CHAPTER 1: PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND ASSESSMENT (2) some test administers dont even have to
be present
TESTING AND ASSESSMENT (a) usually administered to larger
Roots can be found in early twentieth century in France 1905 groups
Alfred Binet published a test designed to help place Paris school
(b) test takers complete tasks
children
WW1, military used the test to screen large numbers of recruits independently
quickly for intellectual and emotional problems b) Scoring and interpretation procedures
WW2, military depend more on tests to screen recruits for service (1) score: a code or summary statement,
PSYCHOLOGICAL usually (but not necessarily) numerical in
PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING
ASSESSMENT nature, that reflects an evaluation of
Process of measuring performance on a test, task, interview, or
Gathering & integration of
psychology-related
psychology-related data for some other sample of behavior
variables by means of
DEFINITION the purpose of making a (2) scoring: process of assigning such
devices/procedures
psychological evaluation with evaluative codes/ statements to
designed to obtain a
accompany of tools.
sample of behavior performance on tests, tasks, interviews,
To answer a referral question, or other behavior samples.
To obtain some gauge,
solve problem or arrive at a (3) different types of score:
OBJECTIVE usually numerical in
decision thru the use of tools (a) cut score: reference point,
nature
of evaluation
usually numerical, derived by
Testing may be
PROCESS Typically individualized judgement and used to divide
individualized or group
Key in the process of selecting Tester is not key into the a set of data into two or more
ROLE OF
tests as well as in drawing process; may be classifications.
EVALUATOR
conclusions substituted (i) sometimes reached
SKILL OF Typically requires an educated Requires technician-like without any formal
EVALUATIOR selection, skill in evaluation skills
method: in order to
Entail logical problem-solving
Typically yields a test eyeball, teachers
OUTCOME approach to answer the
score who decide what is
referral ques.
passing and what is
3 FORMS OF ASSESSMENT: failing.
1. COLLABORATIVE PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT assessor and (4) who scores it
assesse work as partners from initial contact through final feedback (a) self-scored by testtaker
2. THERAPEUTIC PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT self-discovery and
(b) computer
new understandings are encouraged throughout the assessment
process (c) trained examiner
3. DYNAMIC PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT follows a model (a) c) psychometric soundness/ technical quality
evaluation (b) intervention (a) evaluation. Provide a means for (1) psychometrics:the science of
evaluating how the assesse processes or benefits from some type of psychological measurement.
intervention during the course of evaluation. (a) referring to to how
consistently and how
Tools of Psychological Assessment
accurately a psychological test
A. The Test (a measuring device or procedure)
measures what it purports to
1. psychological test: a device or procedure designed to measure
measure.
variables related to psychology (intelligence, personality,
(2) utility: refers to the usefulness or
aptitude, interests, attitudes, or values)
practical value that a test or other tool of
2. format: refers to the form, plan, structure, arrangement, and
assessment has for a particular purpose.
layout of test items as well as to related considerations such as
B. The Interview: method of gathering information through direct
time limits.
communication involving reciprocal exchange
a) also referred to as the form in which a test is
1. interviewer in face-to-face is taking note of
administered (pen and paper, computer, etc)
a) verbal language
Computers can generate scenarios.
b) nonverbal language
b) term is also used to denote the form or structure of
(1) body language movements
other evaluative tools, and processes, such as the
(2) facial expressions in response to
guidelines for creating a portfolio work sample
interviewer
3. Ways That tests differ from one another:
(3) the extent of eye contact
a) administrative procedures
(4) apparent willingness to cooperate
(1) some test administers have an active
c) how they are dressed
knowledge
(1) neat vs sloppy vs inappropriate
(a) some test administration
2. interviewer over the phone taking note of
involves demonstration of
a) changes in the interviewees voice pitch
tasks
b) long pauses
(b) usually one-on-one
c) signs of emotion in response
(c) trained observation of
3. ways that interviews differ:
assessees performance
a) length, purpose, and nature
CHAPTER 1: PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND ASSESSMENT
b) in order to help make diagnostic, treatment, 6. interpretive report: a formal or official computer-generated
selection, etc account of test performance presented in both numeric and
4. panel interview narrative form and including an explanation of the findings;
a) an interview conducted with one interviewee with a) the three varieties of interpretive report are
more than one interviewer (1) descriptive
C. The Portfolio (2) screening
1. files of work products: paper, canvas, film, video, audio, etc (3) consultive
2. samples of ones abilities and accomplishments b) some contain relatively little interpretation and
D. Case History Data: records, transcripts, and other accounts in written, simply call attention to certain high, low, or unusual
pictorial or other form that preserve archival information, official and scores that needed to be focused on.
informal accounts, and other data and items relevant to assessee c) consultative report: A type of interpretive report
1. sheds light on an individual's past and current adjustment as designed to provide expert and detailed analysis of
well as on events and circumstances that may have contributed test data that mimics the work of an expert
to any changes in adjustment consultant.
2. provides information about neuropsychological functioning d) integrative report: a form of interpretive report of
prior to the occurrence of a trauma or other event that results psychological assessment, usually computer-
in a deficit. generated, in which data from behavioral, medical,
3. insight into current academic and behavioral standing administrative, and/or other sources are integrated
4. useful in making judgments for future class placements 7. CAPA: computer assisted psychological assessment. (assistance
5. Case history Study: a report or illustrative account concerning to the test user not the test taker)
person or an event that was compiled on the basis of case a) enables test developers to create psychometrically
history data sound tests using complex mathematical procedures
a) might shed light on how one individuals personality and calculations.
and particular set of environmental conditions b) enables test users the construction of tailor-made
combined to produce a successful world leader. test with built-in scoring and interpretive capabilities.
b) groupthink: work on a social psychological c) Pros:
phenomenon: contains rich case history material on (1) test administrators have greater access to
collective decision making that did not always result potential test users because of the global
in the best decisions. reach of the internet.
E. Behavioral Observation: monitoring the actions of others or oneself by (2) scoring and interpretation of test data
visual or electronic means while recording quantitative and/or qualitative tend to be quicker than for paper-and-
information regarding those actions. pencil tests
1. often used as a diagnostic aid in various settings: inpatient (3) costs associated with internet testing tend
facilities, behavioral research laboratories, classrooms. to be lower than costs associated with
2. naturalistic observation: behavioral observation that takes paper-and-pencil tests
place in a naturally occurring setting (as opposed to a research (4) the internet facilitates the testing of
laboratory) for the purpose of evaluation and information- otherwise isolated populations, as well as
gathering. people with disabilities for whom getting
3. in practice tends to be used most frequently by researchers in to a test center might prove as a hardship.
settings such as classrooms, clinics, prisons, etc. (5) greener: conserves paper, shipping
F. Role- Play Tests materials etc.
1. role play: acting an improvised or partially improvised part in a d) Cons:
simulated situation. (1) test client integrity
2. role-play test: tool of assessment wherein assessees are (a) refers to the verification of the
directed to act as if they were in a particular situation. Assessees identity of the test taker when
are then evaluated with regard to their expressed thoughts, a test is administered online
behaviors, abilities, etc (b) also refers to the sometimes
G. Computers as tools varying interests of the test
1. local processing: on site computerized scoring, interpretation, taker vs that of the test
or other conversion of raw test data; contrast w/ CP and administrator. The test taker
teleprocessing might have access to notes,
2. central processing: computerized scoring, interpretation, or aids, internet resources etc.
other conversion of raw data that is physically transported from (c) internet testing is only testing,
the same or other test sites; contrast w/ LP and teleprocessing. not assessment
3. teleprocessing: computerized scoring, interpretation, or other 8. CAT: computerized adaptive testing: an interactive, computer-
conversion of raw test data sent over telephone lines by modem administered test taking process wherein items presented to
from a test site to a central location for computer processing. the test taker are based in part on the test taker's performance
contrast with CP and LP on previous items
4. simple score report: a type of scoring report that provides only a) EX: on a computerized test of academic abilities, the
a listing of scores computer might be programmed to switch from
5. extended scoring report: a type of scoring report that provides testing math skills to English skills after three
a listing of scores AND statistical data. consecutive failures on math items.
H. Other Tools
CHAPTER 1: PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND ASSESSMENT
1. DVD- how would you respond to the events that take place in satisfaction, personal values, quality of living conditions,
the video and quality of friendships and other social support.
a) sexual harassment in the workplace BUSINESS AND MILITARY SETTINGS
b) respond to various types of emergencies GOVERNMENTAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL CREDENTIALING
c) diagnosis/treatment plan for clients on videotape How are Assessments Conducted?
2. thermometers, biofeedback, etc protocol: the form or sheet or booklet on which a testtakers
responses are entered.
TEST DEVELOPER o term might also be used to refer to a description of a set of
They are the one who create tests. test- or assessment- related procedures, as in the
They conceive, prepare, and develop tests. They also find a way to sentence , the examiner dutifully followed the complete
disseminate their tests, by publishing them either commercially or protocol for the stress interview
through professional publications such as books or periodicals. rapport: working relationship between the examiner and the
TEST USER
examinee
They select or decide to take a specific test off the shelf and use it for
some purpose. They may also participate in other roles, e.g., as
examiners or scorers. ASSESSEMENT OF PEOPLE WITH DISABILITITES
TEST TAKER Define who requires alternate assessement, how such assessment are
Anyone who is the subject of an assessment to be conducted and how meaningful inferences are to be drawn
Test taker may vary on a continuum with respect to numerous from the data derived from such assessment
variables including: Accommodation adaptation of a test, procedure or situation or the
o The amount of anxiety they experience & the degree to substitution of one test for another to make the assessment more
which the test anxiety might affect the results suitable for an assesee with exceptional needs.
o The extent to which they understand & agree with the Translate it into Braillee and administere in that form.
rationale of the assessment Alternate assessment evaluative or diagnostic procedure or process
o Their capacity & willingness to cooperate that varies from the usual, customary, or standardized way a
o Amount of physical pain/emotional distress they are measurement is derived either by virtue of some special
experiencing accommodation made to the assesee by means of alternative
o Amount of physical discomfort methods
o Extent to which they are alert & wide awake Consider these four variables on which of many different types of
o Extent to which they are predisposed to agreeing or accommodation should be employed:
disagreeing when presented with stimulus o The capabilities of the assesse
o The extent to which they have received prior coaching o The purpose of the assessment
o May attribute to portraying themselves in a good light o The meaning attached to test scores
Psychological autopsy reconstruction of a deceased individuals o The capabilities of the assessor
psychological profile on the basis of archival records, artifacts, & REFERENCE SOURCES
interviews previously conducted with the deceased assesee TEST CATALOUGES contains brief description of the test
TYPES OF SETTINGS TEST MANUALS detailed information
EDUCATIONAL SETTING REFERENCE VOLUMES one stop shopping, provides detailed
o achievement test: evaluation of accomplishments or the information for each test listed, including test publisher, author,
degree of learning that has taken place, usually with purpose, intended test population and test administration time
JOURNAL ARTICLES contain reviews of the test
regard to an academic area.
ONLINE DATABASES most widely used bibliographic databases
o diagnosis: a description or conclusion reached on the basis
of evidence and opinion though a process of distinguishing TYPES OF TESTS
the nature of something and ruling out alternative INDIVIDUAL TEST those given to only one person at a time
conclusions. GROUP TEST administered to more than one person at a time by
o diagnostic test: a tool used to make a diagnosis, usually to single examiner
identify areas of deficit to be targeted for intervention ABILITY TESTS:
o informal evaluation: A typically non systematic, relatively o ACHIEVEMENT TESTS refers to previous learning (ex.
Spelling)
brief, and off the record assessment leading to the
o APTITUDE/PROGNOSTIC refers to the potential for
formation of an opinion or attitude, conducted by any learning or acquiring a specific skill
person in any way for any reason, in an unofficial context o INTELLIGENCE TESTS refers to a persons general
and not subject to the same ethics or standards as potential to solve problems
evaluation by a professiomal PERSONALITY TESTS: refers to overt and covert dispositions
CLINICAL SETTING o OBJECTIVE/STRUCTURED TESTS usually self-report,
o these tools are used to help screen for or diagnose require the subject to choose between two or more
behavior problems alternative responses
o group testing is used primarily for screening: identifying o PROJECTIVE/UNSTRUCTURED TESTS refers to all
those individuals who require further diagnostic possible uses, applications and underlying concepts of
evaluation. psychological and educational tests
COUNSELING SETTING o INTEREST TESTS
o schools,prisons, and governmental or privately owned
institutions
o ultimate objective: the improvement of the assessee in
terms of adjustment, productivity, or some related
variable.
GERIATRIC SETTING
o quality of life: in psychological assesment, an evaluation
of variables such as perceived stress,lonliness, sources of
CHAPTER 2: HISTORICAL, CULTURAL AND LEGAL/ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE testakers from young children through senior
19TH CENTURY adulthood.
Tests and testing programs first came into being in China B. THE MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY
Testing was instituted as a means of selecting who, of many o Field of psychology was being too test oriented
applicants would obtain government jobs (Civil service) o Clinical psychology was synonymous to mental testing
The job applicants are tested on proficiency in endeavors such as o ROBERT WOODWORTH develop a measure of
music, archery, knowledge and skill etc. adjustment and emotional stability that could be
GRECO-ROMAN WRITINGS (Middle Ages) administered quickly and efficiently to groups of recruits
World of evilness To disguise the true purpose of the test,
Deficiency in some bodily fluid as a factor believed to influence questionnaire was labeled as Personal Data
personality Sheet
Hippocrates and Galen He called it Woodworth Psychoneurotic
RENAISSANCE Inventory first widely used self-report test of
Christian von Wolff anticipated psychology as a science and personality
psychological measurement as a specialty within that science o Self-report test:
CHARLES DARWIN AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Advantages:
Tests designed to measure these individual differences in ability and Respondents best qualified
personality among people Disadvantages:
Origin of Species chance variation in species would be selected or Poor insight into self
rejected by nature according to adaptivity and survival value. One might honestly believe
survival of the fittest something about self that isnt true
FRANCIS GALTON Unwillingness to report seemingly
Explore and quantify individual differences between people. negative qualities
Classify people according to their natural gifts o Projective test: individual is assumed to project onto some
Displayed the first anthropometric laboratory ambiguous stimulus (inkblot, photo, etc.) his or her own
KARL PEARSON unique needs, fears, hopes, and motivations
Developed the product moment correlation technique. Ex.) Rorschack inkblot
o
His work can be traced directly from Galton
C. THE ACADEMIC AND APPLIED TRADITIONS
WILHEM MAX WUNDT
First experimental psychology laboratory in University of Leipzig
Culture and Assessment
Focuses more on relating to how people were similar, not different
from each other.
Culture: the socially transmitted behavior patterns, beliefs, and products of work
JAMES MCKEEN CATELL
f a particular population, community, or group of people
Individual differences in reaction time
Coined the term mental test Evolving Interest in Culture-Related Issues
CHARLES SPEARMAN Goddard tested immigrants and found most to be feebleminded
Originating the concept of test reliability as well as building the -invalid; overestimated mental deficiency, even in native English-
mathematical framework for the statistical technique of factor speakers
analysis Lead to nature-nurture debate about what intelligence tests actually measure
VICTOR HENRI Needed to isolate the cultural variable
Frenchman who collaborated with Binet on papers suggesting how Culture-specific tests: tests designed for use with ppl from one culture, but not
mental tests could be used to measure higher mental processes from another
EMIL KRAEPELIN -minorities still scored abnormally low
Early experimenter of word association technique as a formal test ex.) loaf of bread vs. tortillas
LIGHTNER WITMER today tests undergo many steps to ensure its suitable for said nation
Little known founder of clinical psychology -take testtakers reactions into account
Founded the first psychological clinic in the U.S.
PSYCHE CATELL Some Issues Regarding Culture and Assessment
Daughter of James Cattell Verbal Communication
Cattel Infant Intelligence Scale (CIIS) & Measurement of Intelligence in o Examiner and examinee must speak the same language
Infants and Young Children o Especially tricky with infrequently used vocabulary or
RAYMOND CATTELL unusual idioms employed
Believed in lexical approach to defining personality which examines o Translator may lose nuances of translation or give
human languages for descriptors of personality dimensions unintentional hints toward more desirable answer
20th CENTURY o Also requires understanding of culture
- Birth of the first formal tests of intelligence Nonverbal Communication and Behavior
- Testing shifted to be of more understandable relevance/meaning o Different between cultures
A. THE MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE o Ex.) meaning of not making eye contact
o Binet created first intelligence to test to identify mentally o Body movement could even have physical cause
retarded school children in Paris (individual) o Psychoanalysis: Freuds theory of personality and
o Binet-Simon Test has been revised over again psychological treatment which stated that symbolic
o Group intelligence tests emerged with need to screen significance is assigned to many nonverbal acts.
intellect of WWI recruits o Timing tests in cultures not obsessed with speed
o David Wechsler designed a test to measure adult o Lack of speaking could be reverence for elders
intelligence test Standards of Evaluation
for him Intelligence is a global capacity of the o Acceptable roles for women differ throughout culture
individual to act purposefully, to think rationally o judgments as to who might be the best employee,
and to deal effectively with his environment. manager, or leader may differ as a function of culture, as
Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale might judgments regarding intelligence, wisdom, courage,
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test was revised and other psychological variables
several times and extended the age range of
CHAPTER 2: HISTORICAL, CULTURAL AND LEGAL/ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
o must ask how appropriate are the norms or other The right to be informed of test findings
standards that will be used to make this evaluation o Formerly test administrators told to give participants only
positive information
Tests and Group Membership o No realistic information is required
ex.) must be 54 to be police officer- excludes cultures with short o Tell test takers as little as possible about the nature of their
stature performance on a particular test. So that the examinee
ex.) Jewish lifestyle not well suited for corporate America would leave the test session feeling pleased and statisfied.
affirmative action: voluntary and mandatory efforts to combat o Test takers have the right also to know what
discrimination and promote equal opportunity in education and recommendations are being made as a consequence of the
employment for all test data
Psychology, tests, and public policy The right to privacy and confidentiality
o Private right: recognizes the freedom of the individual to
Legal and Ethical Condiseration pick and choose for himself the time, circumstances, and
Code of professional ethics: defines the standard of care expected of members of particularly the extent to which he wishes to share or
a given profession. withhold from others his attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and
opinions
The Concerns of the Public o Privileged information: information protected by law from
Beginning in world war I, fear that tests were only testing the ability to being disclosed in legal proceeding. Protects clients from
take tests disclosure in judicial proceedings. Privilege belongs to the
Legislation client not the psychologist.
o Minimum competency testing programs: formal testing o Confidentiality: concerns matters of communication
programs designed to be used in decisions regarding outside the courtroom
various aspects of students educations Safekeeping of test data: It is not a good policy
o Truth-in-testing legislation: state laws to provide testtakers to maintain all records in perpetuity
with a means of learning the criteria by which they are being The right to the least stigmatizing label
judged o The standards advise that the least stigmatizing labels
Litigation should always be assigned when reporting test results.
o Daubert ruling made federal judges the gatekeepers to
determining what expert testimony is admitted
o This overrode the Frye policy which only admitted scientific
testimony that had won general acceptance in the scientific
community.
Standard Scores
Standard Score: raw score that has been converted from one scale to another
scale, where the latter has arbitrarily set mean and standard deviation
-used for comparison
Z-score
CHAPTER 4: OF TESTS AND TESTING
Tasks on some tests mimic the actual behaviors that
Some Assumptions About Psychological Testing and Assessment the test user is attempting to understand
- Assumption 1: Psychological Traits and States Exist o Obtained behavior is usually used to predict future behavior
o Trait: any distinguishable, relatively enduring way in which one o Could also be used to postdict behavior to aid in the
individual varies from another understanding of behavior that has already taken place
o States: distinguish one person from another but are relatively o Tools of assessment, such as a diary, or case history data, might
less enduring be of great value in such an evaluation
Trait term that an observer applies, as well as - Assumption 4: Tests and Other Measurement Techniques Have Strengths
strength or magnitude of the trait presumed present and Weaknesses
based on observing a sample of behavior o Competent test users understand a lot about the tests they use
o Trait and state definitions also refer to individual variation How it was developed
make comparisons with respect to the hypothetical average Circumstances under which it is appropriate to
person administer the test
o Samples of behavior: How test should be administered and to whom
Direct observation How results should be interpreted
Analysis of self-report statements o Understand and appreciation limitations for tests they use
Paper-and-pencil test answers - Assumption 5: Various Sources of Error Are Part of the Assessment Process
o Psychological trait covers wide range of possible o Everyday error= misstates and miscalculations
characteristics; ex: o Assessment error= a long-standing assumption that factors
Intelligence other than what a test attempts to measure will influence
Specific intellectual abilities performance on a test
Cognitive style o Error variance: component of a test score attributable to
Psychopathology sources other than the trait or ability measured
o Controversy regarding how psychological tests exist Assessees themselves are sources of error variance
Psychological tests exist only as constructs: an o Classical test theory (CTT)/ True score theory: assumption is
informed, scientific concept developed or made that each testtaker has a true score on a test that would
constructed to describe or explain a behavior be obtained but for the action of measurement error
Cant see, hear or touch infer existence - Assumption 6: Testing and Assessment Can Be Conducted in a Fair and
from overt behavior: refers to an Unbiased Manner
observable action or the product of an o Court challenged to various tests and testing programs have
observable action, including test- or sensitized test developers and users to the societal demand for
assessment-related responses fair tests used in a fair manner
o Traits not expected to be manifested in behavior 100% of the Publishers strive to develop instruments that are fair
time when used in strict accordance with guidelines in the
Seems to be rank-order stability in personality test manual
traits relatively high correlations between trait o Fairness related problems/questions:
scores at different time points Culture is different from people whom the test was
o Whether and to what degree a trait manifests itself is intended for
dependent on the strength and nature of the situation Politics
- Assumption 2: Psychological Traits and States Can Be Quantified and - Assumption 7: Testing and Assessment Benefit Society
Measured o Many critical decisions are based on testing and assessment
o After acknowledged that psychological traits and states do exist, procedures
the specific traits and states to be measured need to be defined
What types of behaviors are assumed to be WHATS A GOOD TEST?
indicative of trait? - Criteria
Test developer has to provide test users with a clear o Clear instruction for administration, scoring, and interpretation
operational definition of the construct under study - Reliability
o After being defined, test developer considers types of item o A good test/measuring tool reliable
content that would provide insight into it Involves consistency: the prevision with which the
Ex: behaviors that are indicative of a particular trait test measures and the extent to which error is
o Should all questions be weighted the same? present in measurements
Weighting the comparative value of a tests items Unreliable measurement needs to be avoided
comes about as the result of a complex interplay - Validity
among many factors: o Test is considered valid if it doesnt indeed measure what it
Technical considerations purports to measure
The way a construct has been defined (for o If there is controversy over the definition of a construct then the
particular test) validity is sure to be criticized as well
Value society (and test developer) attach o Questions regarding validity focus on the items that collectively
to behaviors evaluated make up the test
o Need to find appropriate ways to score the test and interpret Adequately sample range of areas to measure
results construct
Cumulative scoring: test score is presumed to Individual items contribute to or take away from
represent the strength of the targeted ability or trait tests validity
or state o Validity may also be questioned on grounds related to the
The more the testtaker responds in a interpretation of test results
particular direction (as keyed by test - Other Considerations
manual) the higher the testtaker is o Good test one that trained examiners can administer, score
presumed to possess the targeted trait or and interpret with minimum difficulty
ability Useful
- Assumption 3: Test-Related Behavior Predicts Non-Test-Related Behavior Yields actionable results that will ultimately benefit
o Objective of test is to provide some indication of some aspects individual testtakers or society at large
of the examinees behavior
CHAPTER 4: OF TESTS AND TESTING
o Purpose of test compare performance of testtaker with o STANDARD ERROR OF THE DIFFERENCE estimate how
performance of other testtakers (contains adequate norms: large a difference between two scores should be before
normative data) the difference is considered statistically significant
Normative data provides standard with which results - Developing norms for a standardized test
measured can be compared o Establish a standard set of instructions and conditions
NORMS under which the test is given makes scores of normative
- Norm-referenced testing and assessment: method of evaluation and sample more comparable with scores of future testtakers
a way of deriving meaning from test scored by evaluating an o All data collected and analyzed, test developer will
individual testtakers score and comparing it to scores of a group of summarize data using descriptive statistics (measures of
testtakers central tendency and variability)
- Meaning of individual score is relative to other scores on the same Test developer needs to provide precise
test description of standardization sample itself
- Norms (scholarly context): usual, average, normal, standard, expected Descriptions of normative samples vary widely
or typical in detail
- Norms (psychometric context): the test performance data of a Tracking
particular group of testtakers that are designed for use as a reference - Comparisons are usually with people of the same age
when evaluating or interpreting individual test scores - Children at the same age level tend to go through different growth
- Normative sample: group of people whose performance on a patterns
particular test is analyzed for reference in evaluation the performance - Pediatricians must know the childs percentile within a given age
of individual testtakers group
o Yields a distribution of scores - This tendency to stay at about the same level relative to ones peers is
- Norming: refers to the process of deriving norms; particular type of known as tracking (ie height and weight)
norm derivation - Diets may alter this track
o Race norming: controversial practice of norming on the - Faults: some believe there is an analogy between the rates of physical
basis of race or ethnic background growth and the rates of intellectual growth
- Norming a test can be very expensive user norms/program norms: o Some say that children learn at different rates
consist of descriptive statistics based on a group of testtakers in a o This system discriminates against some children
given period of time rather than norms obtained by form sampling
methods TYPES OF NORMS
- Sampling to Develop Norms o Classification of norms ex: age, grade, national, local,
- Standardization: process of administering a test to a representative percentile, etc.
sample of testtakers for the purpose of establishing norms o PERCENTILES
o Standardized when has clear, specified procedures Median= 2nd quartile: the point at or below which
- Sampling 50% of the scores fell and above which the remaining
o Developer targets defined group as population test 50% fell
designed for Might wish to divide distribution of scores into
All have at least one common, observable deciles (instead of quartiles): 10 equal parts
characteristic The Xth percentile is equal to the score at or below
o To obtain distribution of scores: which X% of scores fall
Test administered to everyone in targeted Percentile: an expression of the percentage of
population people whose score on a test or measure falls below
Administer test to a sample of the population a particular raw score
Sample: portion of universe of Percentage correct: refers to the
people deemed to be representative distribution of raw scores (number of
of whole population items that were answered correctly)
Sampling: process of selecting the multiplied by 100 and divided by the total
portion of universe deemed to be number of items *not same as percentile
representative of whole Percentile is a converted score that refers
o Subgroups within a defined population may differ with to a percentage of testtakers
respect to some characteristics and it is sometimes Percentiles are easily calculated popular way of
essential to have these differences proportionately organizing test related data
represented in sample Using percentiles with normal distribution real
Stratified sampling: sample reflects statistics of differences between raw scores may be minimized
whole population; helps prevent sampling bias near the ends of the distribution and exaggerated in
and ultimately aid in interpretation of findings the middle (worsens with highly skewed data)
Purposive sampling: arbitrarily select sample o AGE NORMS
we believe to be representative of population Age-equivalent scores/age norms: indicate the
Incidental/convenience sampling: sample that average performance of different samples of
is convenient or available for use testtakers who were at various ages at the time the
Very exclusive (contain exclusionary test was administered
criteria) Age norm tables for physical
- TYPES OF STANDARD ERROR: characteristics
o STANDARD ERROR OF MEASUREMENT estimate the Mental age vs. physical age (need to
extent to which an observed score deviates from a true identify mental age)
score o GRADE NORMS
o STANDARD ERROR OF ESTIMATE In regression, an Grade norms: designed to indicate the average test
estimate of the degree of error involved in predicting the performance of testtakers in a given school grade
value of one variable from another Developed by administering the test to
o STANDARD ERROR OF THE MEAN a measure of sampling representative samples of children over a
error range of consecutive grades
Mean or median score for children at
each grade level is calculated
CHAPTER 4: OF TESTS AND TESTING
Great intuitive appeal CORRELATION
Do not provide info as to the content or Degree and direction of correspondence between two things.
type of items that a student could or Correlation coefficient (r) expresses a linear relationship between
could not answer correctly two continuous variables
Developmental norms: (ex: grade norms and age o Numerical index that tells us the extent to which X and Y
norms) term applied broadly to norms developed on are co-related
the basis of any trait, ability, skill, or other Positive correlation: high scores on Y are associated with high scores
characteristic that is presumed to develop, on X, and low scores on Y correspond to low scores on X
deteriorate, or otherwise be affected by Negative correlation: higher scores on Y are associated with lower
chronological age, school grade, or stage of life scores on X, and vise versa
o NATIONAL NORMS No correlation: the variables are not related
National norms: derived from a normative sample -1 to 1
that was nationally representative of the population Correlation does not imply causation.
at the time the norming study was conducted o Ie weight, height, intelligence
o NATIONAL ANCHOR NORMS
Many different tests purporting to measure the same PEARSON r
human characteristics or abilities Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient
National anchor norms: equivalency tables for scores Devised by Karl Pearson
on tests that purpose to measure the same thing Relationship of two variables are linear and continuous
Could provide the tool for comparisons Coefficient of Determination (r2) indication of how much variance is
Provides stability to test scores by shared by the X and the Y variables
anchoring them to other test scores SPEARMAN RHO
Begins with the computation of percentile Rank order correlation coefficient
norms for each test to be compared Developed by Charles Spearman
Equipercentile method: equivalency of Used when the sample size is small and when both sets of
scores on different tests is calculated with measurements are in ordinal form (ranking form)
reference to corresponding percentile BISERIAL CORRELATION
scores expresses the relationship between a continuous variable and an
o SUBGROUP NORMS artificial dichotomous variable
Normative sample can be segmented by an criteria o If the dichotomous variable had been true then we would
initially used in selecting subjects for sample use the point biserial correlation
Subgroup norms: result of segmentation; more o When both variables are dichotomous and at least one of
narrowly defined the dichotomies is true, then the association between
o LOCAL NORMS them can be estimated using the phi coefficient
Local norms: provide normative info with respect to o If both dichotomous variables are artificial, we might use a
the local populations performance on some test special correlation coefficient tetrachoric correlation
Typically developed by test users
themselves REGRESSION
- Fixed Reference Group Scoring Systems analysis of relationships among variables for the purpose of
o Norms provide context for interpreting meaning of a test score understanding how one variable may predict another
o Fixed reference group scoring system: distribution of scored
SIMPLE REGRESSION: one IV (X) and one DV (Y)
obtained on the test from one group of testtakers (fixed
- Regression line: defined as the best-fitting straight line through a set
reference group) is used as the basis for the calculation of test
of points in a scatter diagram
scores for future administrators on the test
o Found by using the principle of least squares, which
Ex: SAT test (developed in 1962)
minimizes the squared deviation around the regression
NORM-REFERENCED VERSUS CRITERION-REFERENCED EVALUATION
line
- Way to derive meaning from test score is to evaluate test score in
Primary use: To predict one score or variable from another
relation to other scores on same test (Norm-referenced)
Standard error of estimate: the higher the correlation between X and
- Criterion-referenced: derive meaning from a test score by evaluating
Y, the greater the accuracy of the prediction and the smaller the SEE.
it on the basis of whether or not some criterion has been met
MULTIPLE REGRESSION: The use of more than one score to predict Y.
o Criterion: a standard on which a judgment or decision may
be based Regression coefficient: (b) slope of the regression line
- Criterion-referenced testing and assessment: method of evaluation o Sum of squares for the covariance to the sum of squares
and way of deriving meaning from test scores by evaluating an for X
individuals score with reference to a set standard (ex: to drive must o Sum of squares is defined as the sum of the squared
past driving test) deviations around the mean
o Derives from values and standards of an individual or o Covariance is used to express how much two measures
organization covary, or vary together
o Also called Domain/content-referenced testing and Slope describes how much change is expected in Y each time X
assessment increases by one unit
o Critique: if followed strictly, important info about Intercept (a) is the value of Y when X is 0
individuals performance relative to others can be o The point at which the regression line crosses the Y axis
potentially lost THE BEST-FITTING LINE
Culture and Inference The difference between the observed and predicted score (Y-Y) is
- Culture is a factor in test administration, scoring and interpretation called the residual
- Test user should do research in advance on tests available norms to The best-fitting line is most appropriately found by squaring each
check how appropriate it is for targeted testtaker population residual
o Helpful to know about the culture of the testtaker Best-fitting line is obtained by keeping these squared residuals as
small as possible
CORRELATION AND INFERENCE o Principle of least squares:
Correlation is a special case of regression in which the scores for both
variables are in standardized, or Z, units
CHAPTER 4: OF TESTS AND TESTING
In correlation, the intercept is always 0 - Third variable, ie poor social adjustment, causes TV viewing and
Pearson product moment correlation coefficient is a ratio used to aggression
determine the degree of variation in one variable that can be - External influence is the third variable
estimated from knowledge about variation in the other variable Restricted Range
Testing the Statistical Significance of a Correlation Coefficient - Correlation and regression use variability on one variable to explain
- Begin with the null hypothesis that there is no relationship between variability on a second variable
variables - Restricted range problem: correlation requires variability; if the
- Null hypothesis rejected is there is evidence that the association variability is restricted, then significant correlations are difficult to
between two variables is significantly different from 0 find
- t distribution is not a single distribution, but a family of distributions, Mulvariate Analysis
each with its own degrees of freedom - Multivariate analysis considers the relationship among combinations
- Degrees of freedom are defined as the sample size minus 2, or N-2 of three of more variables
- Two-tailed test General Approach
- Linear combination of variables is a weighted composite of the
How to Interpret a Regression Plot original variables
- Regression plots are pictures that show the relationship between - Y = a+b1X1 + bkXk
variables
- Common use of correlation is to determine the criterion validity
evidence for a test, or the relationship between a test score and
some well-defined criterion
- Middle level of enjoyableness because it is the one observed most
frequently normative because it uses info gained from
representative groups
- Using the test as a predictor is not as good as perfect prediction, but
it is still better than using the normative info
- A regression line such as in 3.9 shows that the test score tells us
nothing about the criterion beyond the normative info
All share interactionism: complex concept by which heredity and Measuring Intelligence
environment are presumed to interact and influence the
development of ones intelligence Types of Tasks Used in Intelligence Test
Factor-analytic theories: focus is squarely on identifying the Infants: test sensorimotor, interviews with parents
ability(ies) deemed to constitute intelligence Older child: verbal and performance abilities
Information-processing theories: focus is on identifying the specific Mental Age: index that refers to chronological age equivalent to
mental processes that constitute intelligence. ones test performance
Adults: retention of general information, quantitative reasoning,
Factor-Analytic Theories of Intelligence: expressive language and memory, and social judgment
Charles Spearman: pioneered new techniques to measure Theory in Intelligence Test Development and Interpretation
intercorrelations between tests. Weschler made a dichotomous test (Performance and Verbal), but
o Existence of a general intellectual ability factor (g) that advocated multifaceted definition
tapped by all other mental abilities. Thorndike: intelligence = social, concrete, abstract
g representing the portion of the variance that all intelligence tests Putting theories into test are extremely hard
have in common and the remaining portions of the variance being
accounted for either by specific components (s) or by error Intelligence: Some Issues:
components (e) Nature vs. Nurture
greater g = better test was thought to predict overall intelligence Currently believed to be mix of two
CHAPTER 9: INTELLIGENCE AND ITS MEASUREMENT
Performationism: all structures, including intelligence are had at birth
and cant be improved upon
Led to predeterminism: ones abilities are predetermined by genetic
inheritance and no learning or intervention can enhance it
Interactionist: ppl inherit certain intellectual potential
o Theres a limit to genetic abilities (i.e. cant ever have x-ray
vision)
The Stability of Intelligence
Stable pretty much throughout ones adult life
Cognitive abilities seem to decline with age
The Construct Validity of Tests of Intelligence
Having construct validity requires having unified understanding of
what intelligence is
Very difficult. Spearman says its one thing, Guilford says its many
Thorndike approach is sort of compromise
o Look for one central factor with three additional factors
representing social, concrete, and abstract intelligences
Other Issues
Flynn effect: IQ scores seem to rise every year, but not coupled with
rise in true intelligence
Personality
o High IQ: Need for achievement, competition, curiosity,
confidence, emotional stability etc.
o Low IQ: passivity, dependence, maladjustment
o Temperament (used to describe infants)
Gender
o Men usually outscore in visual spatialization tasks and
intelligence scores
o Women tend to outscore in language-skill tasks
o But differences can be bridged
Family Environment
o Divorce can have negative effects
o Begins with maternal effects in womb
Culture
o Provides specific models for thinking, acting and feeling
o Assumed that if cultural factors can be controlled then
differences between cultural groups will be lessened
o Assumed that culture can be removed by the reliance on
exclusively nonverbal tasks
Tend not to be very good at predicting success
in various academic and business settings
o Culture loading: the extent to which a test incorporates
the vocabulary, concepts, traditions, knowledge and
feelings associated with a particular culture
o No test can be culture free
o Culture-fair intelligence test: test/assessment process
designed to minimize the influence of culture with regard
to various aspects of evaluation procedure
o Another approached called for cultural-specific intelligence
tests
Ex.) BITCH measured streetwiseness
Lacked predictive validity and useful, practical
information
CHAPTER 10: TESTS OF INTELLIGENCE
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales Other Measures of Intelligence
First to have detailed administration and scoring instructions Tests Designed for Individual Administration
First American test to test IQ Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test
First to use alternate items (an item that can be used in place of Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test
another) Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children
Lacked minority group representation Away from information processing and towards a distinction
Ratio IQ=(mental age/chronological age)x100 between sequential and simultaneous processing
Deviation Ratio/test composite: performance of one individual Tests Designed for Group Administration
compared to the performance of others of the same age. Has Group Testing in the Military
mean of 100 and standard deviation of 16 o WWI need for government to test intelligence as
Age scale: items grouped by age means of differentiating unfit and exceptionally
Point scale: items organized by category superior ability
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales: Fifth Edition o Army Alpha Test: to army recruits who could read.
Measures fluid intelligence, crystallized knowledge, quantitative Included general information questions, analogies, and
knowledge, visual-processing, and short-term (working) memory scrambled sentences to reassemble
Utilizes adaptive testing: testing individually tailored to testtakers o Army Beta Test: to foreign or illiterate recruits,
to ensure that items are neither too difficult (frustrating) or too included mazes, coding, and picture completion.
easy (false hope) o After the war, the alpha and beta test were used
Examiner establishes rapport with testtaker, then administers rampantly, and oftentimes misused
routing test to direct, route examinee to test items most likely at o Screening tools: instrument of procedure used to
optimal level of difficulty identify a particular trait or constellation of traits
Teaching items: show testtaker what is expected, how to do it. o ASVAB (Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery):
o Can be used for qualitative assessment, but not scoring administered to prospective to recruits or high school
Subtests for verbal and nonverbal tests share same name, but students looked for career guidance
involve different tasks 5 career areas: clerical, electronics,
Floor: lowest level of items on subtest mechanical, skill-technical, and combat
operations
Ceiling: highest-level item of subtest
Group Testing in Schools
Basal level: base-level criterion that must be met for testing on
o Useful in developing childs profile- but cannot be sole
the subtest to continue
indicator
Ceiling level is met when testtaker fails certain number of items in
o Groups of 10-15
a row. Test discontinues here.
o Starting in Kindergarten
Scores: raw standard composite
o Also called traditional group testing, because more
Extra-test behavior: behavioral observation
modern forms can utilize computer. These more aptly
The Wechsler Tests
called individual testing
-commonality between all versions: all yield deviation IQs with mean of 100
Measures of Specific Intellectual Abilities
and standard deviation of 15
Widely used intelligence tests only test a sampling of the many
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV)
attributable factors aiding in intelligence
Core subtest: administered to obtain a composite score
Ex.) Creativity
Supplemental/Optional Subtest: provides additional clinical
o Commonly thought to be composed of originality,
information or extending the number of abilities or processes
fluency, flexibility, and elaboration
sampled.
o If the focus is too heavily on whether an answer is
Yields four index scores: Verbal Comprehension Index, a Working correct, doesnt allow for creativity
Memory Index, a Perceptual Reasoning Index, and a Processing o Achievement tests require convergent thinking:
Speed Index deductive reasoning process that entails recall and
The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) consideration of facts as well as a series of logical
Process score: index designed to help understand how testtakers judgments to narrow down solutions and eventually
process various kinds of information arrive at one solution
WISC-IV compared to the SB5 o Divergent thinking: a reasoning process in which
The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Third Edition thought is free in many different directions, making
(WPPSI-III) several solutions possible
New school for children under 6 Associated words, uses of rubber band etc.
First major intelligence test which adequately sampled total Test-retest reliability for some of these tests
population of the United States are near unacceptable
Subtests labeled core, supplemental, or optional
Wechsler, Binet, and the Short Form
Short form: test that has been abbreviated in length to reduce
time needed to administer, score and interpret
used with caution, only for screening
provide only estimates
reducing the number of items usually reduces reliability and thus
validity
Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence
The Wechsler Test in Perspective
Factor Analysis
o Exploratory factor analysis: summarizing data when
we are not sure how many factors are present in our
data
o Confirmatory factor analysis: used to test highly
specific factor analysis
CHAP.11: Other Individual Tests of Ability in Education and Special
Education Bayley Scales of Infants and Toddler Development Third Edition (BSID-III)
- Base assessments on normative maturational developmental data
Alternative Individual Ability Tests Compared with the Binet and Wechsler - Designed for infants between 1 and 42mths
Scales - Assesses development across 5 domains: cognitive, language,
- None of these are clearly superior from a psychometric motor, socioemotional, and adaptive
standpoint - Motor scale: assumes that later mental functions depend on
- Some less stable, most more limited in their documented validity motor development
- Compare poorly to Binet and Wechsler on all accounts - Excellent standardization
- They don't rely on a verbal response as much as the B and W - Generally positive reviews
- Just use pointing or Yes/No responses, thus do not depend on the - Strong internal consistency
complex integration of visual and motor functioning - More validity studies needed
- Contain a performance scale or subscale - Widely used in research children with Down syndrome,
- Their specificity often limits the range of functions or abilities that pervasive developmental disorders, cerebral palsy, language
they can measure impairment, etc
- Because they are designed for special populations, some - Most psychometrically sound test of its kind
alternatives can be administered totally without the verbal - Predictive though?
instructions Cattell Infant Intelligence Scale (CIIS)
- Based on normative developmental data
Specific Individual Ability Tests - Downward extension of Stanford-Binet scale for 2-30mth olds
- Earliest individual tests typically designed for specific purposes or - Similar to Gesell scale
populations - Rarely used today
- One of the first Seguin Form Board Test in 1800s produced - Sample is primarily based on children of parents from lower and
only a single score middle classes and therefore does not represent the general
o Used primarily to evaluate mentally retarded adults population
and emphasized speed and performance - Unchanged for 60yrs
- After, the Healy-Fernald Test was developed as an exclusively - Psychometrically unsatisfactory
nonverbal test for adolescent delinquents
- Knox developed a battery of performance tests for non-English Major Tests for Young Children
adult immigrants to the US administered without language; McCarthy Scales of Childrens Abilities (MSCA)
speed not emphasized - Measure ability in children between 2-8yrs
- These early individual tests designed for specific populations, - Present a carefully constructed individual test of human ability
produced a single score, and had nonverbal performance scales - Meager validity
- Could be administered without visual instructions and used with - Produces a pattern of scores as well as a variety of composite
children as well as adults scores
Infant Scales - General cognitive index (CGI): standard score with a mean of 100
- Where mental retardation or developmental delays are and a standard deviation of 16
suspected, these tests can supplement observation, genetic o Index reflects how well the child has integrated prior
testing, and other medical procedures learning experiences and adapted them to the
Brazelton Neonatal Assessment Scale (BNAS) demands of the scales
- Individual test for infants between 3days and 4weeks - Relatively good psychometric properties
- Purportedly provides an index of a newborns competence - Reliability coefficients in the low .90s
- Favorable reviews - In research studies
- Considerable research base - Good validity? Good assessment tool
- Wide use as a research tool and as a diagnostic tool for special Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children - Second Edition (KABC-II)
purposes - Individual ability test for children between 3-18yrs
- Commonly used scale for the assessment of neonates - 18 subtests in 5 global scales called sequential processing,
- Drawbacks: simultaneous processing, learning, planning, and knowledge
o No norms are available - Intended for psychological, clinical, minority-group, preschool,
o More research is needed concerning the meaning and and neuropsychological assessment as well as research
implication of scores - Sequential-simultaneous distinction
o Poorly documented predictive and construct validity o Sequential processing refers to a childs ability to solve
o Test-retest reliability leaves much to be desired problems by mentally arranging input in sequential or
Gesell Developmental Schedules (GDS) serial order
- Infant intelligence measures o Simultaneous processing refers to a childs ability to
- Used as a research tool by those interested in assessing infant synthesize info from mental wholes in order to solve a
intellectual development after exposure to mercury, diagnoses of problem
abnormal brain formation in utero and assessing infants with - Nonverbal measure of ability too
autism - Well constructed and psychometrically sound
- Children of 2.3mth to 6.3yrs - Not much evidence of (good) validity
- Obtains normative data concerning various stages in maturation - Poorer predictive validity for school achievement smaller
- Individuals developmental quotient (DQ) is determined differences between whites and minorities
according to a test score, which is evaluated by assessing the - Test suffers from a noncorrespondence between its definition and
presence or absence of behavior associated with maturation its measurement of intelligence
- Provides an intelligence quotient like that of the Binet
o (development quotient / chronological age) x 100 General Individual Ability Tests for Handicapped and Special Populations
- But, falls short of acceptable psychometric standards Columbia Mental Maturity Scale Third Edition (CMMS)
- Standardization sample not representative of the population - Purports to evaluate ability in normal and variously handicapped
- No reliability or validity children from 3-12yrs
- Does appear to help uncover subtle deficits in infants - Requires neither a verbal response nor fine motor skills
- Requires subject to discriminate similarities and differences by Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities (ITPA-3)
indicating which drawing does not belong on a 6-by-9inch card - Assumes that failure to respond correctly to a stimulus can result
containing 3-5 drawings not only from a defective output system but also from a defective
- Multiple choice input or information-processing system
- Standardization sample is impressive - Stage 1: info must first be received by the senses before it can be
- Vulnerable to random error analyzed
- Reliable instrument that is useful in assessing ability in many - Stage 2: info is analyzed or processed
people with sensory, physical, or language handicaps - Stage 3: with processed info, individual must make a response
- Good screening device - Theorizes that the child may be impaired in one or more specific
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test Fourth Edition (PPVT-IV) sensory modalities
- 2-90yrs - 12 subtests that measure individuals ability to receive visual,
- multiple choice tests that require subject to indicate Yes/No in auditory, or tactile input independently of processing and output
some manner factors
- Instructions administered aloud (not for the deaf) - purports to help isolate the specific site of a learning disability
- Purports to measure hearing or receptive vocabulary, presumably - For children 2-10yrs
providing a nonverbal estimate of verbal intelligence - Early versions hard to administer and no reliability or validity
- Can be done in 15mins, requires no reading ability - Now, with revisions, ITPA-3 psychometrically sound measure of
- Good reliability and validity childrens psycholinguistic abilities
- Should never be used as a substitute for a Wechsler or Binet IQ Woodcock-Johnson III
- Important component in a test battery or used as a screening - Evaluates learning disabilities
device - Designed as a broad-range individually administered test to be
- Easy to administer and useful for variety of groups used in educational settings
- BUT: Tendency to underestimate IQ scores, and problems - Assesses general intellectual ability, specific cognitive abilities,
inherent in the multiple-choice format are bad scholastic aptitude, oral language, and achievement
Leiter International Performance Scale Revised (LIPS-R) - Based on the CHC three-stratum theory of intelligence
- Strictly a performance scale - Compares childs score on cognitive ability with sore on
- Aims at providing a nonverbal alternative to the Stanford-Binet achievement can evaluate possible learning problems
scale for 2-18yr olds - Relatively good psychometric properties
- For research, and clinical settings, where it is still widely utilized to - For learning disability tests, three conclusions seem warranted:
assess the intellectual function of children with pervasive o 1. Test constructors appear to be responding to the
developmental disorders same criticisms that led to changes in the Binet and
- Purports to provide a nonverbal measure of general intelligence Wechsler scales and ultimately to the development of
by sampling a wide variety of functions from memory to the KABC
nonverbal reasoning o 2. Much more empirical and theoretical research is
- Can be applied to the deaf and language-disabled needed
- Untimed o 3. Users or learning disabilities tests should take great
- Good validity pains to understand the weaknesses of these
Porteus Maze Test (PMT) procedures and not overinterpret results
- Popular but poorly standardized nonverbal performance measure Visiographic Tests
of intelligence - Require a subject to copy various designs
- Individual ability test Benton Visual Retention Test Fifth Edition (BVRT-V)
- Consists of maze problems (12) - Tests for brain damage are based on the concept of psychological
- Administered without verbal instruction, thus used for a variety of deficit, in which a poor performance on a specific task is related to
special populations or caused by some underlying deficit
- Needs restandardization - Assumes that brain damage easily impairs visual memory ability
Testing Learning Disabilities - For individuals 8yrs+
- Major concept is that a child average in intelligence may fail in - Consists of geometric designs briefly presented and then removed
school because of a specific deficit or disability that prevents - Computerized version developed
learning Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test (BVMGT)
- Federal law entitles every eligible child with a disability to a free - Consists of 9 geometric figures that the subject is imply asked to
appropriate public education and emphasizes special education copy
and related services designed to meet his or her unique needs - By 9yrs, any child of normal intelligence can copy the figures with
and prepare them for further education, employment, and only one or two errors
independent living - Errors occur for people whose mental age is less than 9, brain
- To qualify, child must have a disability and educational damage, nonverbal learning disabilities, emotional problems
performance affected by it - Questionable reliability
- Educators today can find other ways to determine when a child Memory-for-Designs (MFD) Test
needs extra help - Drawing test that involves perceptual-motor coordination
- Processed called Response to Intervention (RTI): premise is that - Used for people 8-60yrs
early intervening services can prevent academic failure for many - Good split-half reliability
students with learning difficulties - Needs for validity documentation
- Signs of learning problem: - All these tests criticized because of their limitations in reliability
o Disorganization and validity documentation
o Careless effort - Good as screening devices though
o Forgetfulness Creativity: Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT)
o Refusal to do schoolwork or homework - Measurement of creativity underdeveloped in psychological
o Slow performance testing
o Poor attention - Creativity: ability to be original, to combine known facts in new
o Moodiness ways, or to find new relationships between known facts
- Evaluating this a possible alternative to IQ
- Creativity tests in early stages of development
- Torrance tests separately measure aspects of creative thinking - Avoid overinterpreting test scores
such as fluency, originality, and flexibility Be Especially Suspicious of Low Scores
- Does not meet the Binet and Wechsler scales in terms of - Assume that subjects understand purpose of testing, want to succeed,
standardization, reliability, or validity and are equally rested/free of stress
- Unbiased indicator of giftedness Consider Wide Discrepancies a Warning Signal
- Inconsistent tests, but available data reflect the tests merit and - May reflect emotional problems or severe stress
fine potential When in Doubt, Refer
Individual Achievement Tests: Wide Range Achievement Test-3 (WRAT-4) - With low scores, discrepancies, etc, refer the subject for individual
- Achievement tests measure what the person has actually acquired testing
or done with that potential - Get trained professional
- Discrepancies between IQ and achievement have traditionally Group Tests in the Schools: Kindergarten Through 12th Grade
been the main defining feature of a learning disability - Purpose of tests is to measure educational achievement in
- Most achievement tests are group tests schoolchildren
- WRAT-4 purportedly permits an estimate of grade-level Achievement Tests verses Aptitude Tests
functioning in word reading, spelling, math computation, and - Achievement tests attempt to assess what a person has learned
sentence comprehension following a specific course of instruction
- Used for children 5yrs+ o Evaluate the product of a course of training
- Easy to administer o Validity is determined primarily by content-related evidence
- Problems: - Aptitude tests attempt to evaluate a students potential for learning
o Inaccuracy in evaluating grade-level reading ability rather than how much a student has already learned
o Not proven as psychometrically sound o Evaluate effects of unknown and uncontrolled experiences
o Validity is judged primarily on its ability to predict future
CHAP: 12: Standardized Tests in Education, Civil Service, and the Military performance
- Intelligence test measures general ability
- When justifying the use of group standardized tests, test users often - These three tests are highly interrelated
have problems defining what exactly they are trying to predict, or what Group Achievement Tests
the test criterion is - Stanford Achievement Test one of the oldest of the standardized
Comparison of Group and Individual Ability Tests achievement tests widely used in school system
- Individual tests require a single examiner for a single subject - Well-normed and criterion-referenced, with psychometric
o Examiner provides instructions documentation
o Subject responds, examiner records response - Another one is the Metropolitan Achievement Test, which measures
o Examiner evaluates response achievement in reading by evaluating vocab, word recognition, and
o Examiner takes responsibility for eliciting a maximum reading comprehension
performance - Both of these are reliable and normed on big samples
o Scoring requires considerable skill Group Tests of Mental Abilities (Intelligence)
- Those who use the results of group tests must assume that the subject Kuhlmann-Anderson Test (KAT) 8th Edition
was cooperative and motivated - KAT is a group intelligence test with 8 separate levels covering
o Many subjects tested at a time kindergarten through 12th grade
o Subjects record own responses - Items are primarily nonverbal at lower levels, requiring minimal reading
o Subjects not praised for responding and language ability
o Low scores on group tests often difficult to interpret - Suited to young children and those who might be handicapped in
o No safeguards following verbal procedures
Advantages of Individual Tests - Scores can be expressed in verbal, quantitative, and total scores
- Provide info beyond the test score - Scores at other levels can be expressed at percentile bands: like a
- Allow the examiner to observe behavior in a standard setting confidence interval; provides the range of percentiles that most likely
- Allow individualized interpretation of test scores represent a subjects true score
Advantages of Group Tests - Good construction, standardization, and other excellent psychometric
- Are cost-efficient qualities
- Minimize professional time for administration and scoring - Good validity and reliability
- Require less examiner skill and training - Potential for use and adaptation for non-English-speaking individuals or
- Have more objective and more reliable scoring procedures even countries needs to be explored
- Have especially broad application Henmon-Nelson Test (H-NT)
Overview of Group Tests - Of mental abilities
Characteristics of Group Tests - 2 sets of norms available:
- Characterized as paper-and-pencil or booklet-and-pencil tests because o one based on raw score distributions by age, the other on
only materials needed are a printed booklet of test items, a test raw scores distributions by grade
manual, scoring key, answer sheet, and pencil - reliabilities in the .90s
- Computerized group testing becoming more popular - helps predict future academic success quickly
- Most group tests are multiple choice some free response - does NOT consider multiple intelligences
- Group tests outnumber individual tests Cognitive Abilities Test (COGAT)
o One major difference is whether the test is primarily verbal, - Good reliability
nonverbal, or combination - Provides three separate scores though: verbal, quantitative, and
- Group test scores can be converted to a variety of units nonverbal
Selecting Group Tests - Item selection is superior to the H-NT in terms of selecting minority,
- Test user need never settle for anything but well-documented and culturally diverse, and economically disadvantaged children
psychometrically sound tests - Can be adopted for use outside the US
Using Group Tests - No cultural bias
- Reliable and well standardized as the best individual tests - Each of the subtests required 32-34 minutes of actual working time,
- Validity data for some group tests are weak/meager/contradictory which the manual recommends to be spread out over 2-3 days
Use Results with Caution - Standard age scores averaged some 15pts lower for African American
- Never consider scores in isolation or as absolutes students on the verbal battery and quantitative batteries
- Be careful using tests for prediction
Summary of K-12 Group Tests - Definite overall decline in verbal scores while quantitative and
- All are sound, viable instruments analytical scores are gradually rising