgasspecies
Rg istheidealgasconstant
Tistheabsoluteambienttemperature
Pistheabsolutepressure 15
Misthemolecularweightofthevolatilespecies

SubstitutingEquation37intoEquation38yields:

k isnonidealmixingfactorthatvariesfrom0.1to0.5formost
practicalsituation(Forperfectmixingk =1).

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EstimatingtheVaporizationRateofaLiquid

Generalizedexpressionforthevaporizationrateis:

Formanysituations,Psat >>p,andEquation311issimplifiedto:

where
Psat isthesaturationvaporpressureofthepureliquidatthetemperatureoftheliquid
p isthepartialpressureofthevaporinthebulkstagnantgasabovetheliquid
Qm istheevaporationrate(mass/time)
Misthemolecularweightofthevolatilesubstance
Kisamasstransfercoefficient(length/time)foranareaA
Rg istheidealgasconstant
TL istheabsolutetemperatureoftheliquid. 17

FormostsituationsT=TL,andEquation313issimplifiedto

Thegasmasstransfercoefficientisestimatedusingtherelationship:

where
a isaconstant
D isthegasphasediffusioncoefficient

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Equation317iscombinedwithEquation316,giving:

The gas-phase diffusion coefficients are estimated from the molecular

weights M of the species

Water is most frequently used as a reference substance; it has a mass

transfer coefficient of 0.83 cm/s

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EstimatingWorkerExposuresduringVesselFilling
Operations

Sources for volatile emissions for vessels

being filled with liquid:

1) Evaporation of the liquid (Equation 3-14)

2) Displacement of the vapor in the vapor
space by the liquid filling the vessel

Figure 3-3 Evaporation and displacement from a filling vessel.

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Thenetgenerationofvolatileisthesumofthetwosources:

where
(Qm)1 representsthesourceresultingfromevaporation
(Qm)2 representsthesourceresultingfromdisplacement

Usingtheidealgaslaw:

Equation 3-21 can be modified for container vapors that are not saturated with the volatile to
(eq3-22)

For splash filling (filling from the top of a container with the liquid splashing to the bottom)
= 1. For subsurface filling (by a dip leg to the bottom of the tank), = 0.5.
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where
Vc isthevolumeofthecontainer(volume)
rf istheconstantfillingrateofthevessel(time1)
Psat isthesaturationvaporpressureofthevolatileliquid
TL betheabsolutetemperatureofthecontainerandliquid
istheadjustmentfactor

combiningEquations312and322withEquation319:

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34IndustrialHygiene:Control

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Control
Enclosure: enclose room or equipment and
place under negative pressure.
Local ventilation: contain and exhaust
hazardous materials (fume hood)
Dilution ventilation: ventilation the whole
area (room). Some level of exposure exists.
Wet method for controlling dust: water
sprays for cleaning.

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Respirators
Respiratorsshouldbeusedonly:
Onatemporarybasisuntilregularcontrolmethodscanbe
implemented
Asemergencyequipment,toensureworkersafetyintheeventofan
accident
Asalastresort,intheeventthatenvironmentalcontroltechniquesare
unabletoprovidesatisfactoryprotection

Ventilation
Ventilationisbasedontwoprinciples:
(1) Dilutethecontaminantbelowthetargetconcentration
(2) Removethecontaminantbeforeworkersareexposed

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Ventilation systems are composed of fans and ducts. The fans

produce a small pressure drop (less than 0.1 psi) that moves
the air
a system that is a negative pressure system, with the fans located at the exhaust
end of the system, pulling air out. This ensures that leaks in the system draw air
in from the workplace rather than expel contaminated air from the ducts into
the workplace

Figure 3-4 The difference between a positive and a negative pressure ventilation system. The
negative pressure system ensures that contaminants do not leak into workplace
environments.
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Therearetwotypesofventilationtechniques:

LOCAL VENTILATION DILLUTION VENTILATION

Prevents workplace Exposure Allows exposure but at diluted
concentration by fresh air

1. LocalVentilation
Typesofhoods:
Anenclosedhood:completelycontainsthesourceof
contaminant.
Anexteriorhood:continuouslydrawscontaminantsintoan
exhaustfromsomedistanceaway.
Areceivinghood:isanexteriorhoodthatusesthedischarge
motionofthecontaminantforcollection.
Apushpullhood:usesastreamofairfromasupplytopush
contaminantstowardanexhaustsystem.
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EnclosedHood

Figure 3-5 Standard utility laboratory hood. Airflow patterns and control velocity are dependent
on sash height. (Source: N. Irving Sax, Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials,
4th ed. (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1975), p. 74.)

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TheBypassHood

Figure 3-6 Standard bypass laboratory hood. The bypass air is controlled by the height of the
sash. (Source: N. Irving Sax, Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 4th ed.
(New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1975), p. 75.)

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ThevolumeofairmovedperunittimeQV iscomputedfrom

Forarectangularduct

where
A istheductofcrosssectionalarea
istheaverageairvelocity(distance/time)
W isthewidth
L isthelength

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Enclosedhood

Figure 3-7 Determining the total volumetric airflow rate for a box-type hood. For general
operation a control velocity of between 80 and 120 feet per minute (fpm) is desired.

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2. DilutionVentilation

If the contaminant cannot be placed in a hood and must be

used in an open area or room, dilution ventilation is
necessary
Unlike hood ventilation, where the airflow prevents worker
exposure, dilution ventilation always exposes the worker but
in amounts diluted by fresh air
Dilution ventilation always requires more airflow than local
ventilation
Equations 3-9,3-12, and 3-14 are used to compute the
ventilation rates required
For exposures to multiple sources the dilution air
requirement is computed for each individual source. The total
dilution requirement is the sum of the individual dilution
requirements
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Standard Lab Utility Hoods

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Example310

Xylene is used as a solvent in paint. A certain painting operation

evaporates an estimated 3 gal of xylene in an 8hr shift. The
ventilation quality is rated as average. Determine the quantity of
dilution ventilation air required to maintain the xylene
concentration below 100 ppm, the TLVTWA. Also, compute the air
required if the operation is carried out in an enclosed hood with an
opening of 50 ft2 and a face velocity of 100 ft/min. The temperature
is 77oF and the pressure is 1 atm. The specific gravity of the xylene is
0.864, and its molecular weight is 106.

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Solution
Theevaporationrateofxyleneis

FromTable312,foraverageventilationandavaporconcentration
of100ppm,k =1/8=0.125.WithEquation39,wesolveforQV:

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contin.s
For a hood with an open area of 50 ft2, using Equation 325 and
assuming a required control velocity of 100 fpm, we get

The hood requires significantly less airflow than dilution ventilation

and prevents worker exposure completely.

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