p p

vi) R = {x|x = q, p or x q and p, q z, q 0}

CHAPTER 01 i.e., the set of all real numbers.
Also R+ and R will, respectively, denote the set of all
positive and all negative real numbers.
Subsets: A set B is a subset of a set A, denoted by B A,
SETS if every element of B is also an element of A, Symbolically.
BA.
Note: The set of all subsets of a set A is called the power
BASIC DEFINITIONS AND FORMULAS set of A and is denoted by P(A).
Concept of a set: A set is a well-defined collection of Superset: If B is a subset of a set A, then A is called a
distinct objects. Each object is called an element or a superset of B denoted by A B.
member of the set. The members of the set can be Proper subset : A set B is a proper subset of a set A,
anything: numbers, rivers, letters, books, fish, etc. denoted by B A, If B is a subset of A and if there exists
Notations: Sets are denoted by capital letters A, B, C #x, at least one element in A that is not in B. Symbolically,
y, z elements of a set are denoted by small letters a, b, B A.
c#.. z, y, z the number of elements in a set S are denoted
And there exists at least one element A such that
by |S| or by n(S) or by O(s).
B
Notations for sets of numbers
i) N = {1, 2, 3,#..} Equal sets: Two sets A and B are equal if and only if each
element of A belongs to B and vice versa
i.e the set of the natural numbers.
ii) W = {0, 1, 2, 3, #..} If A and B are equal then we write
i.e. the set of all non-negative integers. A=B
iii) Z = (#. 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, #..) Thus A = B iff A B and B A
i.e., the set of all integers.
Ordered pairs : Two ordered pairs (a,b) and (c, d) are
p equal if and only if
iv) Q = {x|x = q, p and q z, q 0}
a = c, b = d
i.e the set of all rational numbers.
p Thus (a, b) (b, a) iff a b
v) I = {x|x q, p and q z, q 0} The intersections of two sets: The intersection of two
sets A and B denoted by AB, is the set of all elements
i.e., the set of all irrational numbers.
belonging to both the sets A and B,

math.pgseducation.com Page 1
 A B = {x|x A and x B} Commutative property : Operations of union and
intersection of any two sets are commutative but the
The union of two sets: The union of two sets A and B difference operation is not commutative in general that is
denoted by A U B, is the set of all elements belonging
either to A or to B or to both A and B, i.e A U B = B U A., A B = B A but A B B A is general
Associative laws
A U B = {x | x A or x B} i) Associative property of union, If A, B and C are any
Equivalent sets: Two sets A and B are said to be three sets then (AUB) UC = AU (BUC)
equivalent, denoted by A ~ B, if they have same number of ii) Associative property of intersection if A, B and C are
elements any three sets, then (AB) C = A (BC)
Distributive laws
Exhaustive sets: If A and B be subsets of a set U such i) Distributive property of intersection over union
that If A, B and C are any three sets
AUB = U Then
a) A (BUC) = (AB) U (AC) (Left distribitivity)
Then the sets A and B are called exhaustive sets:
b) (BUC) A = (BA) U (CA) (Right Distributivity)
The difference of two sets: The difference of two sets A Distributive property of union over intersection
and B in the stated order denoted by A B is the set of all If A, B and C are any three sets then
elements of A that are not in B i.e. a) AU (BC) = (AUB) (AUC) (Left Distributivity)
A B = {x | x A and x B} b) (BC) UA = (BUA) (CUA) (Right Distributivity)
Also B A = {x | x B and x A} Distributive property of Cartesian product over union.
Complement of a set : The complement of a set A , If, A, B and C are any three sets, then
denoted by A` is the difference U A where U is the a) A (BUC) = (A B) U (A C) (Left
universal set i.e. distributivity)
A = U A = {x | x U and x A} b) (BUC) A = (B A) U (C A) (Right
distributivity)
The Cartesian product of two sets : The Cartesian Distributive property of Cartesian product over
product of any set A with any other set B is the set of all intersection
ordered pairs (a, b), where a A and b B. it is denoted If A, B and C are any three sets then
by A B and is read as A cross B. Symbolically.
a) A (BC) = (A B) (A C) (Left
A B {(a, b) / a A, b B} Distributivity)
PROPERTIES OF OPERATIONS ON SETS b) (BC) A = (B A) (C A) (Right
distributivity)
Clousure poerperty: Operations of union, intersection and Distributive property of the cartesian product over
difference on any two sets are closed in U. that is if A and complement.
B are any two sets in U, then AB, AUB and A B are a) (A B) C = (A C) (B C)
also sets in U.

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b) C (A B) = (C A) (C B) a
b
Both equations represent different sets. vi) and 2 2
, 2
is the multiplicative inverse of (a,
2
a +b a +b
De Morgans laws b) where and is denoted by (a, b)1.
If A, and B are any two sets, then (vii) Subtraction (a, b) (c , d) = (a c, b d).
DEFINITIONS OF IMAGINARY NUMBERS THEIR
a) (AUB) = AB b) (AB) = AUB CONJUGATES AND MODULI
The ordered pair (a, 0)in which the second member is zero
has the properties of the real number a.
For example
(a, 0) + (b, 0) = (a + b, 0)
(a, 0). (b, 0) = (ab, 0)

02
(a, 0) (c, d) = (ac, ad) = a(c, d). (c, d) C
CHAPTER Hence, the ordered pair (a, 0) is identified with a R
Imaginary Numbers
The ordered pairs (0, 1) is denoted by the letter , read as
2
IOTA. Then = .
REAL AND COMPLEX
2 2 2
= (0, 1) . (0, 1) = (1, 0) D = 1 R
So
2
= 1
NUMBER SYSTEMS
SYSTEMS is called an imaginary numbers because there is
no real number x satisfying the property x2 = 1
The number of the form ib is called an imaginary number
b R.
The ordered pairs (a, b) is also written in the form a + ib or
Basic Formulas and Definitions a + bi, where a is called the real part and b is called the
imaginary part for
The System of Complex numbers: The set C in which the (a, b) = (a, 0) + (0 , b)
2
equation x = a can be solved for all a R and is given by C = R (a, b) = (a, 0) + (0, 1) (b, 0)
R = { (a, b) / a, b R} is called the set of complex numbers (a, b) = (a, 0) + (b, 0)
(a, b) = a + bi
and its elements (ordered pairs) are called complex numbers.
We define equality, addition and multiplication (a, b), (c, d) as follows Remarks: Operations on complex numbers can be
(i) Equality : (a, b) = (c, d) if a = c, b = d performed by treating the complex factors as if they
ii) addition : (a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d) were real and remembering that 2 = 1
Conjugate of complex numbers
iii) Multiplication : (a, b) (c, d) = (ac bd, ad + bc) (a , b) = a ib is called the complex conjugate of (a, b) = a + ib
The division of complex umbers Thus complex conjugate of (a, b) will be (a, (b)) = (a, b)
Let z1 = (a, b), z2 = (c, d) with z2 (0, 0) be complex numbers. Then Hence , (a, b) and (a, b) are complex conjugates of each other.
z1 1 ac + bd bc ad
iv) = z1z 2 = 2 2 , 2 2 If z = (a, b) then its conjugate (a, b) is denoted by z
z2 c +d c +d Modulus of a complex number
The modulus, magnitude or absolute value of a complex number z = x +
v) (a, b) = (a, b) is the additive inverse of (a, b) C iy = (x, y) is a non-negative real number denoted by |z| = |x + iy| and
is given by x2 + y2 .
Theorem

math.pgseducation.com Page 3
If z1 and z2 are complex numbers, then We know that an expression like x2 2ax + a2 can be written as
2
i) z1 + z 2 = z1 + z 2 (x a) . Sometime a given expression contains only two terms
instead of three i.e one of the three terms is missing which can
ii) z1 . z 2 = z1.z 2 be determined.
iii) z .z = z. z =| z |2 (Middle Term)2
1. First term =
iv) a) z+ z is purely real and b) z z is purely 4 (Last Term)
imaginary. (Middle Term)2
2. Last Term =
vi) |z1. z2| = |z1|.|z2| 4 (First Term)
iv) a) z + z = (x, y) + (x, y) = (x + x, y y) = (2x, 3. Middle Term = First Term Last term
0) = 2x, THE QUADRATIC FORMULA
2
Which is purely real. b b 4ac
x= 2a
b) Similarly z z = 2iy is purely imaginary 1. (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
2 2 2
z+ z z z 2. (a b) = a 2ab + b
Note that x = and y = are called conjugate 2 2 2 2
2 2i 3. (a + b + c) = a + b + c + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
coordinates. THE CUBE ROOTS OF UNITY
. .

1+ 3 1 3
1,
2
,
2
{
= 1, ,
2
}

03
PROPERTIES OF THE CUBE ROOTS OF UNITY
CHAPTER 1. Each of the complex roots of unity is the square of the other
i:e., (2)2 =
2. The sum of the three cube roots of unity is zero
i.e., 1 + w + w2 = 0
EQUATIONS 3. The product of the three cube roots of unity is one
i.e., (1)()( 2) = 3 = 1
SOME USEFUL FORMULAS
3 3 2 2
1. a + b = (a + b) (a ab + b )
BASIC DEFINITIONS AND FORMULAS 2.
3 3 2 2
a b = (a b) (a + ab + b )
3 3 3 2 2 2
3. a + b + c 3abc = (a + b + c) (a + b + c ab bc ca)
SYNTHETIC DIVISION EQUATIONS REDUCIBLE TO THE QUADRTIC FORM
The Steps of the method are given below. SOME USEFUL FORMULAE
2 2 2
1. Write in the first row the coefficient in the ascending powers 1. (a + b) = a + 2ab + b
2 2 2
of x in P(x). 2. (a b) = a 2ab + b
2 2 2 2
2. Write the first coefficient in the third row below its position in 3. (a + b + c) = a + b + c + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
4 4 3 2 2 3 4
the first row. 4. (a + b) = a + 4a b + 6a b + 4ab + b
4 4 3 2 2 3 4
3. Write the product of factor x, the multiplier and this 5. (a b) = a 4a b + 6a b 4ab + b
coefficient in the second row beneath the second coefficient in the first NATURE OF THE ROOTS OF A QUADRATIC EQUATION
row and add putting the sum below them in the third row and so on. DISCRIMINANT = D = b2 4ac
1. If D = 0 then the roots are equal
METHOD OF COMPLETING THE SQUARES.
2. If D > 0 then the roots are real and unequal
3. If D < 0 then the roots are complex (imaginary) and unequal

math.pgseducation.com Page 4
4. if D is a perfect square then roots are rational and unequal
TO FORM A QUADRATIC EQUATION WHEN ITS ROOTS BASIC DEFINITIONS AND FORMULAS
ARE GIVEN
x2 (Sum of the roots) x + (product of the roots) = 0 Matrix: A rectangular array of (real or complex) numbers of the
Some useful formulae form
2 2 2
1. + = ( + ) 2
3 3 3
+ = ( + ) 3 ( + ) aa 11 a12 am


2.
3. Additive inverse of x is x 21 a22 an
M=
1

4. Multiplicative inverse of x is x
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE ROOTS AND THE
a m1 am2 amn
Subject to certain algebraic operations, to be mentioned later is
COEFFICIENTS OF A QUADRATIC EQUATION called a matrix, of order (or dimension) m n read as m by n
2 2
b + b 4ac b b 4ac The matrix, M consists of m n number of the type.
Let = 2a , and = 2a Square matrix : A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to
b Cofficient of x the number of columns i.e m =n, is called a square matrix order
1. Sum of the roots = + = a =
2
Cofficient of x n. If m n, the matrix is said to be rectangular matrix.
b Constant Term Diagonal elements: Element a of the square matrix (with = j)
2. Product of the roots = = a = are called diagonal elements and the line along which these
2
Cofficient of x elements lie is called the principal (or leading) diagonal.
SOME USFUL FORMULAE Row and column matrices: Any 1 n matrix having only one
1. Perimeter of triangle = a + b + c row is called a row matrix; whereas m 1 matrix only one
2. Perimeter of rectangle = 2(x + y) column is called a column matrix.
3. Pythagoras theorem
(Base)2 + (Perpendicular )2 = (Hypotenuse)2 1 a
1
4. Circumference = 2 r Example.
. 2 . b are column matrices.
5. Area of circle = r2 2 5 c
1 Whereas [1 2], [1 2 5], [a b c] are row matrices.
6. Area of triangle = (Base)(Altitude)
2 Transpose Matrices: The matrix of order n m obtained by
7. Area of rectangle = Length breadth interchanging the rows and the columns of an m n matrix A is
8. Area of a square = (Length)2 called the transpose of A and is denoted by At. read as A
transpose
Symbolically if A = [ aj ](m, n)

CHAPTER 04
MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS
math.pgseducation.com Page 5
 MATRICES
SPECIAL TYPES OF MATRICES [Cij] = [aij] [bij] C =
Diagonal matrix: A square matrix all of whose elements are AB
zero except those in the main diagonal is called a diagonal
matrix.
2 0 0
e.g. 0 3 0

0 0 5
Unit Matrix : A diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal
elements are equal to one is called a unit matrix; A unit matrix of
order n Is denoted by In.
1 0 0
I2 = 0 1 and I3 = 0 1 0
1 0
e.g.

0 0 1
Scalar Matrix : A diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal
elements are equal (same) is called a scalar matrix.
b 0 0
e.g. 0 b 0

0 0 b
Null matrix (Zero Matrix) : An m n matrix whose elements are
all zero is called the null (or zero) matrix, denoted by Omn i.e aii=0
Symbolically Om,n = [0][mn]
0 0 0
e.g. 0 0 0 = 03

0 0 0
Equal matrices: Two matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] of the same
order are said to be equal, denoted by A = B, if their elements in
the corresponding positions are equal symbnolically
A = B al = bj
Addition of matrices : Let A = [aj] and B = [bj] be two matrices
of the same order then the sum A and B denoted by A + B
denoted by A + B is defined to be the matrix C = [Cj] where
Cj = aj + bj or C=A+B
Subtraction of Matrices: If A = [aii] and B = [bii] are any two
matrices of the same order then A B is defined as
A B = A + (B) = [aij bij]
Multiplication of Matrices : Let A = [aij] be an m p matrix and
B = [bij] an p n matrix C = [cij] where.

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PROPERTIES OF MATRIX OPERATIONS The properties given in this section are very useful in
Matrix addition and scalar multiplication: Following properties evaluating the determinants of any order.
are satisfied by the matrices, A.B and C of the same order, and In the properties given below R1, R2 and R3 represent
any two scalars k, k2 w.r.t matrix addition and scalar first second and third rows; C1 C2and C3 represent first, second
multiplication. and third columns respectively. Also |A| represents
(i) A + B is also a matrix of the same order a11 a12 a13
(ii) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
a 21 a 22 a 23
(iii) A+B=B+A
(iv) For any matrix A = [aij](m.n) there exists a matrix of the same a 31 a 32 a 33
order called a zero matrix denoted by O, such that Property 1. The value of a determinant is unaltered by
A+O=O+A=A changing its rows and column i.e for any matrix A
(v) Where O = [Oij](m.n) is called the additive identity for the set t
of all m n matrices. |A| = |A |
t
v) For any matrix A = [aij](m.n) there exists a matrix B of the same Note that the expansion of |A | is simply the expansion of
order such that |A| by its first column.
A+B=B+A=0 Property 2. The interchange of any two rows, or of any
Where O is the m n zero matrix two columns, of a matrix A changes the sign of its determinant
The matrix B is called the additive inverse of A and is denoted without altering its numerical value.
by A Property 3. If two rows of a matrix A are identical then
(vi) k1 A is also a matrix of the same order |A| = 0
(vii) (k1k2) A = k1 (k2A) Property 4. If all the elements of a row of a square matrix
(viii) (k1 + k2) A = k1A + k2A and k1 (A + B) = k1 A + k2 B A are zero then
(ix) 1A = A and (1) A = A |A| = 0
(x) OA = O = AO and k1O = Ok1 = O
Where O is the null matrix of the same order. Property 5. If every element in a row of a matrix A is
Properties of matrix Multiplications: If the matrices A, B, C are multiplied by the same number k, then |A| gets multiplied by k.
conformable for addition and multiplication. then Property 6. if every element of a row of a matrix A be
expressed as the sum of two terms then |A| can be expressed as
(i) (AB) C = A (BC) = ABC the sum of determinants of two matrices differing in the elements
(ii) A (B + C) = AB + AC, and (B + C) A = BA + CA of that row but with remaining rows as the same as those of |A|.
(iii) AI = IA = A, Where A and I are the same order Property 7. If the elements of one row of a matrix A are k
(iv) k (AB) = (kA)B = A (kB). Where k is scalar
times the elements of its another row, then |A| = 0
Properties of transposed Matrices: If two matrices A and B are
conformable for addition and multiplication then, Property 8. If to each element of a row of a matrix A is
added. A constant multiple of the corresponding elements of
(i) (A B)t = At Bt another row then the value of |A| is unaltered.
(ii) (kA)t = kAt Where k is scalar
iii) (AB)t = BtAt (Reversal Law for transpose of product)
iv) (At)t = A
Corollary 1. (A + B + C)t = At + Bt + Ct
Corollary 2. (ABC)t = Ct Bt At

PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS OF ORDER THREE

math.pgseducation.com Page 7
 3) IDENTITY ELEMENT: Let s be a set with a binary
operation *. an element e S. is said to be an
CHAPTER 05 identity of s w.r.t *- if
a * e = e * a = a, a S
4) INVERSE ELEMENTS: Let S be a set with a binary
GROUPS operation * having an identity element e. An element
b S is said to be an inverse of a S w.r.t * if a * b =
b*a=e
BASIC DEFINITIONS AND FORMULAS GROUPOIDS: A groupoid (S, *) is an ordered pair consisting of
a non-empty set S and a binary operation * defined on S.
BINARY OPERATIONS : A binary operation on a non empty
set S. is a function S S S, Thus binary operation is a rule SEMI GROUPS/ ASSOCIATIVE GROUPOIDS: A groupoid (S, *)
is called a semi group if * is associative in S.
which associates with each ordered pair (a, b); a and b s a
unique element a b of s. ABELIAN SEMI GROUOPS: A semi group (S, *) is called an
abelian semi group if * is commutative in S.
MULTIPLICATION (OR COMPOSION) TABLE
S = {1, 1, i,i} GROUPS: An ordered pair (G, *) of a non-empty set G and a
1 1 i i binary operation * is said to be a group if the following properties
are satisfied.
1 1 1 i i
1 1 1 i i 1. * is associative in G
i i i 1 1 2. There exists on identity element e G w.r.t.*
i i i 1 1 a * e = e * a = a, a G
S = {1, , 2} 3) For every element a G. There exists an element a
x 1 2 G called the inverse of a such that a * a = a * a =
1 1 2 e
2 1 ABELIAN GROUPS: A group (G, *) is said to be an abelian
2 2 1 group if * is commutative on G i.e if a * b = b * a, a, b G.
PROPERTIES OF BINARY OPERATIONS:-
1) COMMUTATIVE BINARY OPERATIONS: A binary
operation * on a set S is said to be commutative if
a * b = b * a, a, b S
2) ASSOCIATIVE BINARY OPERATIONS: a binary
operation * on a set S is said to be associative if (a * 6

b) * c = a * (b * c), a, b, c, S

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 ARITHMETIC MEANS

06
1) A Single Arithmetic mean between a and b
CHAPTER a+b
A.M =
2
2) n Arithmetic means between a and b, (n > 1)
A1 = a + d A2 = a +2d A3 = a + 3d A4 = a + 4d
SEQUENCES
SEQUENCES AND SERIES An = a + nd
ba
Where d =
n +1
BASIC DEFINITION AND FORMULAE
a = First term b = Second term
ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE OR ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION n = Number of A.Ms d = Common difference
(A.P): A sequence in which each term is formed by adding a 3) Let three numbers in A.P be (a d), a (a + d)
fixed number to the one preceding it, is called are arithmetic
sequence or arithmetic progression. (A. P) 4) Let four numbrs in A.P be (a 3d), (a d) (a + d) (a + 3d) -
5) Let five numbers in A.P be (a2d), (ad), a, (a + d), (a + 2d)
STANDARD FORM OF AN A.P.: If the first term of an A.P is a
and the common difference d then by definition. GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE OR GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION
(G . P) : A sequence in which the first term is a non-zero number
T1 = the first term = a or a + (1 1) d; and each of the terms is formed by multiplying the previous one
T2 = the second term = a + d or a + (2 1) d; by a certain non-zero fixed number is called a geometric
T3 = the third term = a + 2d or a + (3 1) d; sequence or a geometric progression (G. P).
T4 = the fourth term = a + 3d or a + (4 1) d; STANDARD FORM OF G.P: If the first term of a G.P is a and
Hence by similarly, we deduce that the common ratio r then by definition.
11
Tn = the n the term = a + (n 1) d, . . .(1) T1 = the first term = a or a r
21
Which is the formula for finding the nth term of an arithmetic T2 = the second term = ar or a r
2 31
sequence. T3 = the third term = ar or ar
Whose first term is a and common difference d. 3 41
T4 = the fourth term = ar or ar
Tn is called the general term of the sequence And so on
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . . , a + (n 1)d is known as the Hence, by similarity, we deduce that
standard form of an A.P. n1
Tn = the nth term = ar (1)
ARITHMETIC SERIES: The sum of the terms of an arithmetic
sequence is called an arithmetic series In general, an arithmetic Which is the formula for finding the nth term of a geometric
sequence whose first term is a and common ratio r.
series of n terms with a as its first term and d as its common
difference is. Tn is called general term of the sequence.
a + ( a + d) + (a + 2d) + - - - + {a + (n 1) d} The sequence
n n a, ar, ar2, ar3, - - - -arn1 (1)
Sn = 2 {2a + (n 1) d} Sn = 2 (a + l ) Tn = l = a + (n 1) d is known as standard form of G.P.

math.pgseducation.com Page 9
GEOMETRIC SERIES: The sum of the terms of a geometric 1 2

b n +1 b n +1
sequence is called geometric series. In general a geometric G1 = ar = a G2 = ar = a
2

series with a as its first term and r as its common ratio is a a

2 3 n1
a + ar + ar + ar + - - - + ar (1) 3 n

b n +1 b n +1
If Sn denotes the sum to n term of the series, We have G3 = ar = a
3
Gn = ar = a
n

a a
Sn = a + ar + ar2 + - - - + arn1
Where
Multiply each side by r we have 1
2 3 n
rSn = ar + ar + ar + - - - ar (2) b n +1
a = first term, b = last term and r = common ratio =
Hence from (1) and (2) by subtraction a
Sn rSn = a arn a
Or Sn (1 r) = a (1 rn ) 3) Let the three numbers in G.P be , a, ar
r
If r 1 dividing by (1 r), We get
a a
4) Let the four number in G.P be , , ar, ar3
a(1 r n ) a(r n 1) r 3
r
Sn = , r < 1 (3) Or Sn = , r > 1 (4)
1 r r 1
a a
Formula (3) and (4) are used respectively 5) Let the five numbers in G.P be , , a, ar, ar2
r2 r
When r < 1 and r > 1
HARMONIC SEQUENCE OR HARMONIC PROGESSION
If l depends the last term i.e (H.P): A sequence is said to be a harmonic sequence or a
If l = Tn = arn1 harmonic progression (H.P) if the reciprocals of its terms are in
arithmetic progression.
Then we have.
INFINITE GEOMETRIC SERIES a, (a + d), (a + 2d) - - - {a + (n 1) d} are in A.P
2 3
1) Infinite Geometric progession (G.P) a, ar, ar , ar , - - - 1 1 1 1
, , ,--- are in H.P.
2) Infinite Geometric Series (G.S) a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + - - - a (a + d) (a + 2d) {a + (n 1)d}
3) sum of the infinite Geometric series (s) GENERAL TERM OF AN H.P
a ab
S= Tn =
1r b + (n 1) (a b )
Where a = first term and r = common ratio. Where a = First term
GEOMETRIC MEANS TO INSERT b = second term
1) A single Geometric mean between a and b is G.M =
n = number of terms
ab Tn = nth term = last term
2) n Geometric means between a and b are AN IMPORTANT THEOREM
If Tp =x, Tq = y and Tr = z then

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 1 1 1 2) If A and B are disjoint sets then 0(AUB) = 0(A) +
x y z
0(B).
p q r =0
3) 0 (A B) = 0(A). 0(B)
1 1 1
COUNTING
HARMONIC MEANS A process of determining the number of elements
1) A single harmonic mean between a and b is contained in a set is called counting the symbol 0(A) is used to
denote the number of elements in the set A if A = {1, 2, 3, 4} then
2ab
H.M = 0(A) = 4
a+b
FACTORIAL NOTATION
2) n Harmonic mean between a and b are H1, H2, H3 & H4. The product of first n natural numbers is denoted by n! and is read
(n + 1)ab (n + 1)ab as factorial n.
H1 = H3 = 0! = 1, 1! = 1
a + nb 3a + (n 2)b
2! = 2 1 = 2
(n + 1)ab (n + 1)ab 3! = 3 2 1 = 6
H2 = H4 =
2a + (n 1)b 4a + (n 3 )b 4! = 4 3 2 1 = 24
PERMUTATIONS
The number of the different arrangement that can be form
with r object from a group of ndistinct objects is denoted by,

CHAPTER 07 n
Pr =
n!
(n r )!
n
6
r = 0, Po = 1
n
r = 1, P1 = n
n
r = n, Pn = n!
PERMUTATIONS COMBINATIONS:-
Combinations means all possible selections consisting
COMBINATIONS AND of r-different things, selected from the n-given things
Formula
INTRODUCTION TO n n!
n
Cr = =
PROBABILITY r (n r )! r!
n n
= 1, = 1
BASIC DEFINITION AND FORMULAE 0 n
1) If A and B are two sets (overlapping) then n n
= n, = n
O (AUB) = O (A) + O(B) O(AB). 1 n 1

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GROUPS PERMUTATIONS: The number of groups Theorem 3: If the sets A1, A2. A3 consist of an equal numbers of
permutations of n-objects of which n1 are alike, n2 are alike, n3 elements i.e if r1 = r2 = r3 = r say then the required total number of
are alike - - - nk are alike is given by. 1 (nr )!
mutually disjoint subsets of A1 U A2 U A3 is
n! (r! )n
n n!
P = = SAMPLE SPACE: A set of all sample points or out comes of an
n n n
1 2 3 nk n1 2 3 ! nk!
! n ! n
experiment is called the sample space. It is denoted by S.
Note:-
n = n1 + n2 + - - - nk EVENT: Any subset of sample space is called an event it is
CIRCULAR PERMUTATIONS denoted by A or B or C.
1) The number of permutations of n-objects arranged in THEOREM (PROBABILITY MEASURE): If in a random
circle is (n 1) ! experiment the sample space S consists on n distinct outcomes
or elements which are all equally likely and if A is an event of the
1
2) Necklace or Garland permutations = (n 1)! corresponding sample space consisting of exactly m elements,
2 O( A ) m
Playing cards = 52 then the probability of event A is given by P(A) = =
O( S ) n
Red cards = 26
ADDITION LAW OF PROBABILITY
Black cards = 26
Theorem.1:
Spade (black) = 13
Let A, B S then (Total probability)
Diamond (red) = 13
P(AUB) + P(AB) = P(A) + P(B)
Heart ( red) = 13
Theorem.2
Club (black) = 13 If A and B are any two events then
Face Cards P[(AUB)] = 1 P(AUB)
King = 4 (2 black + 2 red) Theorem.3
Queen = 4 (2 black + 2 red) If A and B be mutually exclusive events i.e if A, B S and
Ace = 4(2 black + 2 red) AB = , then P(AB) = P() = 0 so that P(AUB) = P(A) + P(B)
Jack = 4 (2 black + 2 red)
DIVISION INTO SECTIONS OR PARCELS
Theorem 1: The number of ways of partitioning a set consisting
of (r + s) elements into Pairs of two disjoint subsets such that
one subset consists of r elements and the other of S elements is.
CHAPTER 08
(r + s)!
r! s! MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
INDUCTION
Theorem 2 : Let A1, A2, A3 be matually disjoint sets each
consisting of r1, r2, r3 elements respectively then the total number AND BINOMIAL THEOREM
of mutually disjoint subsets of A1 U A2 U A3 each consisting of r1,
(r + r + r )! BASIC DEFINITION AND FORMULAE
r2, r3 elements is 1 2 3
r1! r2 ! r3 !
Description

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1) Induction is the technique by which we verify the 9) Binomial Coefficient of First term = 1
given proposition for n. where n is the integer. 10) Binomial Coefficient of Second term = n
2) This technique has following steps. n(n 1)
11) Binomial Coefficient of Third term =
STEP NO.1: Denote the proposition by p(n) verify for n = 1. this 2!
step is called condition I. n(n 1)(n 2)
12) Binomial Coefficient of 4th term =
STEP NO.2: Assume that p(n) is true for n = k verify the 3!
proposition for n = k + 1, this step is called condition II. 13) The Middle Terms
1 + 3 + 5 + ---------- + (2n 1) =n 2 i) If n is even then position of middle term = T
L.H.S = Series, R.H.S = sum n+2

Basic formulas 2
Sum of integral powers of natural numbers. ii) If n is odd then position of middle terms
n(n + 1) n + 1 n+3
1) 1 + 2 + 3 + - - - n = n =
2 = T and T
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
2) 1 + 2 + 3 + - - - + n = n = The Binomial theorem for any index.
6 n(n 1) 2 n(n 1)(n 2) 3
2 1) (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x +---
n(n + 1) 2! 3!
3) 13 + 23 + 33 + - - - + n3 = n3 =
2 2) (1 + x)1 = 1 x + x2 x3 + - - -
3) (1 x)1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + - - -
The Binomial Theorem for Positive Power
4) (1 + x)2 = 1 2x + 3x2 4x3 + - - -
1) (a + b)1 = a + b 5) (1 x)2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + - - -
2) (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 6) The general term of (1 + x)n if n is any index
3) (a + 3)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3 [n(n 1)(n 2) (n r + 1)]x r
4) (a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4 Tr + 1 =
r!
n n n APPROXIMATIONS
5) (a + b)n = an + an1 b + an2b2 + an3b3 + - -
1 2 3 n(n 1) 2 n(n 1)(n 2) 3
n 1) (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + ---
+b 2! 3!
6) (a + b)n= an + nC1 an1b + nC2 an2 b2 + nC3 an3 b3 + - - 2) First Approximation, we may omit the terms
-+ bn containing squares and higher powers of x.
n(n 1) n2 2 n(n 1)(n 2) (1 + x)n = 1 + nx
7) (a + b)n = an + nan1b + a b + 3) Second Approximation, we may omit the terms
2! 3! containing cubes and higher powers of x.
an3b3 + - - - + bn
8) The general term of (a + b)n n n(n 1)x 2
(1 + x) = 1 + nx +
2!
n
Tr+1 = anr br = nCr anr br
r

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 radus of length r measured in the same units. Let be the
number of radians in the angle AOB subtended by the arc at the
CHAPTER 09 centre of the circle. Since the length of an arc in a circle is
directly proportional to the measure of its central angle.
we have
s
FUNDAMENTALS
FUNDAMENTAL S OF =
2r 2

TRIGONOMETRY So, S = r
Note: Here r and s are measured in the
same units and is essentially the
number of radians in the central angle.
BASIC FORMULAS AND DIENINITIONS SIGNS OF THE TRIGNOMETRIC FUNCTIONS IN THE FOUR
RELATION BETWEEN RADIAN AND DEGREE MEASURE: In QUADRANTS : Let r be a general angle in the standard position
any circle of radius r units, a central angle of one radian such that p(r) = (x, y) then
intercepts an arc of length r units. Thus an arc length is directly i) If (r) is in the first quadrant, then x > 0, y > 0 so that cos r
proportional to the measure of its central angle, for the arc length > 0 and sin r > 0 Hence tan r cosec r,
1 1 Sec r and cot r are all positive.
r is equal to or of the circumference.
2r 2 ii) If (r) is in the second quadrant we have x < 0 and y > 0.
Therefore an angle of radians will intercept an arc of so sin r and cosec r are both positive while tan r, cot r. cos
length r or half of the circumference. So, r and sec r are negative.
iii) If (r) is in the third quadrant, then x < 0 and y< 0. so that
radians = 180 degrees
tan r and cot r are positive and others are negative.
180 iv) if (r) is in the fourth quadrant. Then x > 0 and y < 0, so
i.e., 1 radian = degrees = 57.3
we have cos r and sec r positive and the others are
negative .
and 1 degree = radians = .01745 radian Figure below gives the signs of all the trigonometric
180
functions in the four quadrants.
The following table shows some common angles measured both
in degrees and radians. If the value of one trigonometric function is knows the
values of the other trigonometric functions can be found.
Degrees 0 30 45 60 90 120 135 150 180 II I
1 1 2 3 5 Sin , Cosec = +ve All + ve
Radians 0 All others = ve
6 4 3 2 3 4 6
III IV
RELATION BETWEEN ARC-LENGTH, RADUS AND
CENTRAL ANGLE. :Consider an arc of length s of a circle with tan , Cot = + ve Cos , Sec = + ve

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 all others = ve All others = ve
BASIC FORMULAS AND DIENINITIONS
By definition of Radian function
2 2
Let P() = (x, y) in a unit circle 1) Cos + Sin = 1
2 2
y 2) 1 + tan = Sec
Where Cos = x Sin = y tan = 3)
2 2
1 + Cot = Cosec
x
Sin
x 1 1 4) tan =
Cot = Sec = Cosec = Cos
y x y
Cos
And x2 + y2 = 1 5) Cot =
Sin
Table
1 1
6) Sin = , Cosec =
0 Co sec Sin
6 4 3 2
1 1
1 1 7) Cos = , Sec =
Sin 0
3
1 Sec Cos
2 2 2 1 1
8) tan = , Cot =
3 1 1 Cot tan
Cos 1 0
2 2 2 9) a2 b2 = (a + b) (a b)
3 3 3
10) a + b = (a + b) 3ab (a + b)
1
tan 0 1 3 11) Distance Formula
3
d= ( x 2 x1)2 + ( y 2 y1 )2
2
Cosec 2 2 1 12) Mid-point formula
3
x + x 2 y1 + y 2
2 M (x, y) = M 1 ,
Sec 1 2 2 2 2
3
13) Isosceles triangle has two sides are equal.
1 14) Equilateral triangle has three sides are equal.
Cot 3 1 0
3 15) Pythagoras theorem,
2 2 2
(Hypotenuse) = (Base) + (Perpendicular)

CHAPTER 10
IDENTITIES
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
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Sum and difference formulas 1
16) Sin ( + ) = Sin Cos + Cos Sin 31) SinCos = [Sin ( + ) + Sin ( )]
2
17) Sin ( ) = Sin Cos Cos Sin
18) Cos ( + ) = Cos Cos sin Sin
19) Cos( ) = Cos Cos + Sin Sin
tan + tan
20) tan ( + ) =
1 tan tan
tan tan
21) tan ( ) =
1 + tan tan
22) Sin2 = 2Sin Cos
Cos2 = 2Cos2 1

23) Cos2 = 1 2Sin2
2 2
Cos2 = Cos Sin

2 tan
24) tan2 =
1 tan2

25) Sin = 2Sin Cos
2 2
()
Cos = Cos2 Sin2
2
(2 )
26)

()
Cos = 2Cos2 1
2


Cos = 1 Sin2
()
2

27) tan =
()
2 tan 2
()
1 tan2 2
Half Angle Formulas
1 Cos
28) Sin =
2 2
1 + Cos
29) Cos =
2 2
1 Cos
30) tan =

2 1 + Cos
Product to Sum formulas

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 1 Perpendicu lar Base
32) CosSin = [Sin ( + ) Sin ( )] Sin = Cos =
2 Hypotenuse Hypotenuse
1 Perpendicular
33) CosCos = [Cos ( ) + Cos ( + )] tan =
2 Base
1 Law of Sines
34) Sin Sin = [Cos ( ) Cos ( + )]
2 Sin Sin Sin a b c
Sum to Product Formulas = = OR = =
a b c Sin Sin Sin
u+v uv
35) Sin u + Sin v = 2Sin Cos Laws of Cosines
2 2
b2 + c 2 a2 c 2 + a2 b2
u+v uv i) Cos = ii) Cos =
36) Sin u Sinv = 2Cos Sin 2bc 2ca
2 2
a2 + b 2 c 2
u+v uv iii) Cos =
37) Cos u + Cos v = 2 Cos Cos 2ab
2 2 OR
u+v uv i) a2 = b2 + c2 2bc Cos ii) b2 = a2 + c2 2ac Cos
38) CosU Cosv = 2 Sin Sin
2 2 2 2 2
iii) c = a + b 2ab Cos
1 Cos LAWS OF TANGENTS:-
tan =
( )
39)

2 Sin ab tan (
2
) bc tan
2

40)

tan =
Sin
1)
a+b
=
tan ( +
2
) 2)
b+c
=
tan ( )
+
2

tan ( )
2 1 + Cos
c a 2
tan( )
3) = +
c+a 2

CHAPTER 12 Theorem:- Sum of the measures of three angles of a triangle is

o
equal to 180 .
OR + + = 180o.
Area of a triangle
SOLUTIONS OF TRIANGLES
TRIANGLES Case I: When the measures of two sides and the measure of the
included angle are given.
1 1 1
= bc sin = ac sin = ab sin
BASIC FORMULAS AND DIENINITIONS 2 2 2
Case II: When the measures of two angles and the measure of
Trigonometric Ratios one side are known.

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 1 2 SinSin 1 2 SinSin ESCRIBED RADIUS
1) = a 2) = b
2 Sin 2 Sin 1) r1 = 2) r2 =
sa sb
1 2 SinSin
3) = c
2 Sin 3) r3 =
sc
Case III: When the measures of three sides are known
= s( s a) (s b) (s c )
Where s = semi Perimeter
a+b+c
CHAPTER 13
S=
2
HALF ANGLE FORMULAE IN TERMS OF a, b, c & s. TRIGONOMETRIC
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
(s b) (s c ) ( s a) ( s c )
1) Sin = 2) Sin = AND TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
EQUATIONS
2 bc 2 ac
( s a ) ( s b) s(s a)
3) Sin = 4) Cos =
2 ab 2 bc BASIC FORMULAS AND DIENINITIONS
s(s b) s(s c )
5) Cos = 6) Cos =
2 ac 2 ab 1) Sin1 + Cos1 = , 1 1
2
( s b) ( s c ) (s a) (s c )
7) tan = 8) tan = 2) Sec1 + Cosec1 = , 1 or 1
2 s(s a) 2 s( s b) 2
( s a ) ( s b) r 1 1
9) tan = 10) tan = 3) tan + Cot = ,<<

2 s( s c )
2 s a 2
r r A +B
11) tan = 12) tan = 4) tan1A + tan1B = tan1
2 sb 2 sc 1 AB
(s a) (s b)(s c ) A B
13) r2 = 5) tan1A tan1 B = tan1
s 1 + AB
CIRCUM RADIUS = R 6) f = {(x, y) / (x, y) R R}
abc 7)
1
f = {(y, x) / (y, x) R R}
R=
4 8) The domain f becomes the range of f
1

IN RADIUS = r 9) The range of f becomes the domain of f1

10)
r=
s function Domain Range

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 arc Sin 1 Sin1

2 2
arc Cos 1 Cos1 0
arc tan R
<<
2 2

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