GM101: Unit 20 Introduction to Photogrammetry 2005

What is photogrammetry
The science of using aerial photographs and other remote
Introduction to sensing imagery to obtain measurements of natural and
human-made features on the Earth and produce planimetric
Aerial Photographs and and topographic maps.
Photogrammetry Photogrammetry forms the baseline of many Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) and Land Information System
GM101 (LIS) studies and endeavors.
Unit 20
For GIS applications, aerial photogrammetry often provides
the foundation to develop base maps.
Dr. Gennady Gienko
Lecturer in GIS and Remote Sensing
Geography Department, SSED

Use of aerial photographs In this unit you will be introduced to

Aerial photographs can be used to compile topographical maps and to
supplement, or update, the information shown on maps. In some instances Properties of aerial photographs
they can be used as maps if the necessary corrections have been applied.
Equipment and methods available to take
The prime use of aerial photographs: measurements and gather information from
Non-surveyors or photogrammetrists use for photo interpretation.
Land administrators determine existing land use patterns and plane
them
land use
Civil engineers select possible routes for roads, power lines or pipelines
Important differences between a map and an
Environmentalists do impact assessment studies aerial photograph
Foresters do inventory mapping
Coastal Zone Managers determine change detection Principles of image interpretation
Many users use them .
New digital techniques and methods in
photogrammetry

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GM101: Unit 20 Introduction to Photogrammetry 2005

On completion of this unit you should

Readings
be able to:
Explain the differences between a map and an aerial photograph.
Understand the geometric properties of a single photograph. Textbook Chapter 27, Pages 786-831
Know the difference between vertical, low oblique and high oblique
photographs
Understand flight planning, photo scale, overlap and sidelap.
Use a stereoscope to view the photographic model of a pair of overlapping
photographs.
Apply the five factors of recognition to photo interpretation.
Understand the properties of orthophoto maps.
Explain the use of aerial photographic products in Geographic Information
Systems.
Describe the land surveyors role in photogrammetry.

Concepts Photogrammetry is defined as the

art, science or technology of


Properties of maps
Properties of a single photograph obtaining reliable information from
Stereoscopic pairs of photographs
Flight planning, scale, camera properties, film types and ground coverage. photographs.
Vertical, low oblique, high oblique and other types of photographs.
Rectification of photographic images.
Orthophoto mapping. The most important feature of this technique is
Photographic interpretation. that the objects can be measured, and the
Photo Annotation.
Ground control and DGPS. data extracted, without the objects being
touched (i.e.Remotely sensed).

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GM101: Unit 20 Introduction to Photogrammetry
The imagery can be acquired by
Special aerial photo cameras
Video cameras
Digital cameras
Radiation sensors
The imagery could be stored as
conventional photographs in paper form
digital images on tape or D
Two divisions of photogrammetry (contd)
in Terrestrial Photogrammetry (Close-Range
Photogrammetry) images are used
For historical buildings and for monitoring man-made
structures or deformation surveys
To record information at road accident and crime
scenes
For creating street furniture inventories, etc
USP Geography Dept GIS Unit
2005
Two divisions of photogrammetry
in Aerial Photogrammetry images are
obtained from onboard of an aircraft
used for topographical mapping and land use
studies
Involved for both measurement (quantitative
extraction of information) and interpretation
(qualitative extraction of information)
Principle design of an aerial camera
Cameras are framing systems
which acquire a "snapshot" of
an Earth area (A), of the
surface. Camera systems use a
lens (B) (or system of lenses
collectively referred to as the
optics) to form an image at the
focal plane (C), the plane at
which an a film is placed and
image is registered.
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GM101: Unit 20 Introduction to Photogrammetry 2005

Geometry of photographic image The aerial camera

A photographic image is a
central perspective where it is
assumed that every light ray
from the Earth surface (A)
reaching the plane of the film
() during exposure passed
through the camera lens which
is mathematically considered a
single point, the perspective
centre (B).

Internal camera geometry Focal length (F)

Focal length (principal
distance) Lens

Position of principal
Focal length (principal distance)
point, defined by Principal point
(a virtual cross- F
fiducial marks, point of the
mounted on the frame dashed lines)

of the camera Fiducial marks

(printed in
Lens distortions the image)
Principal point
(a virtual cross-
point of the
Fiducial marks
dashed lines) Photograph
(printed in
the image)

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GM101: Unit 20 Introduction to Photogrammetry 2005

Mapping by photogrammetry has many

Factors affecting the quality of the photographs and
accuracy of the measurements
advantages over conventional methods

Flying height It covers large areas quickly, and register

Aspect of the aircraft, tilt the area condition at the time of shooting
Height of the terrain It is relatively cheap
Produces a permanent synoptic record, in great detail, from an improved vantage
Method of control for photography point
Camera calibration It is perhaps the only way to obtain data in remote, inaccessible or hostile
areas
Camera lens assembly, diaphragm, shutter, focal length
It has a broader spectral sensitivity than the human eye
Film and filters
Better spatial resolution and geometric fidelity than many ground methods
Cloud cover
Overlap of photography, lateral and forward

Types of aerial photographs Types of aerial photographs

Vertical Vertical
Low oblique Low oblique
High oblique High oblique

Vertical photograph Low oblique photograph

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GM101: Unit 20 Introduction to Photogrammetry 2005

Types of aerial photographs Vertical aerial photographs

Vertical Photographs that are tilted less than 3 off
the vertical are regarded as vertical.
Low oblique
A vertical aerial photograph has the following characteristics;
High oblique Lens axis is perpendicular to the surface of the earth
It covers a relatively small area
The ground area covered by a single photograph
approximates the shape of a square or rectangle.
Relief is not readily apparent.
Distances and directions vary across the photograph unless
the ground is flat.
It provides a birds-eye view of the area which is not the
normal view experienced by people in the area.

High oblique photograph

Oblique photographs Low oblique photographs

Oblique photographs are taken with the angle from the
vertical deliberately set somewhere between 3 and
90.
They are termed
low oblique if the horizon is not visible on the
photograph; and
high oblique if the horizon is visible.
The camera lens system is inclined by
usually 30.
Covers a relatively small area.
The ground area covered is trapezoidal although the photograph is
square.
The objects have a more familiar view which resembles the view the
observer would get from a high vantage point such as a hill or the roof of
a high building.
Since scale varies over the photograph, distances and directions are not
true.
Relief can be seen but it is distorted.
The horizon is not visible.

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GM101: Unit 20 Introduction to Photogrammetry 2005

High oblique photographs High oblique photograph

The camera is tilted about 60from the vertical.
The horizon is always visible.
It covers a very large area.
The ground view is trapezoidal though the photograph is square.
Familiarity of the view varies depending on the height from which the photograph
was taken.
Scale is variable therefore distance and directions on the photograph are not
true.
Relief can be seen but it is sometimes distorted.

Advantages of vertical photographs

Vertical aerial photograph
over oblique
Vertical photographs give approximate uniform scale
over the photograph but oblique photos do not.
Measuring distances and directions on vertical
photos are therefore easier and more accurate.
In flat areas the vertical photos can almost be used
as a map.
Because of the near constant scale of the vertical photos scale and directions can be
measured in the same way as those on a map.
Oblique has much bigger distortions.
Constant scale makes interpretation easier and tall buildings do not hide data as they do on
oblique photos.
Vertical photos require a minimum of mathematical corrections.
Stereoscopic study on vertical photos is more effective than on oblique photos.

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GM101: Unit 20 Introduction to Photogrammetry 2005

Advantages of oblique over vertical

A typical aerial photo
photographs
Oblique photos give a more natural view of ground Black and white
features especially buildings, bridges etc
Image size 9x9
Oblique photos cover more ground area than vertical
photos from the same altitude and focal length. Focal length approx 6 (shown in mm)
Oblique photos can give cover in areas where low cloud might obscure the ground using
vertical photos.
Determination of feature elevations more accurate on oblique photos than on vertical photos.
Cameras can be cheaper since photography not used for precision photogrammetry.
Tree canopy or other tall buildings can mask detail on vertical photos which may be visible on
oblique photos.

Service info in aerial photographs Flight runs

When obtaining vertical aerial photographs, the aircraft normally
Date and time flies in a series of lines, each called a flight run (A). Photos are
taken in rapid succession looking straight down at the ground,
Focal length often with a 60 percent overlap between next photos. The overlap
ensures total coverage along a flight line and also facilitates
Frame and run number stereoscopic viewing. The distance the camera moves between
Flight direction exposures is called the air base.
Altitude
Level
Camera number
Auxiliary info

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GM101: Unit 20 Introduction to Photogrammetry 2005

Stereo pair of photographs Stereo pair with 60% overlap

Two next images form a stereopair (A)+(B)
which allows to perceive a stereo model within
overlapping area (C)

Single image allows to

measure planimetric (X,Y)
coordinates of an object
Stereopair allows to retrieve
3D coordinates (X,Y,Z) of
the object

Stereoscope Single photos and stereo pair

Successive photo pairs display Single image allows to
the overlap region from measure planimetric
different perspectives and can
(X,Y) coordinates of an
be viewed through a device
called a stereoscope to see a object
three-dimensional view of the Stereopair allows to
area, called a stereo model. retrieve 3D coordinates
Many applications of aerial (X,Y,Z) of the object
photography use stereoscopic
coverage and stereo viewing.

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GM101: Unit 20 Introduction to Photogrammetry 2005

Image Scale
Map scale
Map scale refers to the ratio of distance on a map In general, image scale is similar to map scale
over the corresponding distance on the ground. The
scale is represented as 1: M or 1/M, where M is Scale denominator (SD)
called the scale denominator. The larger the scale, Scale = ImageDistance / GroundDistance
the more the detail described by the map and with
ID = 4.75 inches, GD = 3 miles, SD = ?
higher accuracy.
ID = 5.25 cm, GD = 5.25 km, SD= ?
shows the relationship between a distance on the Verbal description
map, and the corresponding distance in the real
one inch equals to one mile
world (e.g., 1:50,000) in some point or line on the
map one centimeter equals to one kilometer

Aerial photograph scale Map and Photograph Projections

The scale of a vertical
f Aerial photo photograph approximately An air photograph A map
equals to the ratio of the (central projection) (orthographic projection)

Image
flying height above the
distance ground (H) and the focal
length of the camera lens
H (f)

imageDist f
Scale = =
surfaceDist H
Earth surface Earth surface distance The Earth surface

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GM101: Unit 20 Introduction to Photogrammetry
Perspective and Projection
The viewing perspective of a map. On a map
objects and features are both planimetrically and
geometrically accurate. That is objects are located
on the map in exactly the same position relative to
each other as they are on the surface of the Earth,
except with a change in scale. This is due to the fact
that maps use an orthographic projection (i.e. using
parallel lines of site) and constant scale to represent
features.
Image distortion and displacement
There are basically four types of distortions and three types of
displacement.
Types of distortion include:
1. Film and Print Shrinkage;
2. Atmospheric refraction of light rays;
3. Image motion; and,
4. Lens distortion.
Types of displacement include:
1. Curvature of the Earth;
2. Tilt; and,
3. Topographic or relief (including object height).
USP Geography Dept GIS Unit
2005
Aerial photographs on the other hand are
created using a central or perspective
projection. Therefore, the relative position and
geometry of the objects depicted depends
upon the location from which the photo
was taken.
Now because of this we get certain forms of
distortion and displacement in Air
Photographs.
Main distortions and displacements
There are three main types of problems/ effects
caused by specific types of distortion and
displacement:
Relief Displacement
Tilt Displacement
Lens distortion
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GM101: Unit 20 Introduction to Photogrammetry 2005

Relief
Relief displacement
displacement
Towers A and B are equally high, but
This is typically the most placed at different distances from the
serious type of nadir point, thus have different relief
displacements. A tower, depicted
displacement. This beneath nadir point has no relief
displacement radiates displacement
outward from
Nadir. Topographic
Aerial photo
displacement is caused by
the perspective geometry of
the camera and the terrain
at varying elevations

Earth surface

Nadir point A B

Relief displacement Tilt Displacement

Relief displacement rh for
vertical aerial photographs A tilted photograph presents a slightly oblique
view rather than a true vertical record. All
h
rh = r photos have some tilt.
H
r Tilt is caused by the rotation of the platform
where away from the vertical.
H flight altitude above
ground surface If the amount and direction of tilt are known
h relief elevation on the then the photo may be rectified.
ground
r - vector in an image from
nadir point to depicted object rh

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GM101: Unit 20 Introduction to Photogrammetry
Lens distortion
Small effects due to the flaws in the optical
components (i.e. lens) of camera systems
leading to distortions (which are typically more
serious at the edges of photos).
These effects are radial from the principal
point (making objects appear either closer to,
or farther from the principal point than they
actually are);
May be corrected using calibration curves.
Types of Film
Panchromatic film records the amount of light
reflected from objects in tones of grey running from
white to black. Most aerial photography is taken
using panchromatic film.
Infrared film is black and white film that is sensitive
to infrared waves. It can be used at night if there is a
source of infrared radiation.
Colour film records the radiation across the visible
spectrum in colour.
USP Geography Dept GIS Unit
2005
Image correction
These distortions prevent an uncorrected or
unrectified photograph from being used as a map.
In order to correct or rectify these distortions,
overlapping photographs and ground control points
are integrated to produce a stereo model of the
terrain which forms the basis of photogrammetric
mapping and orthophotography.
Ground control, or accurate geodetic data, is
essential for all photogrammetric operations.
An aerial photograph has the following
advantages over a map
It provides a current pictorial view as opposed
to a symbolic representation of the survey
area
It is more readily obtained, the mapping process which often includes
aerial photography, can take months to complete.
It can be used to provide information of inaccessible areas.
It shows things that are often omitted from maps.
It provides a permanent synoptic record of an area which can be used to
compare with earlier or later photographs to monitor changes in an area.
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GM101: Unit 20 Introduction to Photogrammetry 2005

The disadvantages of photographs

Orthophoto Imagery
compared to maps
Position location and scale are only approximate.
Orthoimagery combines the image
Ground features are difficult to identify or interpret haracteristics of an aerial photograph with the
without the symbols that appear on maps geometric qualities of a map. Unlike normal
Some features are obscured by other ground detail, buildings in forests for
example. aerial photographs, distortion and relief
Obtaining relief information requires stereoscopic overlapping photographs and a
stereoscope. displacement is removed so ground features
The absence of contrasting colour or tone makes interpretation difficult in poor
lighting conditions. are displayed in their true planimetrically
There is no marginal data to assist in its interpretation.
It requires skill and training to use effectively. correct position.

Orthophoto imagery Image interpretation

In computer systems, orthophotos can be The identification of features on a photograph
integrated with other geographic information is not difficult but it requires the careful
providing a rich visual context. Once in digital application of five basic factors of recognition.
format they can be viewed and printed at
various scales and are very useful in the
development of land information systems and
land use planning issues such as
transportation, zoning and agriculture.

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GM101: Unit 20 Introduction to Photogrammetry
Five basic factors of recognition: Size
The size of unknown objects on a photograph,
as determined from the scale of the
photograph or a comparison with known
objects of known size, gives a clue to their
identity. For example, in a built-up area the
smaller buildings are usually dwellings, and
the larger buildings are commercial or
community buildings.
Five basic factors of recognition:
Shadows
Shadows are very helpful in identifying features since they
show the familiar side view of the object.
Some excellent examples are the shadows of water towers or
cooling towers. When viewed directly from above, only a
round circle or dot is seen, whereas the shadow shows the
profile and helps to identify the object.
Relative lengths of shadows also usually give a good
indication of relative heights of objects; however the length of
a shadow will also depend on other factors such as the time
of day and year.
USP Geography Dept GIS Unit
2005
Five basic factors of recognition:
Shape (and Pattern)
Many features possess characteristic shapes that
readily identify the features.
Anthropogenic features are those features that relate
to the activities of people. They usually appear as
straight or smooth curved lines, while natural
features usually appear to be irregular. Some of the
most prominent man-made features are highways,
railroads, bridges, canals, and buildings.
Five basic factors of recognition:
Shade (Tone and Texture)
Panchromatic film is sensitive to all the colors of the
spectrum; it registers them as shades of gray,ranging from
white to black. This lighter or darker shade of features on
aerial photographs is known as the tone.
The tone is also dependent on the texture of the features; a
paved highway has a smooth texture and produces an even
tone on the photograph, while a recently plowed field or a
marsh has a rough, choppy texture and results in a rough or
grainy tone.
It is also important to remember that similar features may
have different tones on different photographs,
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GM101: Unit 20 Introduction to Photogrammetry 2005

Five basic factors of recognition: Identification of Photograph

Surrounding objects Features
Quite often an object not easily recognized by itself Five S factors for image interpretation
may be identified by its relative position to
surrounding objects. 1. Size
Large buildings located beside roads are usually 2. Shape (and pattern)
factories or warehouses. Schools can be identified 3. Shadows
by the long oblong classrooms and sports fields. 4. Shade (tone and texture)
Sometimes the presence of features that are 5. Surrounding objects
obscured may be indicated by other visible features;
so a water source hidden by trees may be indicted Often no one factor will give a positive identification so
by the paths and tracks leading to it. all five may need to be applied.

Photo Annotation Field work for image interpretation

There is much information that is not
presented in image and has to be gathered
from ground surveying techniques to complete
the map or study of the project area; the place
names of villages and town, names of rivers
are two obvious examples.
Although the five factors of recognition help in
identifying the broad types of buildings it is not
possible to obtain specific information without visiting
the site and annotating the photograph or map.
So whilst it might be possible to identify a school by
applying the factors of recognition, to label the
science lab, library, clinic etc will require additional
information.

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GM101: Unit 20 Introduction to Photogrammetry 2005

Many objects can be obscured on the

Photogrammetry and surveying
photograph
It should also be obvious that many things can Care must be taken when combining data obtain by
photogrammetry and data obtained by conventional ground
be obscured on the photograph and therefore techniques, an example would be the surveying of buildings,
cannot be mapped. from the air the extent of the roof would be the outline of the
building whereas land surveyors would normally survey the
Cloud and shadow obscure detail and so do external wall corners (sometimes the eaves as well) which
provides the ground footprint of the building.
parked cars and tree canopy. These factors For these reasons the choice of mapping by photogrammetry
mean that except at small scale area or by conventional land survey needs to be considered
photography can rarely provide all the carefully in light of the purpose and scale of the survey.
information.

Summary http://dc204.4shared.com/download/2dTafKl-/_2__introduction_to_photogramm.pdf?tsid=20120222-085443-ef2978

Both topographical maps and aerial

photographs are graphical representations of
the earths natural and man-made features.

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USP Geography Dept GIS Unit 17