Boiler Construction

Basic Boiler Construction

Introduction

A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The heated or vaporized fluid
exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating application.

Components

Steam drum
In the early designs the drums were riveted or solid forged from a single ingot, but for modern
boilers the drum is generally fabricated from steel plate of differing thicknesses and welded.
The materials used are governed by classification society rules. Test pieces must be provided.
The cylindrical drum is normally constructed from four plates. Two dished End plates, a thick
wall tube plate (thicker to accommodate the holes drilled in it without increased stress) and
completed with a thinner wrapper plate. Construction takes the form of rigidly clamping the
descaled, bent wrapper and tube plates together. In addition, test pieces cut from the original
material are attached to the construction in such away that the longitudinal weld extends
either sided of the join. These pieces are later removed and shaped test shapes cut out from
specified areas including across the weld. The longitudinal weld is critical (taking twice the
circumferential stress) and is normally carried out by specialised automatic machinery using
submerged arc techniques. The dished end pieces are accurately aligned and welded. On
completion the construction is cleaned and non-destructive testing- such as x-ray photography,
carried out. Final machining is carried out and any stub pieces and doublers attached. The now
complete drum is heat treated at 600 to 650'C. The final process is hydraulic testing to
classification requirements. Natural circulation within a boiler is due to the differing specific
gravities of the water at the differing temperatures, the steam drum provides a reservoir of
cool water to give the gravitational head necessary for natural circulation. Cool water entering
the steam drum via the feed lines provides the motive effect for the circulation distributing it to
the down comers. Also the space within the drum provides for the separation of the steam and
water emulsions formed in the water walls and the generating tubes. Water droplets entrained
with the separated steam are removed by separating components fitted in the drum as well as
the perforated baffle plates fitted at the water line. The space above the water line provides for
a reserve steam space needed to maintain plant stability during manoeuvring conditions. Also
fitted are the chemical injection distributing pipe and the scuming plate. The smaller the drum
is made, the less thickness of material that is required. However, the limitation to how small is
that sufficient space must be allowed for the separation of water from the steam before
passing out to the super-heater space otherwise dryers must be used. Also, due to the smaller
reserve of water, larger fluctuations in water level occur during manoeuvring.
Water drum
Distributes feed water from the down comers to the headers and generating tubes. Provides a
space for accumulating precipitates and allows them to be blown down. Water drum size is
limited to that required to receive the generating tubes, for modern radiant heat boilers with
only a single bank of screen tubes and no generating tubes between the drums, the water drum
has been replaced by a header and the down comers fed straight to the water wall headers.
With system blow down is done at the steam drum. Too small a water drum can cause
problems of maintaining ideal water level and little steam reserve.

Headers
These have a similar purpose to the water drum but are smaller in size. Due to their reduced
size they may have a square cross section without resorting to exceptional thickness.

Generating tubes
Consists of a large number of small diameter tubes in the gas flow, more commonly found in
boilers of an older design for roof fired boilers the generating bank may consist of one or two
rows of close pitched tubes. For a modern radiant heat boiler, the generating bank has been
omitted to allow the replacement of the water drum by a distribution header, a bare tube
economiser is fitted generating 5% of the steam capacity. The generation bank is normally
heated by convection rather than radiant heat. For a set water circulation, the tube diameter is
limited to a minimum as the ratio of steam to water can increase to a point where the
possibility of overheating could occur due to the lower heat capacity of the steam. The number
of tubes is limited to prevent undercooling of the gas flow leading to dew point corrosion.

Screen tubes
These are larger bore tubes receiving the radiant heat of the flame and the convective heat of
the hot gasses. The large diameter keeps the steam/water ratio down hence preventing
overheating. There main duty is to protect the super-heater from the direct radiant heat. On a
modern marine radiant heat boiler, the screen wall is formed out of a membrane wall.

Water wall tubes

Contains the heat of the heat of the furnace so reducing the refractory and insulation
requirements. Comes in three designs;

1. Water cooled with refractory covered studded tubes

2. Close pitched exposed tubes
3. Membrane Wall

Down comers
These are large diameter unheated i.e. external to the furnace, their purpose is to feed water
from the steam drum to the water drum and bottom headers.

Riser/Return tubes
These return steam from the top water wall headers to the steam drum.

Super-heater tubes
These are small diameter tubes in the gas flow after the screen tubes. Due to the low specific
heat capacity of the saturated steam they require protection from overheating in low steam
flow conditions, say when flashing.

Super-heater support tubes

These are large diameter tubes designed to support part of the weight of the super-heater bank
of tubes.

Water-tube Boilers
The construction of water-tube boilers, which use small-diameter tubes and have a small drum,
enable the generation or production of steam at high temperatures and pressures. The weight
of the boiler is much less than an equivalent fire tube boiler and the steam raising process is
much quicker. Design arrangements are flexible, efficiency is high and the feed water has a
good natural circulation. These are some of the many reasons why the water-tube boiler has
replaced the fire tube boiler as the major steam producer.

Modern D-type boilers have generating, superheating, feed and air heating surfaces in
percentage areas and position in the boilers to suit the required operating conditions.
In the middle sixties practically all new vessels were propelled by diesel machinery. Reliable
slow speed diesel engines were available which, burning heavy fuel, were economical, and
being less complicated than a corresponding steam plant, were more easily automated.

The closure of the Suez Canal, however, caused tanker owners to consider the economies of
transporting crude oil in greater bulk and this resulted in the design of 200,000 dwt tankers
requiring 20,000 k W for propulsion. Such powers were higher than normally available from the
oil engines of that period, and presented a great opportunity for the revival of steam
propulsion. Boiler and turbine designers took advantage of the situation with the result that
steam was once more adopted for the higher powers.

In the constant quest for lower overall costs, including initial and operating costs, turbine
machinery installations have been designed with a single boiler for propulsion purposes. This
generally being supplemented by some form of auxiliary power as a get you home device, in
the event of complete boiler failure.

The single boilers of such installation have, of necessity, to be as reliable as possible, and at the
same time, must be capable of operating for long periods between shut downs for cleaning
operations, etc.
The single boilers of such installation have, of necessity, to be as reliable as possible, and at the
same time, must be capable of operating for long periods between shut downs for cleaning
operations, etc.

Features embodied in boilers for this service include:

(a) Large furnaces with conservative heat release rates and ample flame clearances.
(b) Furnaces completely water-walled either with membrane-type walls or closely pitched tubes
to cut down brickwork maintenance.
(c) Roof firing to give a more uniform heat release and improved gas flow through the boiler.
(d) Super heaters in lower temperature gas zones shielded from the furnace.
(e) Improved forms and materials for super heater supports.
(f) Improved methods of superheat control.
(g) Improved soot blowing arrangements.

An early development in water-tube boilers was bent tube design. This boiler has two drums,
an integral furnace and is often referred to as the D type because of its shape. The furnace is
at the side of the two drums and is surrounded on all sides by walls of tubes. These water wall
tubes are connected either to upper and lower headers or a lower header and the steam drum.
Upper headers are connected by return tubes to the steam drum. Between the steam drum
and the smaller water drum below, large numbers of smaller-diameter generating tubes are
fitted.
These provided the main heat transfer surfaces for steam generation. Large-bore pips or down
comers are fitted between the steam and water drum to ensure good natural circulation of the
water. In the arrangement shown, the super heater is located between the drums, protected
from the very hot furnace gases by several rows of screen tubes. Refractory material or
brickwork is used on the furnace floor, the burner wall and also behind the water walls. The
doubling casing of the boiler provides a passage for the combustion air to the air control or
register surrounding the burner.

The early version of the D-type boiler were an important advance in their time but changes in
refining methods and crude from various sources produced residual type fuel oils which began
to reveal their shortcomings. The furnaces, being small and employing large amounts of
refractory, operated at very high temperature. Flame impingement was not unknown and
conditions generally for the refractories were severe and resulted in high maintenance.
Refractories broke down requiring replacement. They were frequently covered in glass-like
deposits, and on the furnace floor thick vitreous accumulation often required the use of road
drill for removal.

In the super heater zone the products of combustion were still at high temperature and
deposits from impurities in the fuel condensed out on the tubes, reducing heat transfer and
steam temperature. Eventually, gas passages between the tubes would become so badly
blocked that the forced draught fans would be unable to supply sufficient air to the burners,
combustion became impaired and the fouling conditions accelerated. Sodium and vanadium
compounds present in the deposits proved very corrosive to super heater tubes causing
frequent repeated failure. Due to the fouled condition there was a loss of efficiency and
expensive time-consuming cleaning routines were required.

The need for a wider range of superheated steam temperature control led to other boiler
arrangements being used. The original External Super heater D (ESD) type of boiler used a
primary and secondary super heater located after the main generating tube bank. An
attemperator located in the combustion air path was used to control the steam temperature.

The later ESD II type boiler was similar in construction to the ESD I but used a control unit (an
additional economiser) between the primary and secondary super heaters. Linked dampers
directed the hot gases over the control unit or the super heater depending upon the superheat
temperature required. The control unit provided a bypass path for the gases when less
superheating was required.

In the ESD II boiler the burners are located in the furnace roof, which provides a long flame path
and even heat transfer throughout the furnace. In the boiler shown above, the furnace is fully
water-cooled and of monowall construction, it is produced from finned tubes welded together
to form a gastight casing. With monowall construction no refractory material is necessary in the
furnace.

The furnace side, floor and roof tubes are welded into the steam and water drums. The front
and rear walls are connected at either end to upper and lower water-wall headers. The lower
water-wall headers are connected by external down comers from the steam drum and the
upper water-wall headers are connected to the steam drum by riser tubes

The gases leaving the furnace pass through screen tubes which are arranged to permit flow
between them. The large number of tubes results in considerable heat transfer before the
gases reach the secondary super heater. The gases then flow over the primary super heater and
the economiser before passing to exhaust. The dry pipe is located in the steam drum to obtain
reasonably dry saturated steam from the boiler. This is then passed to the primary super heater
and then to the secondary super heater. Steam temperature control is achieved by the use of
an attemperator. Located in the steam drum, operating between the primary and secondary
super heaters.

Radiant-type boilers are a more recent development, in which the radiant heat of combustion is
required to raise steam being transmitted by infra-red radiation. This usually required roof
firing and a considerable height in order to function efficiently. The ESD IV boiler, shown above,
is of the radiant type. Both the furnace and the outer chamber are fully water-cooled. There is
no conventional bank of generating tubes. The hot gases leave the furnace through an opening
at the lower end of the screen wall and pass to the outer chamber. The outer chamber contains
the convection heating surfaces which include the primary and secondary super heaters.
Superheat temperature control is by means of an attemperator in the steam drum. The hot
gases, after leaving the primary super heater, pass over a steaming economiser. This is a heat
exchanger in which the steam-water mixture is flowing parallel to the gas. The furnace gases
finally pass over a conventional economiser on their way to the funnel.

Reheat boilers are used with reheat arranged turbine systems. Steam after expansion in the
high-pressure turbine is returned to a reheater in the boiler. Here the steam energy content is
raised before it is supplied to the low-pressure turbine. Reheat boilers are based on boiler
designs such as the D type or the radiant type.
Fire tube Boilers

The fire tube boilers is usually chosen for low-pressure steam production on vessels requiring
steam for auxiliary purposes and in these cases water tube boilers can improve uneconomic.
Operation is simple and feed water of medium quality may be employed. The name tank
boiler is sometimes used for fire tube boilers because of their large water capacity. The terms
smoke tube and donkey boiler are also in use.

Of the variety proprietary designs of fire tube or tank type boiler, many are composite,
including sections for diesel exhaust gas heat recovery as well as for direct firing. In the Cochran
boiler (above), the products of combustion and exhaust gases pass through separate sets of
tubes immersed in the boiler water. These tubes are expanded into tube plates which form part
of the boiler pressure shells. With the Aalborg AQ5 the gas streams pass horizontally over the
outside of vertical tubes expanded into tube plates forming part of the boiler pressure vessel, in
such a way that boiler water flows upwards throughout the tubes. Large down comer tubes
complete the circulation system.
A G Weser produced a boiler unit where the products of combustion pass through tubes
surrounded by boiler water whilst diesel exhaust passes over tubes through which boiler water
passes. A design similar in principle came from Howaldtswerke.

The Sun rod oil fired boiler combines a fire tube and a water-tube by arranging the latter inside
the former. The water-tube surface is extended by having steel pins electric resistance welded
on its outer surface. The furnace is arranged either as a water cooled shell with a refractory
floor or as a completely water cooled shell. In the largest sizes the furnace walls are of water-
tube construction. In each case a number of fire tubes of large diameter extend upwards from
the furnace top to a tube plate forming the top pressure shell. Inside each of these is arranged
a water-tube with extended surface. The top and bottom of each is connected through the wall
of its fire tube into the water space of the boiler.
Boiler Mountings
Definition
Various valves and fittings are required for the safe and proper working of a boiler. Those
attached directly to the pressure parts of the boiler are referred to as the boiler mountings.
Minimum requirements for boiler mountings

Two safety valve's

One steam stop valve
Two independent feed check
Two water gauge or equivalent
One pressure gauge
One salinometer valve or cock
One blowdown/scum valve
One low level fuel shut off device and alarm

Functions

SAFETY VALVE
Protect the boiler from over pressurization. DTI require at least two safety valve's but normally
three are fitted, two to the drum and one to the super-heater. The super-heater must be set to
lift first to ensure a flow of steam through the super-heater. These must be set to a maximum
of 3% above approved boiler working pressure.

MAIN STEAM STOP

Mounted on super-heater outlet header to enable boiler to be isolated from the steam line if
more than one boiler is connected. Valve must be screw down non return type to prevent back
flow of steam from other boiler into one of the boilers which has sustained damage (burst tube
etc.) valve may be fitted with an emergency closing device.

AUXILLIARY STOP VALVE

Similar to main stops but connected to the auxiliary steam line

FEED CHECK VALVE'S

a SDNR valve so that if feed pump stops the boiler water will be prevented from blowing out
the boiler. The main check is often fitted to the inlet flange of the economiser if no economiser
fitted then directly connected to the boiler. The Auxiliary feed check is generally fitted directly
to an inlet flange to the drum with crossovers to the main feed line. Usually fitted with
extended spindles to allow remote operation which must have an indicator fitted.

WATER GAUGES
Usual practice is to fit two direct reading and at least one remote for convenient reading.
PRESSURE GAUGES
Fitted as required to steam drum and super-heater header

SALINOMETER COCKS OR VALVE'S

Fitted to the water drum to allow samples to be taken. Cooling coil fitted for high pressure
boilers.

BLOWDOWN COCK
Used to purge the boiler of contaminants. Usually two valve's fitted to ensure tightness. These
valve's lead to an overboard valve.

SCUM VALVE
These are fitted where possibility of oil contamination exists. They are designed to remove
water and/or contaminants at or close to normal working level.
Reference:

Steam Plant Operation, Ninth Edition by Everett B. Woodruff; Herbert B. Lammers; Thomas F.
Lammers

The National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors

The International Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, ASME

Definition boilers
A - scan - In ultrasonic testing, a method of data presentation on a CRT with the horizontal baseline indicating distance or time
and the vertical deflections from the baseline indicating amplitude of the ultrasonic reflection.

A.S.M.E. American Society of Mechanical Engineers Founded in 1880, ASME is a 120,000member professional
organization focused on technical, educational and research issues of the engineering and technology community. ASME sets
internationally recognized industrial and manufacturing codes and standards that enhance public safety.

A.S.T.M. American Society of Test and Materials one of the largest voluntary standards development organizations in the
world and a trusted source for technical standards for materials, products, systems, and services. Known for their high technical
quality and market relevancy, ASTM International standards have an important role in the information infrastructure that
guides design, manufacturing and trade in the global economy.

Absolute pressure - The pressure above zero pressure, equal; to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure absorbed to total
heat input. This does not include heat loss from the boiler shell.

ACCUMULATOR - (STEAM) A pressure vessel containing water and/or steam, which is used to store the heat of steam for use at
a late period and at some lower pressure.

Acid cleaning - The process of cleaning the interior surfaces of steam-generating units by filling the unit with a dilute acid
accompanied by an inhibitor to prevent corrosion and by subsequently draining, washing, and neutralizing the acid by a further
wash of alkaline water.

Acidity - Represents the amount of free carbon dioxide, mineral acids, and salts (especially sulfates or iron and aluminum)
which hydrolyze to give hydrogen ions in water; is reported as milli-equivalents per liter of acid, or ppm acidity as calcium
carbonate, or pH, the measure of hydrogen ion concentration.

ADIABATIC FLAME TEMPERATURE - The theoretical temperature that would be attained by the products of combustion
provided the entire chemical energy of the fuel, the sensible heat content of the fuel and combustion above the datum
temperature were transferred to the products of combustion. This assumes: No heat loss to surroundings and no dissociation.

AFUE Annual Fuel Usage Efficiency. Ratio of annual output of useful energy or heat to annual energy input to heater. Only
heat leaving as hot water is deemed usage and calculated as part of space heating efficiency.

AFUE- Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency, a standard government rating for energy Efficiency.

Agglomeration- Groups of fine dust particles clinging together to form a larger particle.

AIR - The mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, and other gases, which with varying amounts of water vapor, forms the atmosphere of
the earth.

AIR ATOMIZING OIL BURNER - A burner for firing oil in which the oil is atomized by compressed air, which is forced into and
through one or more streams of oil which results in the breaking of the oil into a fine spray.

Air Bleed- Device to let air out from a radiator or another high point.

Air Conditioner - a device used to decrease the temperature and humidity of air which moves through it.

AIR DEFICIENCY - Insufficient air, in an air-fuel mixture, to supply the oxygen required for complete oxidation of the fuel. Air
heater or air preheater - Heat-transfer apparatus through which air is passed and heated by a medium of higher temperature,
such as the products of combustion or steam.

AIR INFILTRATION - The leakage of air into a setting or duct.

Air purge - The removal of undesired matter by replacement with air.

Air separator -Connects to the cold feed and expansion on open systems.

AIR VENT - A valved opening in the top of the highest drum of a boiler or pressure vessel for venting air.

AIR, SATURATED - Air which contains the maximum amount of water vapor that it can hold at its temperature and pressure.
Air-atomizing oil burner - A burner for firing oil in which the oil is atomized by compressed air which is forced into and through
one or more streams of oil, breaking the oil into a fine spray.

AIR-FREE- The descriptive characteristic of a substance from which air has been removed.

Air-fuel ratio - The ratio weight, or volume, of air to fuel.

ALARM - A suitable horn, bell, light or other device which when operated will give notice of malfunction or off normal
condition.

Alkalinity - The amount of carbonates, bicarbonates, hydroxides, and silicates or phosphates in the water; reported as grains
per gallon, or parts per million as calcium carbonate.

Allowable working pressure - The maximum pressure for which the boiler was designed and constructed; the maximum gauge
pressure on a complete boiler; and the basis for the setting on the pressure relieving devices protecting the boiler.

Alloy- Material having metallic properties with two or more elements.

AMBIENT AIR - The air that surrounds the equipment. The standard ambient air for performance calculations is air at 80 F, 60%
relative humidity, and a barometric pressure of 29.921 in. Hg, giving a specific humidity of 0.013 lb of water vapor per lb of dry
air.

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE- The temperature of the air surrounding the equipment.

Amplitude - In ultrasonic testing, the vertical pulse height of a signal, usually base to peak, when indicated by an A-scan
presentation.

ANALYSIS- Quantitative determination of the constituent parts.

ANALYSIS, ULTIMATE - Chemical analysis of solid, liquid or gaseous fuels. In the case of coal or coke, determination of carbon,
hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, and ash.

Anode Rod- a sacrificial metal used to protect against corrosion in a hot water heater.

API American Petroleum Institute.

AQUASTAT a thermostat that measures the temperature of water and opens or closes a circuit.

AQUASTAT- Water limit temperature control, a safety device often used on boilers.

Arc Welding A group of welding processes wherein coalescence is produced by heating with an electric arc.

Ash pan: A container beneath the furnace, catching ash and clinker that falls through the fire bars. This may be made of
brickwork for a stationary boiler, or steel sheet for a locomotive. Ash pans are often the location of the damper. They may also
be shaped into hoppers, for easy cleaning during disposal.

ARRESTER - A device to impede the flow of large dust particles or sparks from a stack, usually screening at the top.

AS-FIRED FUEL - Fuel in the condition as fed to the fuel burning equipment. ASH- The incombustible inorganic matter in the
fuel.

ASH the solid residue of combustion. The chemical composition of an ash depends on the substance burned. Wood ash
contains metal carbonates (e.g., potassium carbonate) and oxides formed from metals originally compounded in the wood.

ASH PIT - A pit or hopper located below a furnace where refuse is accumulated and from which refuse is removed at intervals.

Ash Pit - The ash pit is the space where ashes accumulate under the fire. The ashes fall through the fire grate into a (often)
removable box.

ASH-FREE BASIS - The method of reporting fuel analysis, whereby ash is deducted and other constituents are recalculated to
total 100%.
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

ASPIRATING BURNER - A burner in which the fuel in a gaseous or finely divided form is burned in suspension, the air for
combustion being supplied by bringing into contact with the fuel, air drawn through one or more openings by the lower static
pressure created by the velocity of the fuel stream.

AS-RECEIVED FUEL - Fuel in the condition as received at the plant.

As-Welded The condition of weld metal prior to any mechanical treatment.

ATMOSPHERIC AIR- Air under the prevailing atmospheric conditions.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE - The barometric reading of pressure exerted by the atmosphere. At sea level 14.7 lb per sq in. or
29.92 in. of mercury.

Atomization - The process whereby a volume of liquid is converted into a multiplicity of small drops. The principal goal is to
produce a high surface area to mass ratio so that the liquid will vaporize quickly and thus be susceptible to combustion.

Atomizer- A device by means of which a liquid is reduced to a very fine spray.

Atomizer - part of an oil gun which breaks up the fuel oil flow into tiny particles by both mechanical means the use of an
atomizing medium. The oil and atomizing medium mix together in the atomizer and then flow to the oil tip to be discharged
into the furnace.

Attemperator- Apparatus for reducing and controlling the temperature of a super heater vapor or of a fluid.

Audible sound - Vibrations in a gas, liquid, or solid with components falling in the frequency range of 16Hz to 20Hz.

Automatic lighter or igniter - A means for starting ignition of fuel without manual intervention. Usually applied to liquid,
gaseous, or pulverized fuel.

Automatic Welding -Welding with equipment which performs the welding operation without adjustment of the controls by a
welding operator.

AVAILABILITY FACTOR - The fraction of time during which the unit is in operable condition.

Available draft - The draft which may be utilized to cause the flow of air for combustion or the flow of products for combustion.

AWWA American Water Works Association.

AXIAL FAN - Consists of a propeller or disc type of wheel within a cylinder that discharges air parallel to the axis of the wheel.

Back Gouging The removal of weld metal by arc gouging or grinding from the other side of a partially welded joint to assure
complete penetration upon subsequent welding from that side.

Backing ring - A strip of thin plate used on the inner surfaces of the abutting ends of pipe, tubes, or plates which are butt-
welded. Its purpose is to prevent irregularities at the base weld and to permit penetration at its root.

BAFFLE - A plate or wall for deflecting gases or liquids.

BAFFLE TILE - A tile for deflecting gases.

BAFFLE-TYPE COLLECTOR - A device in gas paths utilizing baffles so arranged as to deflect dust particles out of the gas stream.

Bag - A deep bulge in the bottom of the shell or furnace of a boiler.

BAG FILTER - A device containing one or more cloth bags for recovering particles from the dust laden gas or air which is blown
through it.

BAG-TYPE COLLECTOR - A filter in which the cloth filtering medium is made in the form of cylindrical bags.

Balanced draft - The maintenance of a fixed value of draft in a furnace at all combustion rates by control of incoming air and
outgoing products of combustion.
Balanced Flue-A natural draft room sealed appliance.

BAROMETER device for measuring atmospheric pressure.

BAROMETRIC PRESSURE - Atmospheric pressure as determined by a barometer usually expressed in inches of mercury.

Barrel - The cylindrical portion of a fire tube boiler shell that surrounds the tubes.

BASE LOAD - Base load is the term applied to that portion of a station or boiler load that is practically constant for long periods.

Base Metal-The material to be welded.

Baseboard Heating - heating elements around the perimeter of a room used to give off heat produced by hot water circulating
through them.

BEADED TUBE END - The rounded exposed end of a rolled tube when the tube metal is formed over against the sheet in which
the tube is rolled.

Beta Ratio - For a single orifice the beta ratio is the ratio of the orifice bore diameter to that of the upstream pipe diameter.
However, since in burner designs typically there is more than one orifice at a riser pipe exit, the beta ratio is equal to the square
root of the ratio between total area of the fuel ports to that of the upstream pipe area.

Bias - The output plus (or minus) some arbitrary value.

Black light - In magnetic particle inspection, light in the near ultraviolet range of wavelengths, just shorter than visible light.

Blast furnace gas - Lean combustible by-product gas resulting from burning coke with a deficiency of air in a blast furnace.

BLIND NIPPLE- A nipple, or a short piece of pipe or tube, closed at one end.

Blowback - The number of pounds per square inch of pressure drop in a boiler from the point where the safety valve pops to
the point where the safety valve reseats.

Blowback ring - An adjustable ring in a safety valve, used to control the amount of blowback.

BLOWDOWN - Boiler water that is removed from the boiler in order to maintain the desired concentration levels of suspended
and dissolved solids in the boiler and removal of sludge.

Blowdown - The drain connection including the pipe and the valve at the lowest practical part of a boiler, or at the normal
water level in the case of a surface blowdown. The amount of water blown down.

Blow-down cock: a valve mounted low-down on the boiler, often around the foundation ring, which is used to periodically vent
water from the boiler. This water contains the most concentrated precursors for sludge build-up, so by venting it whilst still
dissolved, the build-up is reduced. When early marine boilers were fed with salt water, they would be blown-down several
times an hour.

BLOWDOWN SAFETY VALVE - The difference between the pressure at which a safety valve opens and at which it closes.

BLOWDOWN VALVE - A valve generally used to continuously regulate concentration of solids in the boiler, not a drain valve.
(Often called continuous blowdown.)

BLOW DOWN SAFETY VALVE - The difference between the pressure at which a safety valve opens and at which it closes.

BLOWER - A fan used to force air under pressure. Blower- a unit used with a furnace to circulate air through a network of
ducts.

BLOW-OFF VALVE - A specially designed, manually operated, valve that connects to the boiler for the purpose of reducing the
concentration of solids in the boiler or for draining purposes. (Often called bottom blowdown.)

BOILER - A closed vessel in which water is heated, steam is generated, steam is superheated, or any combination thereof, under
pressure or vacuum by the application of heat from combustible fuels, electricity or nuclear energy.
Boiler - a heating unit that uses water (or steam) circulated throughout the home in a system of baseboard heating units,
radiators, and/or in-floor radiant tubing.

BOILER - an enclosed vessel in which water is heated and circulated under pressure, either as hot water or as steam, for heating
or power. Boiler-An appliance to heat water (heat generator).

BOILER EFFICIENCY - The Term Boiler efficiency" is often substituted for combustion or thermal efficiency. True boiler efficiency
is the measure of fuel-to-steam efficiency.

Boiler header (box)- A pressure part of the boiler consisting of a flat tube sheet into which the ends of the water tubes are
rolled. In a parallel plane is a tube cap or hand hole sheet. The two sheets are spaced about 4 to 8 in. or more apart. The top
and bottom and both ends are flanged together and riveted or may be closed by a narrow flanged strip of plate riveted to each
sheet. Circulating nipples connect the top of the header and drum, or the header may be flanged and riveted directly to the
drum. Welding would be used today instead of rivets.

Boiler Heads- The end plates of the boiler.

Boiler horsepower - The evaporation of 34 lbs. of water per hour from a temperature of 212oF into dry saturated steam at
the same temperature. Equivalent to 33,475 Btu.

Boiler Jacket - is an insulating layer around the entire boiler. Typically, an insulating material such as hair, plaster, mud, wood or
more recently fibreglass wool is sandwiched between the boiler plate and a thin metal sheet. The jacket keeps the boiler warm
reducing lost heat.

BOILER RATING- The heating capacity of a boiler expressed in boiler horsepower, Btu/hour, or pounds of steam/hour.

BOILER SHELL- The outer cylindrical portion of a pressure vessel.

Boiler suit: heavy-duty one-piece protective clothing, worn when inspecting the inside of a firebox for steam leaks, for which
task it is necessary to crawl through the fire hole door.

Boiler ticket: the safety certificate issued for a steam (locomotive) boiler on passing a formal inspection after a major rebuild,
and generally covering a period of ten years. Additional annual safety inspections must also be undertaken, which may result in
the locomotive being withdrawn from service if the boiler requires work. When the ticket "expires" the locomotive cannot be
used until the boiler has been overhauled or replaced, and a new ticket obtained.

Boiler water - A term construed to mean a representative sample of the circulating boiler water, after generated steam has
been separated and before the incoming feed water or added chemical becomes mixed with it so that its composition is
affected. (ASTM - D860)

Boiler, high-pressure, steam or vapor - A boiler in which steam or vapor is generated at a pressure exceeding 15 psig.

Boiler, hot-water-heating - A boiler in which no steam is generated and from which hot water is circulated for heating purposes
and then returned to the boiler.

Boiler, hot-water-supply - A boiler functioning as a water heater.

Boiler, low-pressure-steam or vapor - A boiler in which steam or vapor is generated at a pressure not exceeding 15 psig.

Boiling- The conversion of a liquid into vapor with the formation of bubbles.

BOILING OUT - The boiling of highly alkaline water in boiler pressure parts for the removal of oils, greases, etc.

BOOSTER FAN- A device for increasing the pressure or flow of a gas.

Bourdon tube - A hollow, metallic tube, bent semicircular, which forms the actuating medium of a pressure gauge.

Breeching - A duct for transport of the products of combustion between parts of a steam-generating unit to the stack.

BREECHING - A duct that transports the products of combustion between parts of a steam generating unit or to the stack.
Brick arch - A horizontal baffle of firebrick within the furnace, usually of a locomotive boiler. This forces combustion gases from
the front of the furnace to flow further, back over the rest of the furnace, encouraging efficient combustion. The invention of
the brick arch, along with the blast pipe and forced draught, was a major factor in allowing early locomotives to begin to burn
coal, rather than coke.

Bridge wall - A wall in the furnace over which the products of combustion pass.

Brinell test - A hardness test performed by pressing a steel ball of standard hardness into a surface by a standard pressure.

BRITISH THERMAL UNIT (Btu) - The mean British Thermal Unit is 1/180 of the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of
water from 32 F to 212 F at a constant atmospheric pressure. A Btu is essentially 252 calories.

Brittle - A metal is brittle when it permits little or no plastic deformation prior to fracture.

BTU British Thermal Unit. Energy required to heat one pound of water from 59 F to 60 F. 1 BTU = .000293 KWh (Kilowatt
Hour).

Btu (British Thermal Unit) - A standard measure of energy in the British unit system. 1 Btu is the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of a liquid by 1 degree.

BTU/h- (British Thermal Units per hour) a standard rating for heat transfer capacity.

Buck stay - A structural member placed against a furnace or boiler wall to limit the motion of the wall against furnace pressure.

BUCK STAY- A structural member placed against a furnace or boiler wall to restrain the motion of the wall.

Bulge - A local distortion or swelling outward caused by internal pressure on a tube wall or boiler shell due to overheating. Also
applied to similar distortion of a cylindrical furnace due to external pressure when overheated, provided the distortion is of a
degree that can be driven back.

Bunker C oil - Residual fuel oil (no. 6 fuel oil) of high viscosity commonly used in marine and stationary steam power plants.

BURNER - A device for the introduction of fuel and air into a furnace at the desired velocities, turbulence and concentration.

Burner - A device which combines fuel and air in proper proportions for combustion and which enables the fuel-air mixture to
burn stably to give a specified flame size and shape.

Burner assembly- A burner that is factory-built as a single assembly or as two or more assemblies which include all parts
necessary for its normal function when installed as intended.

Burner block - Also called "burner tile", "muffler block," or "quarl". The specially formed refractory pieces which mount around
the burner opening inside the furnace. The burner block forms the burner's airflow opening and helps stabilize the flame.

Burner capacity - Amount of heat release a burner can deliver (i.e., amount of fuel which can be completely burned through a
burner) at a given set of operating conditions.

Burner wind box - A plenum chamber around a burner in which an air pressure is maintained to ensure proper distribution and
discharge of secondary air.

BURNER WIND BOX PRESSURE - The air pressure maintained in the wind box or plenum chamber measured above atmospheric
pressure.

Burner atmospheric - A gas burner in which all air for combustion is supplied by natural draft, the inspiriting force being created
by gas velocity.

Burner natural-draft type - A burner which depends primarily on the natural draft created in the flue to induce the air required
for combustion into the burner.

Burner power - A burner in which all air for combustion is supplied by a power-driven fan that overcomes the resistance
through the burner to deliver the quantity of air required for combustion.

Butt Weld -A weld joining two members laying in the same plane.
Bypass - A link between the flow and the return to allow a continuous.

BY-PASS - A passage for a fluid, permitting a portion of the fluid to flow around its normal pass flow channel.

Bypass temperature control - Control of vapor or air temperature by diverting part of or all the heating medium from passing
over the heat-absorbing surfaces, usually by means of a bypass damper.

C- Carbon element, the principal combustible constituent of all fuels.

CaCO3- Calcium Carbonate.

Calorie - The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree C. The kilocalorie (kcal) is a
typical unit of measure in the process industry, 1 kcal = 1000 calories.

CALORIE - The mean calorie is 1/100 of the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water from Zero C to 100 C at a
constant atmospheric pressure. It is about equal to the quantity of heat required to raise one gram of water 1 C. Another
definition is: A calorie is 3600/860 joules.

CALORIE the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of pure water 1 degree Celsius (3,968 BTUs)

CALORIMETER - Apparatus for determining the calorific value of a fuel.

CAPACITY FACTOR -The ratio of the average load carried to the maximum design capacity.

CARBON- Element. The principal combustible constituent of all fuels.

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that is about one and one-half times as dense as air under
ordinary conditions of temperature and pressure. It does not burn, and under normal conditions, is stable, inert and nontoxic.
Although it is not a poison, it can cause death by suffocation if inhaled in large amounts. (Carbon dioxide occurs in nature both
free and in combination. Because it is a product of combustion of carbonaceous fuels (e.g., coal, coke, fuel oil, gasoline, and
cooking gas), there is usually more of it in city air than in country air. Some sources indicate that the natural balance of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere is growing from its stable level of 0.13% to a predicted 0.14% by the year 2000. It is anticipated that
this extra carbon dioxide will fuel the greenhouse effect, warm the atmosphere, and further disrupt the natural carbon dioxide
cycle (see Global Warming).)

CARRYOVER- The chemical solids and liquid entrained with the steam from a boiler.

Carryover - The moisture and entrained solids forming the film of steam bubbles; a result of foaming in the boiler. Carryover is
caused by a poor water condition within the boiler.

Carryover: the damaging condition where water droplets are carried out of the boiler along with the dry steam. These can
cause scouring in turbines or hydraulic lock in cylinders. The risk is accentuated by dirty feed water.

Casing - A covering of sheets of metal or other material such as fire resistant composition board used to enclose all or a portion
of a steam-generating unit.

Cast Iron- a durable metal with an exceptional capability to hold and transfer heat.

CATALYST a chemical that accelerates chemical reaction: a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without
itself undergoing any change.

CATALYTIC involving or causing an increase in the rate of a chemical reaction by the use of a catalyst.

Caustic cracking - Also called caustic embrittlement cracking, usually occurring in carbon steels or iron-chromium nickel alloys
that are exposed to concentrated hydroxide solutions at temperatures of 400 to 480 deg. F.

CENTRAL HEATING SYSTEM a system that produces heat in a centralized location and distributes it throughout the structure.

CENTRAL STATION- A power plant or steam heating plant that generates power or steam.

CENTRIFUGAL FAN - Consists of a fan rotor or wheel within a housing that discharges air at a right angle to the axis of the
wheel.
CH System all the piping, controls & radiator configuration.

Changeover valve- Used on combination boilers to swap between heating and

Check Valve- A Non-return valve that water can only pass in one direction.

Check valve: or clack valve, from the noise it makes. A non-return valve where the feed water enters the boiler drum. They are
usually mounted halfway along the boiler drum, or else as a top feed, but away from the firebox, so as to avoid stressing it with
the shock of cold water.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS - Determination of the principal chemical constituents.

CHEMICAL FEED PIPE - A pipe inside a boiler drum through which chemicals for treating the boiler water are introduced.

CHIMNEY - A brick, metal or concrete stack. Chimney Venting - a vertical vent used to transfer exhaust products from a boiler
or furnace to the outdoors.

Circulating tube- A boiler tube used to connect the water spaces of two drums or the pressure parts of a boiler.

CIRCULATION- The movement of water and steam within a steam generating unit.

CIRCULATION RATIO - The ratio of water entering a circuit to the steam generated by that passes that circuit in a unit of time.

CIRCULATOR - A pipe or tube to pass steam or water between upper boiler drums usually located where the heat absorption is
low. Also used to apply to tubes connecting headers of horizontal water tube boilers with drums.

Clad Vessel A vessel made from plate having a corrosion resistant material bonded to a base of less resistant material.

Cladding A relatively thick layer of (> 0.04") of material applied by surfacing for the purpose of improving corrosion resistance.

CLEAN BURNING describes a process where fuel is completely gasified and burned, producing a minimum of polluting by-
products such as smoke, creosote or ash.

CLEANOUT DOOR - A door placed so that accumulated refuse may be removed room a boiler setting.

Closed feed water heater - An indirect -contact feed water heater; that is, one in which the steam and water are separated by
tubes or coils.

CLOSED SYSTEM a closed heating system is one that is closed off from the environment and its heating fluid is not changed
except for maintenance. (See Open System)

Closing-in-line - The sealing by plastic refractory between a boiler shell or head and the firebrick wall; used to prevent hot gases
from contacting the boiler above the lowest waterline.

CO -Carbon monoxide.

CO2 -Carbon dioxide.

Coating A relatively thin layer of (< 0.04") of material applied by surfacing for the purpose of corrosion prevention.

Cold feed -To let cold water from the header tank into the system.

COLD INLET TEMPERATURE Temperature of outside water entering water heating system; typically40 F. during cold months
in U.S.

COLLECTOR- A device used for removing gas borne solids from flue gas.

Colloid- A finely divided organic substance which tends to inhibit the formation of dense scale and results in the deposition of
sludge, or causes it to remain in suspension, so that it may be blown from the boiler.

Combined feeder cut-off - A device that regulates makeup water to a boiler in combination with a low water fuel cut off.

Combustible- The heat-producing constituents of a fuel.

Combustible loss - The loss representing the unliberated thermal energy occasioned by failure to oxide completely some of the
combustible matter in the fuel.

COMBUSTIBLES - The heat producing constituents of a fuel.

Combustion- The burning of a fuel using air.

Combustion- the process of converting fuel into heat, requires oxygen.

COMBUSTION - The rapid chemical combination of oxygen with the combustible elements of a fuel resulting in the release of
heat.

Combustion - The rapid reaction of fuel and oxidant (usually oxygen in air) to produce light, heat and noise. Major products of
combustion for hydrocarbon fuels (e.g., natural gas, refinery gas, fuel oils) are carbon dioxide and water vapor. Trace products
include carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides, which are pollutants.

Combustion (flame) safeguard - A system for sensing the pressure or absence of flame and indicating, alarming or initiating
control action.

COMBUSTION AIR - Air used in the combustion process. Air contains oxygen which is required to combust fuel.

Combustion chamber - See furnace.

COMBUSTION CHAMBER - See Furnace.

COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY - The effectiveness of the burner to completely burn the fuel. A well designed burner will operate
with as little as 10 to 20% excess air, while converting all combustibles in the fuel to useful energy.

Combustion efficiency - The fraction of carbon in the fuel that is converted into CO2 in the flue gas, customarily expressed as a
percent combustion on one side and water on the other. This surface is measured on the side receiving the heat.

Combustion rate - The quantity of fuel fired per unit of time, as pounds of coal; per hour or cubic feet of gas per hour.

Combustion-The burning of a fuel using air.

COMPLETE COMBUSTION - The complete oxidation of all the combustible constituents of a fuel.

Complete Penetration-Joint penetration in which the weld metal completely fills the groove and is fused to the base metal
throughout its thickness.

CONCENTRATION - (1) The weight of solids contained in a unit weight of boiler or feed water. (2) The number of times that the
dissolved solids have increased from the original amount in the feed water to that in the boiler water due to evaporation in
generating steam.

Condensate -Condensed water resulting from the removal of latent heat from steam.

CONDENSATE water vapor condensing into water.

CONDUCTION heat transfer across a surface, or transfer of heat through a material by passing from one molecule to another.

Conduction - The transfer of heat by molecular collision. This process is more efficient in metals and other thermal conductors
and poorer in fluids and insulators such as refractory.

CONDUCTION - The transmission of heat through and by means of matter unaccompanied by any obvious motion of the matter.

CONDUCTIVITY - (1) A material property relating heat flux (heat transferred per unit area per unit time) to a temperature
difference. In American units, it is typically defined as the amount of heat (Btu) transmitted in one hour through one square
foot of material 1-inch-thick, with a temperature difference of 1F between the two surfaces of the material. (2) The property of
a water sample to transmit electric current under a set of standard conditions. Usually expressed as microhms conductance.

Conductivity - The amount of heat (Btu) transmitted in 1 hour through 1 sq. ft. of a homogenous material 1 in. thick for a
difference in temperature of 1o F. between two surfaces of the material.
Continuous blowdown - The uninterrupted removal of concentrated boiler water from a boiler to control total solids
concentration in the remaining water.

Control - A device designed to regulate the fuel, air, water, steam, or electrical supply to the controlled equipment. It may be
automatic, semi-automatic or manual.

CONTROL - Any manual or automatic device for the regulation of a machine to keep it at normal operation. If automatic, the
device is motivated by variations in temperature, pressure, water level, time, light, or other influences.

CONTROL VALVE- A valve used to control the flow of air, gas, water, steam or other substance.

Control, limit - An automatic safety control responsive to changes in liquid level, pressure, or temperature; normally set beyond
the operating range for limiting the operation of controlled equipment.

Control, operating - A control, other than s safety control or interlock, to start or regulate input according to demand and to
stop or regulate input on satisfaction of demand. Operating controls may also actuate auxiliary equipment.

Control, primary safety - A control responsive directly to flame properties, sensing the presence of flame and, in the event of
ignition failure or unintentional flame extinguishments, causing safety shutdown.

Control, safety - Automatic controls and interlocks (including relays, switches, and other auxiliary equipment used in
conjunction to form a safety control system) which are intended to prevent unsafe operation of the controlled equipment.

Convection - The transfer of heat or mass by large-scale fluid movements. When the process occurs, due to density and
temperature differences, it is termed natural convection. When the process occurs due to external devices (such as fans), it is
termed forced convection.

CONVECTION the transfer of heat that occurs due to the circulation of hot air.

CONVECTION - The transmission of heat by the circulation of a liquid or gas. It may be natural, with the circulation caused by
buoyancy affects due to temperature differences, or forced with circulation caused by a mechanical device such as a fan or
pump.

Convection section - The part of a furnace between the radiant section and the stack. The area is filled with tubes or pipes
which carry process steam and which absorb heat via convection heat transfer from the hot gases passing through the area on
their way out of the stack. The convection section forms an obstacle to the combustion gas flow and can greatly affect furnace
draft in the radiant section of the furnace.

Convective Heat - the natural circulation of air across a heat source to heat the air.

Corrosion- The wasting away of metals as a result of chemical action. In a boiler, usually caused by the presence of O2, CO2, or
an acid.

Corrosion Allowance -Vessels subject to thinning by corrosion, erosion or mechanical abrasion shall provide for an increase in
thickness which is added to the design thickness.

Corrosion fatigue - Cracks produced by the combined action of repeated or fluctuating stress and a corrosive environment,
which produces the cracking at lower stress levels or fewer cycles of stress than would be the case if no corrosive environment
were present.

Course - A circumferential section of a boiler shell or drum. With usual diameters, the number of courses will equal the number
of plates forming the shell or drum.

Creep - The time-dependent stretching or strain, heavily influenced by temperature, of a material under stress.

CREOSOTE a flammable, tar-like substance caused by unburned wood particulates mixing with moisture. Burning
unseasoned wood and/or low firebox temperatures are the most common causes. A creosote build-up inside the chimney or
stovepipe can result in unpleasant odors and unsightly discoloration and dripping on the stovepipe. In extreme cases, creosote
represents a serious fire hazard for homeowners. Chimneys should be cleaned at least once per year to control to prevent an
unsafe build-up.
Crimping tool - A tool used to reduce the diameter of the end of a boiler tube preparatory to its removal from a boiler.

Critical pressure and critical temperature- That point at which the difference between the liquid and vapor states for water
completely disappears.

Cross-box - A boxlike structure to the longitudinal drum of a sectional header boiler for connecting circulating tubes.

CROWN SHEET- In a firebox boiler, the plate forming the top of the furnace.

Crown Sheet - The Crown Sheet is the steel plate immediately above the fire, it separates the fire from the water and is typically
not double walled. This is the hardest working part of the fire box as it is heated the most. The sheet should never melt as a
skilled operator will always keep it covered in water. Should it become uncovered at any time it is likely that the boiler will fail
unless the operator cools the unit in time.

Crown sheet- The plate forming the roof of an internally fired furnace or a combustion chamber.

CRUDE OIL- Unrefined petroleum.

CSA (Canadian Standards Association) a not-for-profit membership-based association serving business, industry, government
and consumers in Canada and the global marketplace. The organization works in Canada and around the world to develop
standards that address real needs, such as enhancing public safety and health, advancing the quality of life, helping to preserve
the environment, and facilitating trade.

C-scan - In ultrasonic testing a means of data presentation to show a plan view of the material, and of any discontinuities
therein.

CSD-1 - Abbreviation for the ASME standard for Controls and Safety Devices.

Cylinder- Place for hot water storage (usually made from Copper).

DAMPER - A device for introducing a variable pressure drop in a system used for regulating the volumetric flow of a gas, such as
air.

Damper: An adjustable flap controlling the air admitted beneath the fire-bed. Usually part of the ash pan.

DAVIT - The structure on large fire tube boilers from which the front and rear doors are suspended when opened.

Dba- "A" weighted average of the sound pressure levels over the entire frequency band. Intended to be a more accurate
representation of how a human hears sound.

Dead Plates - Dead plates replace some or all of the fire grate. Typically, only found in special purpose boilers such as those
burning straw, oil, or natural gas and other non solid fuels. The dead plates stop cold air from being sucked into the flues
cooling the water.

DEAERATION - Removal of air and gases from boiler feed water prior to its introduction to a boiler.

Deaerator - A type of feed water heater operating with water and steam in direct contact. It is designed to heat the water and
drive off oxygen.

Decibel - Unit of sound pressure or power. Abbreviation is "dB". 1 Watt of sound power is equal to 120 dB.

Deflector - A device used to change the direction of a stream of air or of a mixture of pulverized fuel and air.

DEGASIFICATION - Removal of gases from samples of steam taken for purity test. Removal of CO2 from water as in the ion
exchange method of softening.

DELAYED COMBUSTION - A continuation of combustion beyond the furnace. (See also Secondary Combustion.)

DESIGN LOAD- The load for which a steam generating unit is designed, considered the maximum load to be carried.

DESIGN PRESSURE - The pressure used in the design of a boiler for the purpose of calculating the minimum permissible
thickness or physical characteristics of the different parts of the boiler.
Design pressure - The pressure used in the design of a boiler for the purpose of determining the minimum permissible thickness
or physical characteristics of the different parts of a boiler.

Design Pressure The pressure used in the design of a vessel. It is recommended to design a vessel and its parts for a pressure
10% above its operating pressure.

DESIGN STEAM TEMPERATURE- The temperature of steam for which a boiler is designed.

Design Temperature The maximum metal temperature expected under operating conditions.

DEW POINT- The temperature at which condensation starts.

Diaphram Plate - The Diaphram plate or more correctly bezel is a plate with many small holes in the bottom of the steam dome
typical to the locomotive style boiler. The plate attempts to stop water rising into the steam dome during hilly travel or
splashing from rough roads.

Differential- (of a control) the difference between cut in and cut out points.

Diffusion (raw gas) flame- Combustion state controlled by mixing phenomena. Fuel and air diffuse into one another until a
flammable mixture ratio is achieved.

DIRECT SYSTEM A radiant heating system where the heating fluid flows directly from the heating unit to the tubes beneath
the floor. (See Indirect System)

Direct Vent - a boiler design where all the air for combustion is taken from the outside atmosphere and all exhaust products are
released to the outside atmosphere, also known as sealed combustion.

DIRECT VENT System used with an indoor heat source where intake air and combustion air are vented to the outside
atmosphere.

DISENGAGING SURFACE - The surface of the boiler water from which steam is released.

Disposal: The cleanup process at the end of the working day, usually involving dropping the fire and blowing down the boiler.

DISSOCIATION - The process by which a chemical compound breaks down into simpler constituents, as do CO2 and H2O at high
temperature.

DISSOCIATION - The process by which a chemical compound breaks down into simpler constituents, as do CO2 and H2O at high
temperature.

DISSOLVED SOLID- Those solids in water which are in solution.

DISTILLATE FUELS - Liquid fuels distilled usually from crude petroleum.

DISTILLATION - Vaporization of a substance with subsequent recovery of the vapor by condensation. Often used in less precise
sense to refer to vaporization of volatile constituents of a fuel without subsequent condensation.

DISTILLED WATER - Water produced by vaporization and condensation with a resulting higher purity.

Dome: a raised location on the top of the main boiler drum, providing a high point from which to collect dry steam, reducing
the risk of priming.

Down comer - A tube or pipe in a boiler or water wall circulating system through which fluid flows downward between headers.

DOWNCOMER - A tube or pipe in a boiler or water wall circulating system through which fluid flows downward.

Down comer: large external pipes in many water-tube boilers, carrying unheated cold water from the steam drum down to the
water drum as part of the circulation path.

DOWNTIME - Amount of time a piece of equipment is not operational.

Draft - The difference between atmospheric pressure and some lower pressure existing in the furnace or gas passages of the
steam-generating unit.

Draft control, barometric - A device that controls draft by means of a balanced damper which bleeds air into the breeching on
changes of pressure to maintain steady draft.

DRAFT DIFFERENTIAL -The difference in static pressure between two points in a system.

Draft differential - The difference in static pressure between two points in a system.

DRAFT GAUGE -A device for measuring draft, usually in inches of water.

Draft Hood - a device that prevents a backdraft from entering the heating unit or excessive chimney draw from affecting the
operation of the boiler or furnace.

DRAIN - A valved connection at the lowest point for the removal of all water from the pressure parts.

Drip leg - The container placed at a low point in a system of piping to collect condensate and from which it may be removed.

DRUM - A cylindrical shell closed at both ends designed to withstand internal pressure.

Drum- A cylindrical shell closed at both ends, designed to withstand internal pressure.

DRY AIR - Air with which no water vapor is mixed. This term is used comparatively, since in nature there is always some water
vapor included in air, and such water vapor, being a gas, is dry.

Dry back - The baffle provided in a fire tube boiler joining the furnace to the second pass to direct the products of combustion,
that is so constructed to be separate from the pressure vessel and constructed of heat resistant material. (Generally refractory
and insulating material)

DRY GAS- Gas containing no water vapor.

Dry steam - Steam containing no moisture. Commercially dry steam containing not more than 0.5 percent moisture.

DRY STEAM - Steam containing no moisture. Commercially dry steam containing not more than one half of one percent
moisture.

DRYBACK BOILER Fire tube boiler with a refractory lined back door. Door opens to allow maintenance and/or inspection.

DRY-GAS LOSS- The loss representing the difference between the heat content of the dry exhaust gases and their heat content
at the temperature of ambient air.

DRY-GAS LOSS- The loss representing the difference between the heat content of the dry exhaust gases and their heat content
at the temperature of ambient air.

Duct- A passage for air or gas flow.

Ductless Split A/C Systems - A system that cools and dehumidifies air without the use of conventional duct work. The
equipment location is split, with the condenser and heat pump outside of the home and the air handler and controls inside.

DUCTWORK A system of metal or plastic conduits used to distribute warm air from a central furnace throughout the house.

Economizer - A series of tubes located in the path of flue gases. Feed water is pumped through these tubes on its way to the
boiler in order to absorb waste heat from the flue gas.

ECONOMIZER - Utilizes waste heat by transferring heat from flue gases to warm incoming feed water.

EDR - Equivalent direct radiation is the rate of heat transfer from a radiator or convector. It is equivalent to the square feet of
surface area necessary to transfer heat at the same rate at which it is produced by a generator. A single boiler horsepower
equals 140 ft2 EDR.
Efficiency- Of boiler operation: Output in heat units divided by input in heat units. The number of Btus contained in all steam
evaporated is useful output. The number of Btus contained in all fuel supplied to the boiler is input.

EFFICIENCY - The ratio of output to input. See also Combustion, Fuel-to-Steam and Thermal Efficiency.

Efficiency Rating - the ratio of heat actually generated versus the amount of heat Theoretically possible from the amount of fuel
inputted.

Ejector - A device which utilizes the kinetic energy in a jet of water or other fluid to remove a fluid or fluent material from tanks
or hoppers.

ELECTRIC BOILER- A boiler in which electric energy is used as the source of heat.

Electric boiler- A boiler in which electric heating means serve as the source of energy.

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR - A device for collecting dust, mist or fume from a gas stream, by placing an electrical charge on
the particle and removing that particle onto a collecting electrode.

Embrittlement - An inter-crystalline corrosion of boilerplate occurring in highly stressed zones. Cracking may result.

Emersion Heater - An electric back up heater for water.

Emissivity - The efficiency with which a material radiates thermal energy, expressed as a fraction between0 and 1.

Enthalpy - A thermal property of a fluid which is a function of state and is defined as the sum of stored mechanical potential
energy and internal energy. It is generally expressed in Btu per pound of fluid (joules per kilogram).

Entrainment- The conveying of particles of water or solids from the boiler water by the steam.

EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) EPA leads the nation's environmental science, research, education and assessment
efforts. It works to develop and enforce regulations that implement environmental laws enacted by Congress. It is also
responsible for researching and setting national standards for a variety of environmental programs, and delegates to states and
tribes the responsibility for issuing permits and for monitoring and enforcing compliance. Where national standards are not
met, EPA can issue sanctions and take other steps to assist the states and tribes in reaching the desired levels of environmental
quality. The EPA also conducts environmental research and sponsors voluntary partnerships and programs.

EQUALIZER -Connections between parts of a boiler to equalize pressures.

EQUIVALENT EVAPORATION - Evaporation expressed in pounds of water evaporated from a temperature of 212 F to dry
saturated steam at 212 F.

EVAPORATION - The change of state from a liquid to a vapor.

Evaporation rate- The number of pounds of water evaporated in a unit of time.

Evaporator - A pressure vessel used to evaporate raw water by means of a steam coil. The steam is condensed by means of
cooling water coils, and this distilled water is used as make-up for boiler feed.

EXCESS AIR - Air supplied for combustion in excess of that theoretically required for complete oxidation.

Excess air - The amount of air needed by a burner which is in excess of the amount required for perfect or stoichiometric
combustion. Some amount of excess air, depending on the available fuel/air mixing energy, is required to assure through mixing
of the fuel and air for complete combustion.

Exhaust injector: a feed-water injector that economizes on steam consumption by using waste steam, such as engine exhaust.

EXPANSION JOINT - The joint to permit movement due to expansion without undue stress.

Expansion Pipe - to let air from the system (must be one size bigger than cold feed).

Expansion Vessel - Used on sealed systems instead of an expansion tank.

Explosion door - A door in a furnace or boiler setting designed to be opened by a predetermined gas pressure.

EXTERNAL TREATMENT - Treatment of boiler feed water prior to its introduction into the boiler.

Fan - A machine consisting of a rotor and housing for moving air or gases at relatively low-pressure differentials.

Fan Flue- Can be use with room sealed or open flue boilers.

Fan performance - A measure of fan operation in terms of volume, total pressures, static pressures, speed, power input, and
mechanical and static efficiency, at a stated air density.

FAN PERFORMANCE - A measure of fan operation in terms of volume, total pressures, static pressures, speed, power input,
mechanical and static efficiency, at a stated air density.

Fan performance curves- The graphical presentation of total pressure, static pressure, power input, and mechanical and static
efficiency as ordinates and the range of volumes as absciassas, all at constant speed and air density.

FCAW - Flux Cored Arc Welding.

FCAW - Flux Cored Arc Welding.

FEED PUMP- A pump that supplies water to a boiler.

FEED-WATER - Water introduced into a boiler during operation. It includes make-up and return condensate.

Feed-water regulator - A device for admitting feed-water to a boiler automatically on demand. Practically a constant water level
should result.

FEED-WATER TREATMENT - The treatment of boiler feed water by the addition of chemicals to prevent the formation of scale
or to eliminate other objectionable characteristics.

FGR - Flue Gas Recirculation or the recirculation of flue gas with combustion air to reduce NOx emissions.

Field-tube: A form of single-ended thimble water tube with an internal tube to encourage circulation.

Filler Metal-Material added in making a weld.

Fillet Weld - A weld of approximately triangular cross section joining two surfaces at right angles to each other.

Filling loop- Used to fill sealed systems with water.

FILTER - Porous material through which fluids or fluid - and solid mixtures are passed to separate matter held in suspension.

FIN - A fin is an extended surface, a solid, experiencing energy transfer by conduction within its boundaries, as well as energy
transfer with its surroundings by convection and/or radiation, used to enhance heat transfer by increasing surface area.

FIN TUBE - A tube with one or more fins.

Fire dropping: Emptying out the remains of the fire after a day's work. A time-consuming and filthy task; labour-saving ways to
improve this became important in the final days of steam locomotives.

Fire Tubes - The fire tubes carry fire, heated gases, through the water space to heat the water. In the case of a return flue boiler
there is one or more large tubes known as flues which carry the spent gases (smoke) back to the stack above the smoke box.

Fire bar - Replaceable cast-iron bars that form the base of the furnace and support the fire. These wear out frequently, so as
designed for easy replacement.

Firebox - The equivalent of a furnace. A term usually used for furnaces of locomotive boilers and similar types of boilers.

Firebox - The space at one end of the boiler, or under the boiler, where the fire is made. Typically surrounded by a double wall
with water filling the space between the walls. All flat surfaces have to be held and braced by the stay bolts lest the box warp
under the intense heat. Stay bolts are actually threaded their entire length, the holes they go into are threaded with a very long
tap so the thread remains in pitch, and the stay is screwed into both surfaces, then riveted and beaded on both sides. Stay bolts
keep parallel surfaces parallel to one another.

FIRED PRESSURE VESSEL - A vessel containing a fluid under pressure exposed to heat from the combustion of fuel.

Fire tube- A tube in a boiler having water on the outside and carrying the products of combustion on the inside.

FIRE TUBE - A type of boiler design in which combustion gases flow inside the tubes and water flows outside the tubes.

Fire-tube boiler: A boiler where the primary heating surface is tubes with hot gas flowing inside and water outside.

Firing rate control - A pressure temperature or flow controller which controls the firing rate of a burner according to the
deviation from pressure or temperature set point. The system may be arranged to operate the burner on-off, high-low or in
proportion to load demand.

FIXED CARBON - The carbonaceous residue less the ash remaining in the test container after the volatile matter has been driven
off in making the proximate analysis of a solid fuel.

Flame- A luminous body of burning gas or vapor.

Flame detector - A device which indicates if fuel, such as liquid, gaseous, or pulverized, is burning or if ignition has been lost.
The indication may be transmitted to a signal or to a control system.

FLAME PATH The path followed by superheated gases as they exit the furnace. Flame propagation rate - Speed of travel of
ignition through a combustible mixture. (See flame speed)

FLAME SAFEGUARD - A control that sequences the burner through several stages of operation to provide proper air purge,
ignition, normal operation, and shutdown for safe operation.

Flame speed - The rate at which a flame can propagate in a combustion mixture. If the flame is lower than the speed of the
reacting flow, the flame may lift off the burner. If the flame speed is higher than the speed of the reacting flow the flame may
flash back into the burner.

FLAMMABILITY- Susceptibility to combustion.

Flammability limits - The upper and lower bounds of the fuel/air mixture which will support combustion. The upper
flammability limit indicates the maximum fuel concentration in air that will support combustion. The lower flammability limit
indicates the minimum fuel concentration in the air that will support combustion. Outside of these bounds the mixture does
not burn.

Flareback - A burst of flame from a furnace in a direction opposed to the normal flow, usually caused by the ignition of an
accumulation of combustible gases.

FLASH POINT - The lowest temperature at which, under specified conditions, fuel oil gives off enough vapor to flash into a
momentary flame when ignited.

Flashback- A phenomenon occurring only in pre-mix gas burners when the flame speed overcomes the gas-air mixture flow
velocity exiting the gas tip. The flame rushes back to the gas orifice and can make an explosive sound when flashback occurs.
Flashback is most common when hydrogen is present in fuel gas.

FLASHING - The process of producing steam by discharging water into a region of pressure lower than the saturation pressure
that corresponds to the water temperature.

Flashing - The process whereby a drop in pressure or increase in temperature cause vaporization.

Flow Pipe Hot water flow from the boiler to rods or cylinder.

FLOW RATE The rate a liquid flows through a pipe or plumbing fixture, typically measured in gallons per minute or hour
(GPM/GPH).

Flue- Where the fumes from the gas goes after burning.
Flue- A passage for products of combustion.

Flue - the passageway that takes combustion exhaust from the combustion chamber to the flue collector and venting system.

Flue gas - The gaseous products of combustion in the flue to the stack.

Flue- A large fire tube, either used as the main heating surface in a flued boiler, or used as enlarged Fire tubes in a locomotive-
style boiler where these contain the super-heater elements.

FM- Factory Mutual.

Foaming - Formation of steam bubbles on the surface of boiler water due to high surface tension of the water.

FOAMING - The continuous formation of bubbles which have sufficiently high surface tension to remain as bubbles beyond the
disengaging surface.

FORCED AIR A system that uses fans and blowers to move heated air through ducts to heat the home.

Forced circulation - The circulation of water in a boiler by mechanical means external to the boiler.

FORCED CIRCULATION - The circulation of water in a boiler by mechanical means external to the boiler.

Forced Draft - When first starting a fire, or when the engine is not working very hard, forced draft may be required to keep the
fire burning and the flues free of still gases. The draft is usually induced by blowing steam up the smoke stack sucking air
through the fire and through the flues. Forced draft is also induced by venting the exhaust steam into the stack via nozzles in
the same manner as you describe, causing SIGNIFICANT induced draft. This might be done on say a steam engine running a
sawmill. When working hard continuously a hotter fire is needed to keep the steam up. Most traction engines had their exhaust
directed into the smokestack to cause draft.

Forced Hot Air - a furnace system using a blower to circulate air from within the home through the furnace and back into the
home. (As opposed to gravity circulation).

Forced-draft fan - A fan supplying air under pressure to the fuel burning equipment.

FORCED-DRAFT FAN - A fan supplying air under pressure to the fuel burning equipment.

FOSSIL FUEL A hydrocarbon deposit, such as petroleum, coal, or natural gas, derived from living matter of a previous geologic
time and used for fuel. All fossil fuels produce carbon dioxide when burned and are a main cause of air pollution. (See
greenhouse effect.)

FOULING - The accumulation of refuse in gas passages or on heat absorbing surfaces which results in undesirable restriction to
the flow of gas or heat.

Fouling- The accumulation of refuse in gas passages or on heat absorbing surfaces which results in undesirable restrictions to
the flow of gas or heat.

Foundation ring - The base of the firebox, where the inner and outer shells are joined.

FREE ASH- Ash which is not included in the fixed ash.

FUEL- A substance containing combustible used for generating heat.

Fuel NOx - NOx that is formed from nitrogen that is organically bound to the fuel molecule. Fuel NOx is most often a problem
with liquid fuel or coal burning. Once the nitrogen has been cracked from the fuel molecule, the mechanism follows basically
the same path as the prompt NOx mechanism.

FUEL OIL -A liquid fuel derived from petroleum or coal.

FUEL-AIR MIXTURE - Mixture of fuel and air. FUEL-AIR RATIO - The ratio of the weight, or volume, of fuel to air.

FUEL-TO-STEAM EFFICIENCY - The ratio of heat added to boiler feed-water to produce the output steam to the amount of
energy inputted with fuel.
Furnace- a heating unit that heats air by transferring heat in a metal combustion chamber to the air and circulating it through
the house in a network of ducts.

FURNACE an enclosed space for the burning of fuel. There are many kinds of furnaces, the type depending upon the fuel and
the use to which the heat produced within it is put. Most familiar are the furnaces used in the heating of buildings. In the hot-
air furnace, fuel is burned within an inner wall and air, led into a space between the inner and the outer wall, is heated and is
led away to the various rooms of the building. Hot-water (hydronic) furnaces, by which water is heated to be led through pipes
to radiators, and furnaces that turn water to steam for heating purposes are common.

Furnace- An enclosed space provided for the combustion of fuel.

Furnace arch - Uppermost part of a radiant furnace (also called the "bridge wall", a term which came from the original furnace
designs and has remained in use). The last area in an up flow furnace before the convection section.

Furnace Draft - The negative air pressure generated by buoyancy of hot gases inside a furnace. The temperature difference
between gases within the furnace and in the atmosphere along with furnace and stack height basically determine the amount
of draft generated by the furnace. Draft is generally measured in negative inches of water column. ("-w.c."; 27.7 inches w.c. = 1
psig)

Furnace explosion - A violent combustion of dust or gas accumulations in a furnace or combustion chamber of a boiler.

FURNACE PRESSURE - Pressure occurring inside the combustion chamber; positive if greater than atmospheric, negative if less
than atmospheric, and neutral if equal to atmospheric.

Furnace release rate - The heat available per square foot of heat-absorbing surface in the furnace. That surface is the projected
area of tubes and extended metallic surfaces on the furnace side including walls, floors, roof, partition walls, and platens and
the area of the plane of the furnace exit which is defined as the entrance to the convection tube bank.

Furnace volume- The cubical contents of the furnace or combustion chamber.

FUSIBLE PLUG- A hollowed threaded plug having the hollowed portion filled with a low melting point material.

Fusible Plug - James Hansen added that the crown sheet Is fitted with a fusible plug. This plug is in any ASME boiler and most
others even if not built to code, as it is really stupid to not have one. It consists of a brass threaded plug with a tapered hole
filled with tin. When the plug gets hot, the tin melts and the steam and water puts the fire out. This is the most basic safety
device on any boiler. Since top of the plug is actually into the water space by 1" (2.54cm) it should melt out long before the
crown sheet is uncovered.

Fusible plug: A safety device that indicates if the water level becomes dangerously low. It melts when overheated, releasing a
jet of steam into the firebox and alerting the crew.

Gage cock- A valve attached to a water column or drum for checking water level.

Gage pressure - The pressure measured relative to the local atmospheric pressure. Gage pressure may be negative. A negative
gage pressure is known as suction or vacuum.

Galloway tubes: tapered thermic syphon water-tubes inserted in the furnace of a Lancashire boiler.

Gas analysis- The determination of the constituents of a gaseous mixture.

GAS BURNER - A burner that uses gas or fuel.

GAS BURNER - A burner that uses gas or fuel.

GAS PRESSURE REGULATOR - A spring loaded, dead weighted or pressure balanced device which will maintain the gas pressure
to the burner supply line.

Gas recirculation - The reintroduction of part of the combustion gas at a point upstream of the removal point, in the lower
furnace for the purpose of controlling steam temperature.
Gas tip - The part of a burner which discharges the gas fuel via one or more openings into the furnace. The size, arrangement,
and angular disposition of the openings in the tip have a major effect on the size and shape of the flame.

Gasification - The process of converting solid or liquid fuel into a gaseous fuel such as the gasification of coal.

Gate valve - A stop valve using the wedge-and-double-seat principle. It may be used to control fluids containing some solids, for
when wide open, it operates on a straight-through flow. There is little likelihood of its becoming obstructed.

GAUGE COCK- A valve attached to a water column or drum for checking water level.

Gauge glass - A glass-enclosed visible indicator of the water level in a boiler. Many gauge glasses are tubular, but modern high-
pressure practice and railroad locomotives use two thick, flat strips of glass bolted between flanged plates, with the water and
steam between the glass strips.

GAUGE GLASS - The transparent part of a water gauge assembly connected directly or through a water column to the boiler,
below and above the water line, to indicate the water level in a boiler.

GAUGE PRESSURE- The pressure above atmospheric pressure.

Gauge pressure - The pressure above that of atmospheric, 14.7 psi at sea level; absolute pressure minus 14.7 at sea level.

GLOBAL WARMING An increase in the average temperature of the earth's atmosphere, especially a sustained increase
sufficient to cause climatic change. Click for more information.

Globe valve - A stop valve using the round-disk-and-seat principle. Used where the fluid controlled is comparatively clean.

GMAC - Gas Metal Arc Cutting. (Air Arc)

GMAW - Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG).

GPM/GPH gallons per minute or gallons per hour -- a measure of the amount of water flowing through a fixture or pipe.

GRADE - Oil classification according to quality, generally based on ASTM specifications.

Grain - A unit of measure commonly used in water analysis for the measurement of impurities in water. (17.1 grains = 1 part per
million- ppm)

GRAINS (WATER) - A unit of measure commonly used in water analysis for the measurement of impurities in water (17.1 grains
= 1 part per million- ppm).

GRAINS PER CU-FT - The term for expressing dust loading in weight per unit of gas volume (7000 grains equals one pound).

Grate - The Grate is a series of bars or narrow plates in the bottom of the fire box. The fire/fuel sits on the grate and burns. The
ashes fall through the grate into the ash pit.

GRAVITY - Weight index of fuels: liquid, petroleum products expressed either as specific, Baume or A.P.I. (American Petroleum
Institute) gravity; weight index of gaseous fuels as specific gravity related to air under specified conditions; or weight index of
solid fuels as specific gravity related to water under specified conditions.

GREENHOUSE EFFECT A term used to describe the heating of the atmosphere owing to the presence of carbon dioxide and
other gases. Without the presence of these gases, heat from the sun would return to space in the form of infrared radiation.
Carbon dioxide and other gases absorb some of this radiation and prevent its release, thereby warming the Earth. This is an
effect analogous to what happens in a greenhouse, where glass traps the infrared radiation and warms the air. The burning of
fossil fuels adds carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, and therefore places the Earth at risk from an increase of this effect.

Groove Weld - A weld made in the groove between two plates to be joined.

GTAW - Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG).

Hand Holes - Almost all boilers of any size have at least one hand hole to allow the boiler to be inspected and cleaned with a
pressure or force hose. There may also be hand holes dedicated to inspection in areas of the boiler in which problems often
occur. Such as the mud ring. In a more modern boiler there are hand or man holes to allow inspection of the entire interior
surface.

HAND-HOLE - An access opening in a pressure part usually not exceeding 6inches in its longest dimension.

Hand-hole - An inspection, a sight, or a cleanout opening in a boiler; often elliptical and closed by a hand-hole plate.

HAND-HOLE COVER- A hand-hole closure.

Hand-hole cover- A hand-hole enclosure.

Hand-hole: A small manhole, too small for access but useful for inspection and washing out the boiler.

Hard water - Water which contains calcium or magnesium in an amount which requires an excessive amount of soap to form a
lather.

Hardness - A measure of the amount of calcium and magnesium salts in boiler water. Usually expressed as grains per gallon or
parts per million as CaCO2.

Head - The end of a cylindrical shell. Types include flat, ellipsoidal, flanged and dished, conical and hemispherical.

Header - A distribution pipe supplying a number of smaller lines tapped off of it. A main receiving pipe supplying one or more
main pipe lines and receiving a number of supply lines tapped into it.

HEAT AVAILABLE - The thermal energy above a fixed datum that is capable of being absorbed for useful work.

HEAT BALANCE- An accounting of the distribution of the heat input, output and losses.

HEAT EXCHANGER A device that transfers heat from one fluid to another without a mixing of the fluids, such as air-to-water,
water-to-water, or water-to-air.

HEAT EXCHANGER- A vessel in which heat is transferred from one medium to another.

Heat Exchanger - the part of the boiler or furnace used for transmitting heat from the flame to air or water for heating.

Heat Exchanger- Where heat is transferred from the source to the destination.

Heat liberation - Amount of heat released during combustion of fuels. One of the criteria for determining what burner to use in
an application.

Heat release -The total quantity of thermal energy above a fixed datum introduced into a furnace by the fuel, considered to be
the product of the hourly fuel rate and its high heating value, expressed in Btu per hour per cubic foot of furnace volume or
square foot of heating surface.

HEAT RELEASE RATE- Rate that describes the heat available per square foot of heat-absorbing surface in the furnace or per
cubic foot of volume.

Heat Transfer- the transmission of heat from the source (flame) to air or water.

Heat-Affected Zone The portion of the base metal which has not been melted, but whose mechanical properties have been
altered by the heat of welding or cutting.

Heating Capacity- the amount of usable heat produced by a heating unit

Heating surface - That surface which is exposed to the heating medium for absorption and transfer of heat to the heat medium
per American Boiler Manufacturers Association (ABMA).

Heating Surface - This is the entire surface area of the boiler which is exposed directly to hot gases and the radiant heat of the
fire.

HEATING SURFACE - Those surfaces which are exposed to products of combustion on one side and water on the other. This
surface is measured on the side receiving the heat.
HEATING VALUE - The quantity of heat released by a fuel through complete combustion. It is commonly expressed in Btu per lb,
per gallon, or cu-ft.

HIGH EFFICIENCY AFUE percentage used to describe furnaces- Low-efficiency furnace Less than 71%- Mid-efficiency furnace
72% to 83% - High-efficiency furnace 84% and higher.

High fire- The input rate of a burner at or near maximum.

HIGH GAS PRESSURE CONTROL- A control to stop the burner if the gas pressure is too high.

High gas pressure switch- A switch to stop the burner if gas pressure is too high.

HIGH OIL TEMPERATURE CONTROL - A control to stop the burner if the oil temperature is too high.

High-Alloy Steel containing large percentages of elements other than carbon.

High-boy - a term used to describe a furnace which has a small "footprint" but is tall. The blower is under the heat exchanger.

Higher heating value - HHV, the theoretical heat the combustion process can release if the fuel and oxidant are converted with
100% efficiency to CO2 and liquid H20.

Hot Water Boiler - a heating unit that uses water circulated throughout the home in a system of baseboard heating units,
radiators, and/or in-floor radiant tubing.

Hot Water Heater - a unit with its own energy source that generates and stores hot water.

Hot well - A tank used to receive condensate from various sources on its passage back to a boiler through the feed-water
system. It usually is vented to atmosphere.

HYDROCARBON- A chemical compound of hydrogen and carbon.

HYDRONIC Of or relating to a heating or cooling system that transfers heat by circulating a fluid through a closed system of
pipes.

Hydronics- the science of heating or cooling with water.

Hydrostatic test - A pressure test by water at room temperature applied to a boiler to determine its safety, as a check on repairs
or to trace suspected leakage.

HYDROSTATIC TEST - A strength and tightness test of a closed pressure vessel by water pressure.

Hydrostatic Test The complete vessel filled with water shall be subject to a test pressure which is equal to 1.5 times the design
pressure.

Igniter - A burner smaller than the main burner, which is ignited by a spark or other independent and stable ignition source and
which provides proven ignition energy required to immediately light off the main burner.

IGNITION- The initiation of combustion.

IGNITION TEMPERATURE - Lowest temperature of a fuel at which combustion becomes self-sustaining.

Ignition temperature- the temperature required to initiate combustion.

ILLUMINANTS - Light oil or coal compounds that readily burn with a luminous flame, such as ethylene, propylene and benzene.

Impact Test Determination of the resistance of a material to breaking by impact. The test is measured by breaking the material
by a single blow.

Impeller- The rotating wheel of a centrifugal pump.

Impingement - The striking of moving flame against boiler parts, causing local overheating.

Incomplete combustion- The partial oxidation of the combustible constituents of a fuel.

INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION- The partial oxidation of the combustible constituents of a fuel.

Indirect Hot Water Storage Tank - a unit that works in conjunction with a boiler to generate and store domestic hot water, it
does not require its own energy source.

INDIRECT SYSTEM A radiant heating system where the heat from the heating unit passes through a heat exchanger before
circulating through the tubes under the floor. (See Direct System)

Induced draft fan- A fan exhausting hot gases from heat absorbing equipment.

INERT GASEOUS CONSTITUENTS - Incombustible gases such as nitrogen which may be present in a fuel.

In-floor Radiant Tubing - tubing, typically plastic or rubber, used in conjunction with heated boiler water to heat floors.

INHIBITOR - A substance which selectively retards a chemical action. An example in boiler work is the use of an inhibitor, when
using acid to remove scale, to prevent the acid from attacking the boiler metal.

INJECTOR - A device utilizing a steam jet to entrain and deliver feed water into a boiler.

Injector: a feed-water pump without moving parts that uses steam pressure and the Bernoulli effect to force feed-water into
the boiler, even against its pressure.

Input rating - The fuel burning capacity of a burner at sea level in Btu per hour as specified by the manufacturer.

Insulation - A material of low thermal conductivity used to reduce heat loss.

INTEGRAL BLOWER - A blower built as an integral part of a device to supply air thereto.

INTEGRAL-BLOWER BURNER - A burner of which the blower is an integral part.

INTERLOCK - A device to prove the physical state of a required condition, and to furnish that proof to the primary safety control
circuit.

INTERMITTENT BLOWDOWN- the blowing down of boiler water at intervals.

Intermittent firing - A method of firing by which fuel and air are introduced and burned in a furnace for a short period after
which flow is stopped, this succession occurring in a sequence of frequent cycles.

Intermittent ignition - An igniter which burns during light off and while the main burner is firing and which is shut off with the
main burner.

INTERNAL TREATMENT - The treatment of boiler water by introducing chemicals directly into the boiler.

Internally fired boiler - A Fire tube boiler having an internal furnace such as a scotch, locomotive firebox, vertical tubular, or
other type having a water-cooled plate type furnace.

Ion - A charge atom or radical which may be positive or negative.

Ion exchange - A reversible process by which ions are interchanged between solids and a liquid. These ions exist throughout the
solution and act almost independently.

IRI - Industrial Risk Insurers.

Joint Efficiency The ratio of the strength of a joint to the strength of the base metal (Expressed in Percent).

Klinger gauge glass: A form of gauge glass where the water level is visible through a flat glass window in a strong metal frame,
rather than a cylindrical tube. These were popular with some operators, and increasingly so for high pressure boilers.

Lagging - A covering, usually of insulating material, on pipe or ducts.

LAGGING - A light gauge steel covering used over a boiler, usually combined with insulation, to provide a low temperature outer
surface.
Laminar flow - Very smooth flow in which all the molecules are traveling in generally the same direction. For internal flows, it
occurs at Reynolds numbers less than 2000.

Lap Joint A welded joint in which two overlapping metal parts are joined by means of a fillet, plug or slot weld.

LEAKAGE - The uncontrolled quantity of fluid which enters or leaves through the enclosure of air or gas passages.

Lethal Substance Poisonous gas or liquid of such a nature that a small amount of the gas or of the vapor of the liquid is
dangerous to life when inhaled. It is the responsibility of the user of the vessel to determine that the gas or liquid is lethal.

LIBERATION- See Heat Release.

Lift-off - This condition occurs when the fuel or fuel/air mixture velocity is too high, thus allowing the fuel to exit the stabilizing
zone before it has achieved its ignition temperature.

LIMIT CONTROL - A switching device that completes or breaks an electrical circuit at predetermined pressures or temperatures.
Also known as an interlock. See interlock.

Lining - The material used on the furnace side of a furnace wall. It is usually high-grade refractory tile or brick or plastic
refractory material.

Liquid Penetrant Examination (PT) -A method of non-destructive examination. Typical discontinuities found with this method
are cracks and laminations.

Live steam- Steam which has not performed any of the work for which it was generated.

LOAD- The rate of output required; also the weight carried.

LOAD FACTOR - The ratio of the average load in a given period to the maximum load carried during that period.

Low draft switch- A control to prevent the burner operation if the draft is too low. Used primarily with mechanical draft.

Low fire start - The firing of a burner with controls in a low-fire position to provide safe operating condition during light off.

LOW GAS PRESSURE CONTROL- A control to stop the burner if gas pressure is too low.

Low gas pressure switch - A control to stop the burner if gas pressure is too low.

LOW OIL TEMPERATURE CONTROL - (Cold Oil Switch) A control to prevent burner operation if the temperature of the oil is too
low.

Low Water Cut-off - a device used to shut down a boiler in the event a low water Condition exists.

LOW WATER CUTOFF - Safety device that shuts off the boiler/burner in the event of low water, preventing pressure vessel
failure.

Low-boy - a term used to describe a furnace which has a low profile. The blower is located on the same level plane as the heat
exchanger.

Lower heating value - LHV, the theoretical heat that combustion process can release if the fuel and oxidant are converted to
100% efficiency to CO2 and H2O vapor.

Low-oil-temperature switch - A cold-oil switch; a control to prevent burner operation if the temperature of the oil is too low.

Low-water cut-off - A device to stop the burner on unsafe water conditions in the boiler.

LUG- Any projection, like an ear, used for supporting or grasping.

Lug - As applied to boiler suspension, a steel eyepiece fitted and riveted or welded to the curvature of a boiler shell or drum and
connected by a steel U-bolt or sling rod to overhead steel structure; used to support the weight of a boiler.

Magnetic Particle Examination (MT) -A method of detecting cracks at or near the surface in magnetic alloys.
MAKE-UP - The water added to boiler feed to compensate for that lost through exhaust, blowdown, leakage, etc.

Makeup water - The amount of raw water necessary to compensate for the amount of condensate that is not returned in the
feed-water supply to the boiler.

Man Holes- Every large boiler has at least one man sized hole where the boiler space can be opened and a man enter to clean
and repair the unit. This hole must not be opened when the boiler is under pressure, and typically cannot be as the boiler
pressure keeps it closed. Usually the man hole is a plate inside the boiler which is held on by clamps on the outside. The
pressure inside pushes on the plate helping it to seal.

Manhole - An access opening to the interior of a boiler, elliptical and 11 in. by 15 in. or larger or circular 15-in. diameter or
larger.

MANHOLE - The opening in a pressure vessel of sufficient size to permit a man to enter.

Manhole: an oval access door into the boiler shell, used for maintenance and cleaning. Manholes are sealed with a removable
door from the inside. As they are oval, this door may be turned and lifted out through the hole. Doors are clamped in place
from the outside with one or two bridge clamps spanning the hole and tightened down with a nut on a stud. As the cutting of a
manhole weakens the boiler shell, the surrounding area is strengthened with a patch.

Manifold- A pipe or header for collecting a fluid from, or the distributing of a fluid to a number of pipes or tubes.

MANUAL GAS SHUTOFF VALVE - A manually operated valve in a gas line for the purpose of completely turning on or shutting off
the gas supply.

Manual reset device - A component of a control which requires resetting by hand to restart the burner after safe operating
conditions have been restored.

MANUFACTURED GAS - Fuel gas manufactured from coal, oil, etc., as differentiated from natural gas.

Material Test Report (MTR) -A document on which the material manufacturer records the results of test examinations or
treatments required by the material specification.

MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE WORKING PRESSURE - The maximum gauge pressure permissible in a completed boiler. The MAWP of
the completed boiler shall be less than or equal to the lowest design pressure determined for any of its parts. This pressure is
based upon either proof tests or calculations for every pressure part of the boiler using nominal thickness exclusive of
allowances for corrosion and thickness required for loadings other than pressure. It is the basis for the pressure setting of the
pressure relieving devices protecting the boiler.

MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS LOAD - The maximum load which can be maintained for a specified period.

MAXIMUM INSTANTANEOUS DEMAND- The sudden load demand on a boiler beyond which an unbalanced condition may be
established in the boiler's internal flow pattern and/or surface release conditions.

MECHANICAL ATOMIZING OIL BURNER - A burner which uses the pressure of the oil for atomization.

Mechanical draft- The negative pressure created by mechanical means.

Micron - One millionth of a meter, or 0.000039 in. or 1/25400 in The diameter of dust particles is often expressed in microns.

MINIATURE BOILER - Fire pressure vessels which do not exceed the following limits, 16 in. inside diameter of shell; 42 in.,
overall length to outside of heads at center; 20 sq. ft. water heating surface; or 100 psi maximum allowable working pressure.

Mixer - The part of a pre-mix burner (also gas-air mixer) which uses the kinetic energy of the high velocity fuel gas stream to
draw in part or all of the air required by the burner for combustion.

MMBtu - Millions of Btus (British Thermal Units).

MOISTURE- Water in the liquid or vapor phase.

MOISTURE IN STEAM - Particles of water carried in steam, expressed as the percentage by weight.
MOISTURE LOSS - The boiler flue gas loss representing the difference in the heat content of the moisture in the exit gases and
that at the temperature of the ambient air.

Motorised valve -Device to alter or stop the flow of water

Mud drum: a water drum, particularly one mounted low on the boiler whose function is primarily to trap mud from circulation.

Mud or lower drum - A pressure chamber of a drum or header type located at the lower extremity of a water-tube boiler
convection bank which is normally provided with a blow-off valve for periodic blowing off of sediment collecting in the bottom
of the drum.

Mud Ring or Mud Drum - A typically cylindrical shaped space at the bottom of the water space. Sediment, mud, and other
impurities gather there. There is a special valve designed to vent the accumulated rubbish before it can become baked onto the
boiler plate. See blow down. Mud drum refers to a water tube boiler, the lowermost drum, mud ring, to an upright. In a
locomotive style boiler, the blow down is at the lowest point of the boiler and sometimes there is another valve in the water
space around the firebox to be used when the boiler has cooled off.

Mud-a sludge of boiler scale particles, precipitates and general impurities that builds up in the lower parts of a boiler. Mud
reduces water circulation and so a local buildup may lead to localized overheating and possibly explosion.

Mud-hole - A small manhole, too small for access but useful for washing out the boiler, either as an inlet for a hose or as a drain
for removed mud.

Multi-fuel burner- A burner by means of which more than one fuel can be burned either separately or simultaneously, such as
pulverized fuel, oil and gas.

MULTIFUEL BURNER- A burner by means of which more than one fuel can be burned.

MULTIPORT BURNER - A burner having a number of nozzles from which fuel and air are discharged.

N.P.T. National Pipe Thread standard.

Natural circulation - The circulation of water in a boiler caused by differences in density; also referred to as thermal or
thermally induced circulation.

Natural Gas - any gas found in the earth (e.g. methane gas) as opposed to gases which are manufactured.

NBIC -National Board Inspection Code.

Net fan requirements - The calculated operating conditions for a fan excluding tolerances.

NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAT (NPSH)- The liquid pressure that exists at the suction end of a pump. If the NPSH is insufficient,
the pump can cavitate.

Noise- An undesirable sound.

Normal cubic meter - (Nm3) The quantity of a gas that is present in 1 m3 at the thermodynamic conditions of 1 atm and 0o C.
For an ideal gas there are 22.41 Nm3 in 1 kmol.

NOx -Abbreviation for all of the family of oxides of nitrogen.

NOx - Any combination of nitrogen and oxygen in a compound form. The most common in terms of environmental
considerations is NO, which constitutes 90% of combustion NOx emissions, and NO2. All NO is eventually converted to NO2 in
the atmosphere. Hence, most regulations are written to assume that the NOx which is emitted is in the form of NO2. Nox
emissions are influenced by many factors, including furnace temperature, flame temperature, burner design, combustion air
temperature, nitrogen content of liquid fuels, ammonia content of gas fuels, and other factors.

Nozzle - A short flanged or welded neck connection on a drum or shell for the outlet or inlet of fluids; also a protecting spout for
the outlet or inlet of fluids; also a projecting spout through which fluid flows.

Oil block - Usually a monolithic block located at the center of a burner assembly. The oil block acts to stabilize the oil flame.
OIL BURNER- A burner for firing oil.

Oil burner - A burner that atomizes fuel oil and blows it into the combustion chamber in the form of a fine mist or vapor. Steam
or mechanical motion plus air may be used as the operating medium.

Oil gun - The assembly of parts in a burner which provides atomized fuel oil mixture to the furnace for burning.

Oil Heating- the production of heat by burning oil.

OIL HEATING AND PUMPING SET - A group of apparatus consisting of a heater for raising the temperature of the oil to produce
the desired viscosity, and a pump for delivering the oil at the desired pressure.

Oil tip - Part of the oil gun which discharges the atomized fuel oil mixture into the furnace through multiple openings. The hole
pattern in the tip has a great effect on flame size and shape.

OMNI-Test Laboratories Since 1979, OMNI has developed specialty services for analyzing and assessing the impacts caused
by biomass combustion processes. OMNI has provided these services to large and small public- and private-sector
organizations. OMNI-Test Laboratories, Inc. was established as a full service hearth product (Woodstove, Fireplace, Pellet stove,
Outdoor Cooking Appliances, Hydronic Water Heating Systems, Masonry Heater, and Gas Appliance) testing laboratory with
state-of-the-art emissions and safety measurement and analysis equipment. OMNI has the same accreditations as Underwriters
Laboratories and other recognized independent testing agencies.

Open Flue-An appliance that takes in air for combustion from within the room it is fitted.

OPEN SYSTEM An open heating system is one that is open to the environment or where the heating fluid is continuously
replaced. For example, a domestic water heater is an open system because the heating fluid (fresh potable water) is constantly
flowing through it. (See Closed System)

Open system-A system that has an expansion tank open to atmosphere.

Open vent -An expansion pipe.

Operating control - A control to start and stop the burner; it must be set below the high limit control.

OPERATING PRESSURE - The pressure at which a boiler is operated.

Operating Pressure -The pressure at the top of a pressure vessel at which it normally operates. It can not exceed the maximum
allowable working pressure (Stamped Pressure).

ORGANIC MATTER- Compounds containing carbon often derived from living organisms.

ORIFICE - (1) The opening from the whirling chamber of a mechanical atomizer or the mixing chamber of a steam atomizer
through which the liquid fuel is discharged. (2) A calibrated opening in a plate, inserted in a gas stream for measure velocity of
flow.

Orifice discharge coefficient (Cd) - The ratio of the actual flow through an orifice to that of the theoretical or isentropic flow
through an orifice. Basically this parameter is a measure of the orifice efficiency. Valves are dimensionless and range from 0.61
for a thin-plate orifice to 0.85 for thick plate square-edged orifices, and up top 0.90- 0.95for tapered orifices.

ORSAT- a gas-analysis apparatus in which certain gaseous constituents are measured by absorption in separate chemical
solution.

Orsat - An instrument for determining the chemical analysis of flue gas.

OVERPRESSURE - Minimum operating pressure of a hot water boiler sufficient to prevent the water from steaming.

Oxidation- Chemical combination with oxygen.

OXIDIZING ATMOSPHERE - An atmosphere which tends to promote the oxidation of immersed materials.

Oxygen attack - Corrosion or pitting in a boiler caused by oxygen.

Packaged boiler - A boiler equipped and shipped complete with fuel-burning equipment, mechanical draft equipment,
automatic controls and accessories; usually shipped in one or more major sections.

PACKAGED BOILER - A boiler supplied with all of its components - burner, controls and auxiliary equipment, designed as a single
engineered package, and ready for on-site installation.

PAH (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) - The carcinogenic by-products of some very sub-stoichiometric combustion processes.
Usually absent in process burners.

PARTICLE SIZE - A measure of dust size, expressed in microns or per cent passing through a standard mesh screen. PASS - A
confined passageway, containing heating surface, through which a fluid flows in essentially one direction.

Particulates - The residue left over from coal and fuel oil combustion.

Pascal - A unit of pressure. One Pascal (Pa) is equal to a force of one Newton per square meter.

Pass- A confined passageway, containing heating surface, through which fluid flows essentially one direction.

PERFECT COMBUSTION - The complete oxidation of all the combustible constituents of a fuel, utilizing all the oxygen supplied.

Perfect or Stoichiometric combustion - The complete oxidation of all the combustible constitutes of a fuel, utilizing all the
oxygen supplied.

PETROLEUM - Naturally occurring mineral oil consisting predominately of hydrocarbons.

pH - The hydrogen ion concentration of a water to denote Acidity or Alkalinity. A pH of 7 is neutral. A pH above 7 denotes
alkalinity while one below 7 denotes acidity. This pH number is the negative exponent of 10 representing hydrogen ion
concentration in grams per liter. For instance, a pH of 7 represent 10-7 grams per liter.

PILOT - (See also Ignitor.) A flame which is utilized to ignite the fuel at the main burner or burners.

Pilot- A small burner which is used to light the main burner.

Pilot flame establishing period - The length of time fuel is permitted to be delivered to a proved pilot before the flame-sensing
device is required to detect pilot flame.

Pilot, constant - A pilot that burns without turndown throughout the entire time the boiler is in service.

Pilot, proved - A pilot flame which has been proved by flame-failure controls.

Pit- Corrosion localized in a small spot.

PITOT TUBE - An instrument which will register total pressure and static pressure in a gas stream, used to determine its velocity.

PITTING - A concentrated attack by oxygen or other corrosive chemicals in a boiler, producing a localized depression in the
metal surface.

Plenum- An enclosure through which gas or air passes at relatively low velocities.

Plug Weld - A circular weld made through a hole in one member of a lap joint.

Plug Weld-A circular weld made through a hole in one member of a lap joint.

Porosity-A cavity formed by gas entrapment during welding.

PORT - An opening through which fluid passes.

POST PURGE - A method of scavenging the furnace and boiler passes to remove all combustible gases after flame failure
controls have sensed pilot and main burner shutdown and safety shut-off valves are closed.

Post purge - A period after the fuel valves close during which the burner motor or fan continues to run, to supply air to the
combustion chamber.
Post weld Heat Treatment Heating a vessel to a sufficient temperature to relieve the residual stresses which are the result of
welding and forming.

Post weld Heat Treatment -Heating a vessel to a sufficient temperature to relieve the residual stresses which are the result of
welding and forming.

POTABLE fit to drink.

ppm - Abbreviation for parts per million. Used in chemical determinations as one part per million parts by weight.

PRECIPITATE - To separate materials from a solution by the formation of insoluble matter by chemical reaction. The material
which is removed.

PRECIPITATION- The removal of solid or liquid particles from a fluid.

PREHEATED AIR - Air at a temperature exceeding that of the ambient air. PRESSURE - Force per unit of area.

Preheating-Heat applied to base metal prior to welding.

Pre-mixed flame - Before ignition, the fuel and air are intimately mixed. The combustion process is controlled by heat
conduction and diffusion of radicals.

Pre-purge period - A period on each start-up during which air is introduced into the combustion chamber and associated flue
passages in volume and manner as to completely replace the air or fuel air-mixture contained therein prior to an attempt to
initiate combustion.

Pressure - As applied to boilers, the force exerted by a liquid or gas on a unit area. Three pressures may be involved: gauge
pressure, the unit pressure above atmospheric pressure; absolute pressure, gauge pressure plus the atmospheric pressure;
vacuum pressure; the pressure below atmospheric pressure usually expressed in inches of Hg.

PRESSURE DROP - The difference in pressure between two points in a system, caused by resistance to flow.

PRESSURE VESSEL - A closed vessel or container designed to confine a fluid at a pressure above atmospheric.

Pressure, gas - The force exerted per unit area on a surface created by the collision of gas molecules with the surface.

Pressure, static- The pressure of a gas measured at a point where the gas velocity is zero.

Pressure, total - The sum of the static pressure and the velocity pressure of the gas.

Pressure, velocity or dynamic - The pressure of flowing gas attributed to the impact of gas molecules resulting from the velocity
of the gas flow.

Primary air- Air introduced with fuel at the burners.

Primary Flow the flow pipe from boiler to pump before any Motorised valve

Priming - An induction of boiler water caused by the steam flow into the steam line. The water may be in the form of a spray or
a solid body.

PRIMING - The discharge of steam containing excessive quantities of water in suspension from a boiler, due to violent
ebullition.

Procedure Qualification - The demonstration that welds made by a specific procedure can meet code standards.

Process steam- Steam used for industrial purposes other than for producing power.

PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION- The gases, vapors, and solids resulting form the combustion of fuel.

Programmer -A timer that will operate more than one channel.

Prompt NOx- NOx formed at the initial stages of combustion that cannot be explained by either the thermal mechanism or the
fuel NOx mechanism. The prompt NOx mechanism requires the CH radical as an intermediate, so the fuel must have carbon
present to create prompt NOx.

Propane - a manufactured gas typically used for cooking or heating.

Proportional control - A mode of control in which there is a continuous linear relation between value of the controller variable
and position of the final control element (modulating control).

PROPYLENE GLYCOL a sweet colorless, viscous, hygroscopic liquid used as an antifreeze, brake fluid, cosmetics and personal
care items. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has determined propylene glycol to be "generally recognized as safe" for
use in food, cosmetics, and medicines.

Puff - A minor combustion explosion within the boiler furnace or setting.

Pulsation -Rapid fluctuations in furnace pressure.

PULSATION- Rapid fluctuations in pressure.

Pump over run -Device to cool boiler down after call for heat has finished.

Pump-For circulating the water.

PURGE - To introduce air into the furnace and the boiler flue passages in such volume and manner as to completely replace the
air or gas-air mixture contained therein.

Purge interlock - A device so arranged that an air flow to the furnace above a minimum must exist for a definite time interval
before the interlocking system will permit an automatic ignition torch to be placed in operation.

Push Nipples - metal sleeves used to join adjacent sections of a boiler.

Radiant- As applied to heat, having the property that permits heat to be transmitted by rays similar to those of light. To absorb
radiant heat, an object must be in the "light" of the fire.

Radiant Heating- the method of heating the walls, floors or ceilings in order to transfer heat to the occupants of a room.

Radiant section - The part of a process heater into which the burners fire. Tubes mounted in this area of the furnace receive
heat principally via direct radiation from both burner flames and furnace refractory. Physical volume arrangement of the
radiant section has a great effect on burner choice and required flame patterns.

Radiation - All warm bodies emit light (electromagnetic radiation - mostly infrared). When this radiation is absorbed or emitted
by a body, heat is transferred and termed "heat transfer by radiation". Such heat transfer requires a line of sight (view factor)
and is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature difference between bodies and the emissivity of the
bodies.

RADIATION the transfer of heat by emitting waves of energy.

RADIATION LOSS - A comprehensive term used in a boiler-unit heat balance to account for the conduction, radiation, and
convection heat losses from the boiler to the ambient air.

Radiator - a heating element, typically metal, used in conjunction with water or steam to give off heat.

Radio graphing The process of passing radiation through a weld joint obtaining a record of its soundness upon a readable film.

RATE OF BLOWDOWN -A rate normally expressed as a percentage of the water fed.

Rated capacity - The manufacturer's stated capacity rating for mechanical equipment, for instance, the maximum continuous
capacity in pounds of steam per hour for which a boiler is designed.

RATING- See "Load."

Ratio of specific heats (k) - Also known as isentropic coefficient. Is equal to the quotient of the heat capacity at constant
pressure and the heat capacity at constant volume. (Cp/Cv). This parameter is tabulated for many pure components at standard
conditions, but is technically dependent on the gas composition and temperature. The values are dimensionless and range from
1.0 to 1.6.

Raw water- Untreated feed-water.

RAW WATER- Water supplied to the plant before any treatment.

REACTION - A chemical transformation or change brought about by the interaction of two substances.

REASSOCIATION- The recombination of the products of dissociation.

RECIRCULATION - The reintroduction of part of the flowing fluid to repeat the cycle of circulation.

Recycle - The process of sequencing a normal burner start-up following shutdown.

REDUCING ATMOSPHERE - An atmosphere which tends to 1) promote the removal of oxygen from a chemical compound; 2)
promote the reduction of immersed materials.

REDUCTION- Removal of oxygen from a chemical compound.

REFRACTION the deflection from a straight path undergone by an energy wave in passing from one medium (as air or gas)
into another (such as glass or ceramic) in which its velocity is different.

Refractory - A heat-insulating material, such as firebrick or plastic fire clay, used for purposes as lining combustion chambers.

REFRACTORY - Brickwork or castable used in boilers to protect metal surfaces and for boiler baffles.

Regulator, gas pressure - A spring loaded, dead weighted or pressure balanced device which will maintain the gas pressure to
the burner supply line.

Reheater - A device using highly superheated steam or high-temperature flue gases as a medium serving to restore superheat
to partly expanded steam; used often between high - and low-pressure turbines.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY - The ratio of the mass of water vapor present in a unit volume of gas to the maximum possible mass of
water vapor in unit volume of the same gas at the same temperature and pressure.

Relay - A device that is operative by a variation in the conditions of one electric circuit to start the operation of other devices in
the same or another electric circuit (such as pressure or temperature relay).

RELIEF VALVE (Safety Relief Valve) - An automatic pressure relieving device actuated by the pressure upstream of the valve and
characterized by opening pop action with further increase in lift with an increase in pressure over popping pressure.

RENEWABLE ENERGY (RES) sources that capture their energy from existing flows of energy, from on-going natural processes,
such as sunshine, wind, flowing water, biological processes, and geothermal heat flows. Neither fossil fuels nor nuclear power
are considered to be renewable.

RESIDUAL FUELS - Products remaining from crude petroleum by removal of some of the water and an appreciable percentage
of the more volatile hydrocarbons. RESIN- A bead-like material used in chemical exchange for softeners and de-alkalizers.

RESISTANCE - Impediment to gas flow, such as pressure drop or draft loss through a dust collector. Usually measured in inches
water column (iwc).

RETURN FLOW OIL BURNER - A mechanical atomizing oil burner in which part of the oil supplied to the atomizer is withdrawn
and returned to storage or to the oil line supplying the atomizer.

Return trap - A trap designed to discharge its condensate against boiler pressure and feed to the boiler without additional
mechanical equipment.

Return Water -Returning to boiler for re-heating.

RINGELMANN CHART - A series of four rectangular grids of black lines of varying widths printed on a white background, and
used as a criterion of blackness for determining smoke density in stack gas streams.

Ringlemann chart - A series of four rectangular grids of black lines of varying widths printed on white background, used in
criterion of blackness for determining smoke density from chimneys.

Riser tube- A tube through which steam and water pass from an upper water-wall header to a drum.

Rocking grate: An advanced form of fire bar, where sections of the grate may be rocked or tipped to either breakup clinker
within the fire, or to drop the fire after a day's work.

Room Sealed-The boiler will take air for combustion from outside.

ROTARY OIL BURNER - A burner in which atomization is accomplished by feeding oil to the inside of a rapidly rotating cup.

SADDLE- A casting, fabricated chair, or member used for the purpose of support.

SAFE WORKING PRESSURE- See "Design Pressure."

Safety shut down - The action of shutting off all fuel and ignition energy to the burner by means of safety control or controls
such that restart cannot be accomplished without operator action.

Safety Shut-off Device - any device used to shut down a heating appliance in the event an unsafe condition exists.

SAFETY SHUT-OFF VALVE - A manually opened, electrically latched, electrically operated safety shut-off valve designed to
automatically shut off fuel when de-energized.

Safety valve - A valve that automatically opens when pressure attains the valve setting which is adjustable; used to prevent
excessive pressure from building up in a boiler.

Safety Valve (pressure relief valve) - The Safety Valve is a device designed to safely release excess pressure within a boiler by
opening at a pre-set pressure limit. If boiler pressure reaches this limit, the valve opens and steam vents until the pressure has
been reduced. A skilled operator will rarely produce so much pressure that the valve opens. One of the keys to being a good
operator is to only produce as much steam as required for any given job. The safety valve can actually make a low water
situation worse by using up water from the boiler and making it even hotter and making even more steam until it gets to the
point where the valve is unable to vent the steam as fast as it is made meaning pressure increases again, possibly to dangerous
levels if left unchecked. Of course, at times it is impossible to stop the valve lifting, such as when an operator is running an
engine under load on a sawmill and the belt slips off or the mill operator stops a cut quickly the steam that was being used in
the engine suddenly isn't and may just escape through the safety instead if the pressure was close to the limit. James Hansen
offered some extra information on safety valves...Pressure should be brought up to the point of release, and observed for
results daily. What is the use of having a safety device whose operation is unknown. It could be stuck. Doing so once a day
under a controlled condition will test it under controlled conditions, and ensure it does not stick on a less than attentive
operator (no-one that we know right?) If it does not pop, and giving the hand lever a bump does not cause it to release, the
boiler pressure should be reduced, and the engine taken out of service until the cause can be determined- either a faulty valve
or maybe a faulty pressure gauge indicating too high. This should be entered into the engine log by the operator as being done.

Safety valve drain - A hole of at least 3/8 in diameter required through the body below the valve seat level in safety valves
larger than 2-in diameter; used to prevent condensate from collecting at this point.

Safety valve escape- A pipe conducting steam discharged from a safety valve to a safe location.

Safety valve: an automatic valve used to release excess pressure within the boiler.

Safety-valve lifting lever - A lever by which safety valve may be lifted from its seat.

Safety-valve muffler - A silencer designed so that it will not cause appreciable restriction to steam flow.

Safety-valve nozzle - A flanged nozzle by which a safety valve is connected to a boiler shell or drum.

SAMPLING- The removal of a portion of a material for examination or analysis.

SATURATED AIR - Air which contains the maximum amount of water vapor that it can hold at its temperature and pressure.

SATURATED STEAM- Steam at the temperature and pressure at which evaporation occurs.

SATURATED TEMPERATURE - The temperature at which evaporation occurs at a particular pressure.

SATURATED WATER- Water at its boiling point.

SAW-Submerged Arc Welding.

Scale - A deposit of medium to extreme hardness occurring on water heating surfaces of a boiler because of an undesirable
condition of boiler water.

SCALE - A hard coating or layer of materials on surfaces of boiler pressure parts.

Scrubber -An apparatus for the removal of solids from gases by entrainment in water.

Scum valve: A blow-down valve mounted at the water-level of a boiler, used to blow-down lighter oily or foamy deposits within
a boiler that float on the water-level.

Seal weld- A weld used primarily to obtain tightness and prevent leakage.

Seal Weld used primarily to obtain tightness.

Sealed Combustion - a boiler design where all the air for combustion is taken from the outside atmosphere and all exhaust
products are released to the outside atmosphere, also known as direct vent.

Sealed system- Water sealed from the atmosphere (needs expansion vessel)

SECONDARY AIR- Air for combustion supplied to the furnace to supplement the primary air.

Secondary Circulation an hot water circuit used with cylinders which gives instant hot water at all taps (needs a bronze pump"

Secondary combustion - Combustion which occurs as a result of ignition at a point beyond the furnace.

SECONDARY TREATMENT - Treatment of boiler feed water or internal treatment of boiler water after primary treatment.

Secondary treatment - Treatment of boiler feed-water or internal treatment of boiler water after primary treatment.

SEDIMENT - (1) Matter in water which can be removed from suspension by gravity or mechanical means. (2) A non-combustible
solid matter which settles out at bottom of a liquid; a small percentage is present in residual fuel oils.

SEGREGATION - The tendency of refuse of varying compositions to deposit selectively in difference parts of the unit.

SELF-SUPPORTING STEEL STACK - A steel stack of sufficient strength to require no lateral support.

Separator - A tank-type pressure vessel installed in a steam pipe to collect condensate to be trapped off and thus providing
comparatively dry steam to connect machinery.

SERVICE WATER - General purpose water which may or may not have been treated for a special purpose.

Shell- The cylindrical portion of a pressure vessel.

SHELL - The cylindrical portion of a pressure vessel.

Shell -refers to the main sheets of metal from which the boiler is constructed. Typically rolled steel which is either overlapped
and riveted at the join or in more modern units seam welded to make a cylinder.

Silica - A scale-forming element found in some boiler feed waters.

Sinous header - A header of a sectional header-type boiler in which the sides are curved back and forth to suit the stagger of
the boiler tubes connected to the header faces.
Siphon - A pigtail-shaped pipe or a drop leg in the pipe leading to a steam pressure gauge, serving to trap water in the gauge
and prevent overheating from direct contact with steam.

SLUDGE - A soft water-formed sedimentary deposit which normally can be removed by blowing down.

SLUG - A large "dose" of chemical treatment applied internally to a steam boiler intermittently. Also used sometimes instead of
"priming" to denote a discharge of water out through a boiler steam outlet in relatively large intermittent amounts.

Slug - A solid body of boiler water passed into the steam flow by priming or picked up from a pocket of condensate in the steam
line.

SMAW-Shielded Metal Arc Welding.

SMOKE - Small gas borne particles of carbon or soot, less than 1 micron in size, resulting from incomplete combustion of
carbonaceous materials and of sufficient number to be observable.

SMOKE visible gaseous product of incomplete combustion. Smoke varies with its source, but it usually comprises hot gas and
suspended particles of carbon and tarry substances, or soot. Proper firing techniques and equipment can eliminate or greatly
reduce the smoke produced by any fuel. Wood gives little smoke if burned when dry and if the fire is given a good supply of air.

Smoke Box - The smoke box is at the cooler end of the fire/flue tubes away from the fire. The smoke accumulates here before
being vented out the stack in the conventional boiler or passing through a return flue to the stack in a return flue boiler. The
space is provided to both keep the non fire end of the boiler warm and to collect cinders and sparks before they vent out
through the stack.

Smokebox-an enclosed space at the extremity of a fire-tube boiler, where the exhaust gases from the tubes are combined
together and pass to the flue or chimney.

SOFT WATER - Water which contains little or no calcium or magnesium salts, or water from which scale forming impurities have
been removed or reduced.

Softening- The act of reducing scale-forming calcium and magnesium impurities from water.

SOLUTION- A liquid, such as boiler water, containing dissolved substances.

Sonic flow - When the flow velocity is equal to the speed of sound. The point at which the flow turns sonic is called critical
pressure. This transition occurs at about 12.2 psig for natural gas at 60o F.

SOOT- Unburned particles of carbon derived from hydrocarbons.

SOOT BLOWER - A mechanical device for discharging steam or air to clean heat absorbing surfaces.

Soot blower - A tube from which jets of steam or compressed air are blown for cleaning the fireside of tubes or other parts of
the boiler.

SPALLING - The breaking off of the surface of refractory material as a result of internal stresses.

Spalling - The breaking off of the surface refractory material as a result of internal stresses.

Specific gravity- The ratio of the weight of a unit volume of a material to the weight of the same unit volume of water.

Specific heat - The quantity of heat, expressed in Btu (joule) required to raise the temperature of 1 lb. (kilogram) of a substance
1oF (oC)

SPECIFIC HEAT - The quantity of heat, expressed in Btu, required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of a substance 1F.

SPECIFIC HEAT - The quantity of heat, expressed in Btu, required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of a substance 1F.

SPECIFIC HUMIDITY - The weight of water vapor in a gas water-vapor mixture per unit weight of dry gas.

SPECIFIC HUMIDITY - The weight of water vapor in a gas water-vapor mixture per unit weight of dry gas.
Spontaneous combustion - Ignition of combustible material following slow oxidation without the application of high
temperature from an external source.

SPRAY ANGLE - The angle included between the sides of the cone formed by liquid fuel discharged from mechanical, rotary
atomizers and by some forms of steam or air atomizers.

SPRAY ANGLE - The angle included between the sides of the cone formed by liquid fuel discharged from mechanical, rotary
atomizers and by some forms of steam or air atomizers.

SPRAY NOZZLE -A nozzle from which a liquid fuel is discharged in the form of a spray.

Spray nozzle- A nozzle from which a liquid fuel is discharged in the form of a spray.

SPRAY NOZZLE -A nozzle from which a liquid fuel is discharged in the form of a spray.

SSU - (seconds, Say bolt Universal) units of kinematic viscosity.

Stack - A vertical conduit, which due to the difference in density between internal and external gases creates a draft at its base.

STACK - A vertical conduit, which due to the difference in density between internal and external gases, creates a draft at its
base.

Stack Damper - a device installed in the venting system that will automatically close when the appliance shuts down.

Stack draft- The magnitude of the draft measured at inlet to the stack.

STACK EFFECT - That portion of a pressure differential resulting from difference in elevation of the points of measurement.

Stack effluent - Gas and solid products discharged from the stack.

Stack loss- The fraction of total heat which exits with the flue gas through the stack. The quantity is customarily expressed as a
percent of the total heat input. The stack loss is directly proportional to the stack exit temperature; the higher the temperature,
the greater the stack loss.

Staged air- NOx reduction technique predominantly used for fuel oil firing. The fuel is injected into a fuel-rich primary zone. This
stoichiometry helps to control the fuel Nox mechanism. When firing gas, staged air produces higher NOx emissions than staged
fuel.

Staged fuel - NOx reduction technique whereby a small portion of the fuel is injected in a lean primary combustion zone. The
flue products from this region flow to the secondary combustion zone where the remainder of the fuel is burned out. The
lengthening of the flame creates cooler flame temperatures, thus lowering thermal NOx.

STAGNATION- The condition of being free from movement or lacking circulation.

STANDARD AIR - Dry air weighing 0.075 lb per cu ft. at sea level (29.92 in. Barometric Pressure) and 70 F.

STANDARD FLUE GAS - Gas weighing 0.078 lb per cu ft. at sea level (29.92 in. Barometric Pressure) and 70 F.

STANDBY LOSS Amount of heat lost per hour (measured in %) while heater is in standby mode (no water being drawn). Loss
can occur through jacket or piping. Average is 2 to 4 percent.

Stat-Abbreviation for Thermostat a device for regulating temperature

Static pressure - The measure of potential energy of a fluid.

Stay bolt- A bolt threaded through or welded at each end, into two spaced sheets of a firebox or box header to support flat
surfaces against internal pressure.

Steam- The vapor phase of water substantially unmixed with other gases.

STEAM- The vapor phase of water, unmixed with other gases.

Steam & water drum: a steam drum that contains a turbulent mixture of steam and water, with a substantial part of this being
water. The terms are used somewhat interchangeably.

Steam atomizing oil burner - A burner for firing oil which is atomized by steam. It may be of the inside or outside mixing type.

Steam binding- A restriction in circulation due to a steam pocket or rapid steam formation.

Steam Boiler - a heating unit designed to heat by boiling water, producing steam, and circulating it to radiators or steam
baseboard units throughout the home.

Steam Dome - Steam Engines need hot dry steam to operate effectively without damage. Taking steam from near the water
picks up very wet steam and may even suck up water which (being uncompressible) would destroy a steam engine. The Steam
Dome is a space as high as possible above the boiler but directly open to the boiler sometimes with a baffle in place to stop
splashing. The steam from this area is as dry as it can be without external help- see Super Heater.

Steam drum-a cylindrical vessel mounted at a high point of a water-tube boiler, where dry steam may separate above the water
level, so that it may be drawn off without risk of priming.

Steam Gage- A gage for indicating the pressure of steam.

STEAM GAUGE- A gauge for indicating the pressure of steam.

Steam generating unit - A unit to which water, fuel, and air are supplied and in which steam is generated. It consists of a boiler
furnace, and fuel burning equipment, and may include as component parts water walls, super-heater, reheater, economizer, air
heater, or any combination thereof.

Steam Jacket- A Steam Jacket is a space around the engine cylinder which is filled with live steam to stop the engine cooling
when paused and to reduce lost heat. If the engine cools, the steam in it condenses which can be disastrous under
compression.

Steam purity- The degree of contamination. Contamination usually expressed in ppm.

Steam quality - The percent by weight of a vapor in a steam and water mixture.

Steam scrubber -A series of screens, wires, or plates through which steam is passed to remove entrained moisture.

Steam separator - A device for removing entrained water from steam.

Steam Space - The space within the boiler which contains no water and accumulates steam whenever the boiler is in operation.
The size of the steam space has to be well matched for the engine being powered from the boiler. Not enough and the engine
will be starved, too much and the heat is simply wasted.

Strainer- A device, such as a filter, to retain solid particles allowing the liquid to pass.

STRATIFICATION- Non-homogeneity existing transversely in a gas stream.

STUD - A projecting pin serving as a support or means of attachment.

Stud Welding Joining a metal stud to a work piece by welding with a suitable process.

Suction valve: an automatic non-return valve, which opens when the boiler is at less than atmospheric pressure. This avoids any
risk of vacuum collapse, when a hot boiler is allowed to cool down out of service.

Sulphate - carbonate ratio - The proportion of sulphates to carbonates, or alkalinity expressed as carbonates, in boiler water.
The proper maintenance of this ratio has been advocated as a means of inhibiting caustic embrittlement.

Super Heater - Some boilers have a Super Heater fitted. This is a simple device where the live steam from the boiler is passed
through the smoke box to further heat and dry the steam. After the super heater the steam then passes directly to the engine.

Superheat - To raise the temperature of steam above its saturation temperature. The temperature in excess of its saturation
temperature.
SUPERHEATED STEAM- Steam at higher temperature than its saturation temperature.

SUPERHEATED STEAM - Steam with its temperature raised above that of saturation. The temperature in excess of its saturation
temperature is referred to as superheat.

Supply Tapping- opening in a boiler by which hot water enters the heating system.

Surface blow-off - Removal of water, foam, etc. from the surface at the water level in a boiler. The equipment for such removal.

Surge -The sudden displacement or movement of water in a closed vessel or drum.

SURGE - The sudden displacement or movement of water in a closed vessel or drum.

Suspended solids - Undissolved solids in boiler water.

Swell-The sudden increase in the volume of steam in the water steam mixture below the water level.

Swinging load- A load that changes at relatively short intervals system.

Tack Weld A weld made to hold parts of a weldment in proper alignment until final welds are made.

Tank-A store for cold water, usually at the highest point (allow expansion of water).

Tank-less Heater - a copper coil submerged into the heated boiler water used to transfer heat to domestic water.

TEMPERATURE RISE Difference between existing and desired water temperature. Number of degrees (F) water must be
raised, whether from inlet or preheated water.

Tempering air - Air at a lower temperature added to a stream of pre-heated air to modify its temperature.

TERTIARY AIR - Air for combustion supplied to the furnace to supplement the primary and secondary air.

Theoretical air - The quantity of air required for perfect combustion.

Theoretical draft - The draft which would be available at the base of a stack if there were no friction or acceleration losses from
the stack.

THEORETICAL DRAFT - The draft which would be available at the base of a stack if there were no friction or acceleration losses
in the stack.

Theoretical flame temperature - Same as "adiabatic temperature".

THEORETICAL FLAME TEMPERATURE- See "Adiabatic Flame Temperature."

Therm - A unit of heat applied especially to gas. One Therm = 100,000 Btu.

THERM measure of heat. One (1) Therm equals 100,000 BTUs.

Thermal conductivity - The ability of a material to conduct heat, expressed as Thermal power conducted per unit temperature
and thickness. Metals and other Thermal "conductors" have a large Thermal conductivity. Refractories and other Thermal
"insulators" have a low Thermal conductivity.

THERMAL EFFICIENCY- The efficiency of a boiler, based on the ratio of heat.

THERMAL EFFICIENCY - The efficiency of a boiler, based on the ratio of heat absorbed to total heat input. This does not include
heat loss from the boiler shell.

THERMAL EFFICIENCY the rate at which heat exchange surfaces transfer heat to the transfer medium (e.g., air to water or
water or air). It is typically measured as the ratio of BTU output of hot water to BTU input of fuel. Types of heat movement that
impact Thermal efficiency: 1. Conductive/Convective heating surfaces also referred to as secondary or indirect heating
surfaces including all surfaces exposed only to hot combustion gases. 2. Radiant heating surfaces also called direct or primary
heating surfaces and consist of heat exchanger surfaces directly exposed to radiant heat from the flame. Radiant heat transfer
is tremendously more effective than conductive/convective heat transfer and, contrary to commonly accepted belief, is where
most of the heat transfer occurs in a boiler, furnace or forced air system.

Thermal NOx - NOx formed via the Zeldovich mechanism. The rate-limiting step in this mechanism is the formation of the O
radical. This occurs only at high temperatures (above about 2400o F.). Hence the term Thermal NOx, since it is NOX produced in
the highest temperature regions of the flame.

THERMAL SHOCK - A cycle of temperature swings that result in failure of metal due to expansion and contraction.

Thermo acoustical efficiency - Equal to the sound power level/heat release. A value used to characterize the amount of
combustion noise emitted from a flame. Defined as the ratio of the acoustical power emitted from the flame to the total heat
release of the flame. Approximately equal to 1 X 10-6 for premixed and turbulent flames and equal to 1 X 10-9 for diffusion and
laminar flames.

Thermocouple- A temperature measuring instrument.

Thermostat - Device for controlling temperature This is similar to the function of a dome in a Fire tube boiler.

Three-drum boiler: A generic term for water-tube boilers of the Yarrow pattern.

Throat -The neck portion of a passageway.

Through stay - A brace used in fire-tube boilers between the heads or tube sheets.

Tie plate -A plate, through which a bolt or tie rod is passed to hold brick in place.

Tie rod- A tension member between buck stays or tie plates.

TILE- A preformed refractory, usually applied to shapes other than standard brick.

Time delay- A deliberate delay of a predetermined time in the action of a safety device or control.

Top-feed: in locomotive boilers, a feed water check valve placed on the top of the boiler drum. This encourages rapid mixing of
the cold feed water with the hot steam, reducing the risk of Thermal shock to the heated parts of the boiler.

Total air - The total quantity of air supplied to the fuel and products of combustion. Percent total air is the ratio of total air to
theoretical air expressed as per cent.

Total pressure - The sum of the static and velocity pressures.

Total solids concentration - The weight of dissolved and suspended impurities in a unit weight of boiler water, usually expressed
as ppm.

Trail for main flame ignition - A timed interval when with the ignition means proved, the main valve is permitted to remain
open. If the main burner is not ignited during this period, the main valve and ignition means are cut off. A safety switch lockout
follows.

Trail for pilot ignition - A timed interval when the pilot valve is held open and an attempt made to ignite and prove it. If the
presence of the pilot is proved at the termination of the interval, the main valve is energized; if not the pilot and ignition are cut
off followed by a safety lockout.

Trail-for-ignition- That period of time during which the programming flame failure controls permit the burner fuel valves to be
open before the flame sensing device is required to detect the flame.

Tramp air - Any air that enters (infiltrates) the furnace through leaks. This air may be measured by the O2 analyzer and often
contributes to the burning of the fuel.

Trap - A receptacle for the collection of undesirable material.

Treated water- Water which has been chemically treated to make suitable for boiler feed.

TRIM - Ancillary boiler components, like water level controls, pressure controls, and temperature controls.
Try cock - One of three valves mounted on a boiler or water column within the visible range of the gauge glass and used to
check the water level.

Tube- A hollow cylinder for conveying fluids.

Tube cleaner- A device for cleaning tubes by brushing, hammering, or by rotating cutters.

TUBE HOLE- A hole in a drum, heater, or tube sheet to accommodate a tube.

Tube plug- A solid plug driven into the end of a tube.

Tube Sheets- The steel plates at each end of the boiler which hold the fire tubes or flue pipes.

Turbulent burner - A burner in which fuel and air are mixed and discharged into the furnace in such a manner as to produce
turbulent flow from the burner.

Turbulent flow - Characteristically random flow patterns that form eddies from large to small scales. For internal flows, it occurs
at Reynolds numbers greater than 4000. Turbulence is integral to the mixing process between the fuel and air for combustion.

TURNDOWN RATIO- Ratio of maximum to minimum fuel or steam input or boiler output.

UHC - Any unburned hydrocarbon that is emitted in a combustion process. Also termed VOC (volatile organic compound).

UL LISTED- Product certification that indicates the product meets safety standards determined by Underwriters Laboratories.
(ULC and cUL indicate Canadian requirements.)

ULTIMATE ANALYSIS - See "Analysis Ultimate."

Unaccounted for loss - That portion of a boiler heat balance, which represents the difference between 100 per cent and the
sum of the heat absorbed by the unit and all the classified losses expressed as percent.

Unburned combustible- The combustible portion of the fuel, which is not completely oxidized.

Under-cut - A groove melted into the base metal adjacent to the toe or root of a weld and left unfilled by weld metal.

UNDERWRITERS LABORATORIES UL is an independent, not-for-profit product-safety testing and certification organization. UL

has tested products for public safety for over a century. Each year more than 17 billion UL Marks are applied to products
worldwide. (NOTE: UL is not affiliated with Greenwood Technologies.)

Unfired pressure vessel- A vessel designed to withstand internal pressure, neither subjected to heat from products of
combustion nor an integral part of a fired pressure vessel system.

Unvented Cylinder Like a standard indirect cylinder but will give true mains mater pressure at all taps.

Use factor - The ratio of hours in operation to the total hours in that period.

VA - Volt amperes.

Valve- manual gas shutoff - A manually operated valve in a gas line for the purpose of completely turning on or shutting off the
gas supply.

Valve- manual reset safety shutoff - A manually opened, electronically latched, electrically operated safety shut-off valve
designed to automatically shut off fuel when de-energized.

Valve- motor driven reset safety shutoff - An electrically operated safety shut-off valve designed to automatically shut off fuel
flow upon being de-energized. The valve is opened and reset automatically by integral motor device only.

Valve, fuel control - An automatically or manually operated device consisting essentially of a regulating valve and an operating
mechanism. It is used to regulate fuel flow and is usually in addition to the safety shut-off valve. Such valve may be of the
automatic or manually opened type.

Vane - A fixed or adjustable plate inserted in a gas or air stream used to change the direction of flow.
Vane control - A set of movable vanes in the inlet of a fan to provide regulation of airflow.

Vane guide - A set of stationary vanes to govern direction, velocity and distribution of air or gas flow.

Vapor- The gaseous product of evaporation.

Vapor generator - A container of liquid, other than water, which is vaporized by the absorption of heat.

Vaporization - The change from liquid or solid phase to the vapor phase.

Velocity pressure - The measure of kinetic energy of a fluid.

Velocity Thermocouple - (suction pyrometer) a device for measuring furnace gas temperature. It is comprised of a
Thermocouple, which has been recessed into an insulating shroud, and a suction device such as an eductor, which aspirates
large volumes of furnace gas through the shroud and past the Thermocouple. The high velocity of a gas ensures good
convective heat transfer to the Thermocouple and surrounding furnace. The velocity Thermocouple represents the most
accurate means to measure flue gas temperature. Bare Thermocouples are unacceptable for this purpose, being in error often
by more than 100o F due to radiation losses.

Vent- An opening in a vessel or other enclosed space for the removal of gas or vapor.

Vent pip- The same as an Expansion pipe.

Ventilation -Air vent, either for cooling or supplying air for combustion.

Vertical firing - An arrangement of a burner such that air and fuel are discharged into the furnace, in practically a vertical
direction.

Viscosity- Measure of the internal friction of a fluid or its resistance to flow.

Volatile matter - Those products given off by a material as gas or vapor, determined by definite prescribed methods.

Volume of air- The number of cubic feet of air per minute expressed at fan outlet conditions. Vortex - (1) The swirling motion
of a liquid in a vessel at the entrance to a discharge nozzle. (2) The point in a cyclonic gas path where the two spirals change
general direction by 180o.

Waste fuel - Any by-product fuel that is waste from a manufacturing process.

WASTE HEAT- Sensible heat in non-combustible gases discharged to the environment.

WATER- A liquid composed of two parts of hydrogen and sixteen parts oxygen by weight.

Water column - A vertical tubular member connected at its top and bottom to the steam and water space respectively to a
boiler, to which the water gage, gage cocks, high and low water alarms and fuel cut-off may be connected.

Water gage- The gage glass and its fittings for attachment.

Water hammer - A sudden increase in pressure of water due to an instantaneous conversion or momentum to pressure.

Water Leg - This is the space to the sides of and sometimes below the firebox containing water. Typically, the sediment and
mud gathers within this space. See Mud Ring.

Water level- The elevation of the surface of the water in a boiler.

WATER SOFTENER - Removes hardness (CaCO3) from water through an ion exchange of sodium with calcium and magnesium.

Water tube - A tube in a boiler having the water and steam on the inside and heat applied to the outside.

Water vapor- A synonym for steam, usually used to denote steam of absolute low pressure.

Water-wall: a furnace or other wall within a boiler enclosure that is composed of numerous closely set water-tubes. These
tubes may be either bare, or covered by a mineral cement.
WEEP- A term usually applied to a minute leak in a boiler joint which forms droplets (or tears) of water very slowly.

Wet back - Baffle provided in a Fire tube boiler joining the furnace to the second pass to direct the products of combustion that
is completely water-cooled.

Wet steam - Steam containing moisture.

WETBACK BOILER - Fire tube boiler design wherein the back portion of the boiler has a water jacket.

WET-BULB TEMPERATURE - The lowest temperature which a water wetted body will attain when exposed to an air current. This
is the temperature of adiabatic saturation, and can be used to measure humidity.

WETNESS - A term used to designate the percentage of water in steam. Also used to describe the presence of a water film on
heating surface interiors.

Wind box - A chamber below the grate or surrounding a burner, thru which air under pressure is supplied for combustion of the
fuel.

Wind box pressure- The static pressure in the Wind box of a burner or stoker.

WOOD BOILER the term "boiler" typically refers to a device that converts water to steam for the purpose of heating or
power generation. In the home heating industry, the term boiler typically refers to a device that produces hot water, not steam.
So, a wood-fired boiler is a device that burns wood to produce hot water for home heating. To eliminate this conflict in
terminology, the Association for Testing and Materials now refers to "wood-fired boilers" as "wood-fired hydronic furnaces."

WOOD FURNACE-a device that burns wood to heat air for use in forced-air heating systems.

WOOD-FIRED HYDRONIC FURNACE -a device the burns wood to heat water for use in forced air or hydronic radiant heating
systems.

WPS-Weld Procedure Specification.

WPS Weld Procedure Specification.

Zero governor - A regulating device that is normally adjusted to deliver gas at atmospheric pressure within its flow rating.

Zone Valve -Device to alter or stop the flow of water (also see Motorised valve).

ZONED Living areas separated into different spaces, with the temperature of each space controlled independently by a
Thermostat.
BOILER WATER TREATMENT

Of the many uses for energy in the World todayin industry, in transportation, in homes
and commercial buildingsthe largest portion of total use is directed toward producing steam
through the combustion of fossil fuels. Utilities account for the greatest share of this, but
industrial plants also produce enormous quantities of steam for process uses, often generating
electric power through turbines as a by-product (Cogeneration).
The treatment of water for steam generation is one of the most sophisticated branches of
water chemistry. An understanding of the fundamentals of boiler water chemistry is essential to
the power engineer who continually strives to increase the efficiency of the boilers and steam-
using equipment.
The pressure and design of a boiler determine the quality of water it requires for steam
generation. Municipal or plant water of good quality for domestic use is seldom good enough for
boiler feed water. These sources of makeup are nearly always treated to reduce contaminants to
acceptable levels; in addition, corrective chemicals are added to the treated water to counteract
any adverse effects of the remaining trace contaminants. The sequence of treatment depends on
the type and concentration of contaminants found in the water supply and the desired quality of
the finished water to avoid the three major boiler system problems deposits, corrosion, and
carryover.

DEPOSITS
Deposits, particularly scale, can form on any water-washed equipment surface
especially on boiler tubesas the equilibrium conditions in the water contacting these surfaces
are upset by an external force, such as heat. Each contaminant has an established solubility in
water and will precipitate when it has been exceeded. If the water is in contact with a hot surface
and the solubility of the contaminant is lower at higher temperatures, the precipitate will form on
the surface, causing scale. The most common components of boiler deposits are calcium
phosphate, calcium carbonate (in low-pressure boilers), magnesium hydroxide, magnesium
silicate, various forms of iron oxide, silica adsorbed on the previously mentioned precipitates,
and alumina (see Table 39.1). If phosphate salts are used to treat the boiler water, calcium will
preferentially precipitate as the phosphate before precipitating as the carbonate, and calcium
phosphate becomes the most prominent feature of the deposit.
At the high temperatures found in a boiler, deposits are a serious problem, causing poor
heat transfer and a potential for boiler tube failure. In low-pressure boilers with low heat transfer
rates, deposits may build up to a point where they completely occlude the boiler tube.
 In modern intermediate and higher pressure boilers with heat transfer rates in excess of
200,000 Btu/ft2/n (5000 cal/m2/hr), the presence of even extremely thin deposits will cause a
serious elevation in the temperature of tube metal. The deposit coating retards the flow of heat
from the furnace gases into the boiler water. This heat resistance results in a rapid rise in metal
temperature to the point at which failure can occur. The action that takes place in the blistering of
a tube by deposit buildup is illustrated by Figure 39.1. For simplification, no temperature drops
through gas or water films have been shown. Section A shows a cross section of the tube metal
with a completely deposit-free heating surface. There is a temperature drop across the tube metal
from the outside metal (T2) to the metal in contact with boiler water (T1). Section B illustrates
this same tube after the development of a heat-insulating deposit layer. In addition to the
temperature drop from T2 to T1, there would be an additional temperature drop through the
deposit layer from T1 to T0. This condition would, of course, result in a lower boiler water
temperature T0. However, boiler water temperature is fixed by the operating pressure, and
operating conditions require that the same boiler water temperature be maintained as before the
development of the deposit layer. Section C illustrates the condition that actually develops.
Starting at the base boiler water temperature of T0, the increase through the scale layer is
represented by the line from T0 to T3. The further temperature increase through the tube wall is
represented by the line from T3 to T4. The outside metal temperature T4 is now considerably
higher than the temperature T2, which was the outside metal temperature prior to the formation
of deposit on the tube surfaces. If continued deposition takes place, increasing the thickness of
the heat-insulating deposits, further increases will take place in the tube metal temperature until
the safe maximum temperature of the tube metal is exceeded. Usually this maximum temperature
is 900 to 100O0F (480 to 54O0C). At higher heat transfer rates, and in high-pressure boilers, the
problem is more severe: at temperatures in the 900 to 135O0F (482 to 7320C) range, carbon steel
begins to deteriorate. Figure 39.2 shows the normal structure of carbon steel boiler tubes, and
Figure 39.3 illustrates the spheroidization of carbon and successive changes in structure, which
begin to take place above 80O0F (4270C), weakening the metal. Temperatures within the boiler
furnace are considerably above this critical temperature range. Water circulating through the
tubes normally conducts heat away from the metal, preventing the tube from reaching this range.
Deposits insulate the tube, reducing the rate at which this heat can be removed (Figure 39.4); this
leads to overheating and eventual tube failure (Figure 39.5). If the deposit is not thick enough to
cause such a failure, it can still cause a substantial loss in efficiency and disruption of the heat
transfer load in other sections of the boiler.
 Deposits may be scale, precipitated in situ on a heated surface, or previously precipitated
chemicals, often in the form of sludge. These drop out of water in low-velocity areas,
compacting to form a dense agglomerate similar to scale, but retaining the features of the original
precipitates. In the operation of most industrial boilers, it is seldom possible to avoid formation
of some type of precipitate at some time. There are almost always some particulates in the
circulating boiler water which can deposit in low-velocity sections, such as the mud drum. The
exception would be high-purity systems, such as utility boilers, which remain relatively free of
particulates except under conditions where the system may become temporarily upset.
CORROSION

The second major water-related boiler problem is corrosion, the most common example
being the attack of steel by oxygen. This occurs in water supply systems, pre-boiler systems,
boilers, condensate return lines, and in virtually any portion of the steam cycle where oxygen is
present. Oxygen attack is accelerated by high temperature and by low pH. A less prevalent type
of corrosion is alkali attack, which may occur in high-pressure boilers where caustic can
concentrate in a local area of steam bubble formation because of the presence of porous deposits.
Some feed water treatment chemicals, such as chelants, if not properly applied, can
corrode feed water piping, control valves, and even the boiler internals. While the elimination of
oxygen from boiler feed water is the major step in controlling boiler corrosion, corrosion can still
occur.
An example is the direct attack by steam of the boiler steel surface at elevated
temperatures, according to the following reaction:
4H2O + 3Fe Fe3O4 + 4H2t (1)

This attack can occur at steam-blanketed boiler surfaces where restricted boiler water
flow causes overheating. It may also occur in superheater tubes subjected to overheating. Since
this corrosion reaction produces hydrogen, a device for analyzing hydrogen in steam, Figure
39.6, is useful as a corrosion monitor.
The third major problem related to boiler operations is carryover from the boiler into the
steam system. This may be a mechanical effect, such as boiler water spraying around a broken
baffle; it may be caused by the volatility of certain boiler water salts, such as silica and sodium
compounds; or it may be caused by foaming. Carryover is most often a mechanical problem, and
the chemicals found in the steam are those originally present in the boiler water, plus the volatile
components that distill from the boiler even in the absence of spray.
There are three basic means for keeping these major problems under control.
1. External treatment: Treatment of watermakeup, condensate, or both, before it enters
the boiler, to reduce or eliminate chemicals (such as hardness or silica), gases or solids.
2. Internal treatment: Treatment of the boiler feed water, boiler water, steam, or
condensate with corrective chemicals.
3. Slowdown: Control of the concentration of chemicals in the boiler water by bleeding
off a portion of the water from the boiler.
EXTERNAL TREATMENT
 Most of the unit operations of water treatment (Table 39.2) can be used alone or in
combination with others to adapt any water supply to any boiler system. The suitability of the
processes available is judged by the results they produce and the costs involved.
The boiler treatment program aims at control of seven broad classifications of impurities:
suspended solids, hardness, alkalinity, silica, total dissolved solids (TDS), organic matter, and
gases. The extent to which each of the unit processes applicable to boiler makeup treatment, as
described in earlier chapters, reduces or removes these impurities is summarized by Table 39.2.

Suspended Solids
The removal of suspended solids is accomplished by coagulation/flocculation, filtration,
or precipitation. Other unit processes, except direct reaction, usually require prior removal of
solids. For example, water to be processed by ion exchange should contain less than 10 mg/L
suspended solids to avoid fouling of the exchanger and operating problems.

Hardness
A number of unit operations remove calcium and magnesium from water, as summarized
by Table 39.2. Sodium exchange removes hardness and does nothing else; other processes
provide additional benefits. Figure 39.7 compares these softening processes, showing the
additional reduction of other impurities that may occur. Differences between softening processes
are summarized in Table 39.3.

Alkalinity
It is desirable to have some alkalinity in boiler water, so complete removal of alkalinity
from boiler makeup is seldom practiced except in demineralization. Some alkalinity is also
needed to provide optimum pH in the feed water to prevent corrosion of piping and equipment.
The makeup alkalinity may be present as HCO3", CO32", or OH". If the makeup is city
water that has been zeolite softened, alkalinity is usually in the bicarbonate (HCO3") form; if
lime softened, it is mostly carbonate (CO32"), but the water may also contain some hydroxide
(OH"). When bicarbonates and carbonates are exposed to boiler temperatures, they break down
to release CO2:
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
(2)
The sodium carbonate then breaks down further to caustic:
Na2CO3 + H2O 2NaOH + CO2
(3)
 The carbon dioxide gas redissolves when the steam condenses, producing corrosive
carbonic acid:
CO2 -f H2O H2CO3 H+H- HCO3
(4)
The amount OfCO2 generated is proportional to the alkalinity. For a given alkalinity twice as
much CO2 is formed from HCO3" as from CO32- because the bicarbonate breakdown is the sum
of both reactions (2) and (3) above. The carbonic acid is usually neutralized by chemical
treatment of the steameither directly or indirectly through the boilerto produce a condensate
pH in the range of 8.5 to 9.0. Reduction of feed water alkalinity is desirable, then, to minimize
CO2 formation and reduce chemical treatment costs.
The hydroxide produced by the breakdown of HCO3" and CO32" is beneficial for
precipitation of magnesium, to provide a good environment for sludge conditioning, and to
minimize SiO2 carryover. However, too high an excess of caustic can be corrosive, particularly
if localized concentration can occur. The breakdown ofHCO3~ is complete, but not all the
CO32" converts to caustic. The conversion varies from one boiler to another and increases with
temperature. As a general rule, at 600 lb/in2 65 to 85% of boiler water alkalinity is NaOH, the
remainder Na2CO3. (This is based on the equilibrium in the cooled sample of boiler water.)
 The degree of alkalinity reduction is therefore dictated by boiler water control limits and
steam quality goals. The best unit process for alkalinity reduction may be chosen for the other
benefits it provides as well as its efficiency in alkalinity reduction. Figure 39.8 compares
alkalinity reduction processes and their supplemental benefits. The major differences between
these processes are summarized in Table 39.4.
Silica
The permissible concentrations of silica in boiler water at various operating pressures are
given in Table 39.5. Silica reduction is not always necessary, especially in the absence of a
condensing turbine. Low concentrations of silica can sometimes produce sticky sludge in low-
pressure boilers treated with phosphate. A makeup treatment process may be selected to provide
just the proper degree of silica reduction required by the steam system. Figure 39.9 shows the
treatment results achieved by the various silica removal processes; the influence of each of these
processes on other feed water contaminants is summarized in Table 39.6.
Total Dissolved Solids
Some treatment processes increase dissolved solids by adding soluble by-products to
water; sodium zeolite softening increases solids by adding an ion (sodium) having a higher
equivalent weight (23) than the calcium (20) or magnesium (12.2) removed from the raw water.
Processes to reduce dissolved solids achieve various degrees of success. Usually, reduction of
dissolved solids is accomplished by a reduction of several individual contaminants. Table 39.7
summarizes the analyses of effluents produced by processes which reduce dissolved solids.

Organic Matter
Organic matter as a general classification is only a qualitative term. It includes a wide
variety of compounds that are seldom analyzed as specific materials. Problems in boiler systems
attributed to organic matter have often been traced to organic materials from plant processes in
returned condensate, rather than makeup water contaminants. However, in high-pressure utility
systems, organic matter is the major impurity in makeup and can result in formation of organic
acids.

Dissolved Gases
Degasifiers are commonly used to remove gas mechanically rather than chemically.
Blower types are used for CO2 removal at ambient temperatures following acid or hydrogen-
exchange units. Vacuum degasifiers provide the same extent of CO2 removal, but also reduce O2
to less than 0.5 to 1.0 mg/L, offering corrosion protection, especially if the vacuum degasifier is
part of a demineralizing system. Steam-scrubbing degasifiers, called deaerating heaters, usually
produce an effluent free of CO2 with O2 concentrations in the range of 0.005 to 0.01 mg/L.
Direct reaction of this low residual with catalyzed sulfite, hydrazine, or hydrazine substitutes
(all-volatile oxygen-reducing compounds) eliminates O2 completely to prevent preboiler
corrosion.
CONDENSATE RETURNS

In addition to makeup treatment, acceptable feed water quality may require cleanup of
condensate to protect the boiler system, particularly if there is process condensate containing oil.
Boilers requiring high-quality demineralized water also demand high-quality condensate. Some
plants operate both high- and low-pressure boilers; high-quality feed water for the high-pressure
boilers may be provided entirely by a demineralizer, with lower quality condensate segregated
for return to the low-pressure boilers.
Septum filters are usually selected for oily condensate treatment. A cellulosetype filter
aid (processed wood pulp) is applied both as a precoat and a body feed. The temperature should
be less than 20O0F (930C) to avoid degradation of the filter aid. Anthracite filters precoated with
a floe produced from alum and sodium aluminate are also effective. However, the pH of the
condensate must be controlled in the range of 7 to 8 to avoid solubilizing the alumina floe.
Condensate contaminated with corrosion products and inleakage of hard water is cleaned up
through specially designed, high flow rate sodium exchangers (Figure 39.10). They have been
used to process condensate at temperatures up to 30O0F (1490C). One serious limitation of the
simple sodium exchanger is its ability to pick up neutralizing amines such as morpholine (present
in the condensate as morpholine bicarbonate) and exchange this for sodium. This causes
excessive use of amines, but a more serious problem arises if the condensate is returned to a
high-pressure boiler where the presence of sodium may be objectionable in deterioration of
steam quality. Special regeneration procedures would then be needed.

Heavily contaminated process condensates, such as those produced in kraft pulp mills
and petroleum refineries, present special problems in use as boiler feed water. Their composition
is usually variable and may include complex organic compounds and unusual ions such as
cyanide, thiocyanate, and sulfide. The treatment program cannot be selected simply on the basis
of the condensate analysis; research on the bench and by pilot plant operation may be required,
but the recovery of condensate pays good dividends in both heat saving and reduced cost of
makeup and treatment chemicals.
INTERNAL TREATMENT

Scale formation within a boiler is controlled by one of four chemical programs:

coagulation (carbonate), phosphate residual, chelation, or coordinated phosphate.

Coagulation Program
In this process, sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, or both are added to the boiler
water to supplement the alkalinity supplied by the makeup, which is not softened. The carbonate
causes deliberate precipitation of calcium carbonate under favorable, controlled conditions,
preventing deposition at some subsequent point as scale. Under alkaline conditions, magnesium
and silica are also precipitated as magnesium hydroxide and magnesium silicate. There is usually
a fairly high concentration of suspended solids in the boiler water, and the precipitation occurs
on these solids. This method of treatment is used only with boilers (usually firetube design) using
high-hardness feed water and operating below 250 lb/in2 (17 bars). This type of treatment must
be supplemented by some form of sludge conditioner. Even with a supplemental sludge
conditioner, heat transfer is hindered by deposit formation, and blowdown rates are excessive
because of high suspended solids. Coagulation programs are becoming obsolete as pretreatment
systems become more common and competitive with the high internal treatment cost.
Phosphate Program

Where the boiler pressure is above 250 lb/in2, high concentrations of sludge are
undesirable. In these boilers, feed water hardness should be limited to 60 mg/L, and phosphate
programs are preferred. Phosphate is also a common treatment below 250 lb/in2 with soft
makeup. A sodium phosphate compound is fed either to the boiler feed water or to the boiler
drum, depending on water analysis and the preboiler auxiliaries, to form an insoluble precipitate,
principally hydroxyapatite, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2. Magnesium and silica are precipitated as
magnesium hydroxide, magnesium silicate (often combined as 3MgO-2SiO2-2H2O), or calcium
silicate. The alkalinity of the makeup is usually adequate to produce the OH~ for the magnesium
precipitation. Phosphate residual programs which produce high suspended solids require the
addition of a sludge conditioner/dispersant. Because these programs restrict heat transfer, owing
to the deposition of calcium and magnesium salts, precipitation programs of this type are often
replaced with solubilizing treatments such as chelants and polymer/dispersants.

Chelant Programs
 A chelate is a molecule similar to an ion exchanger; it is low in molecular weight and
soluble in water. The sodium salts of ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) and
nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) are the chelating agents most commonly used for internal boiler
treatment. These chelate (form complex ions with) calcium and magnesium. Because the
resulting complex is soluble, this treatment is advantageous in minimizing blowdown. The
higher cost compared to phosphate usually limits the use of chelates to feed waters having low
hardness. There is the risk that breakdown of the organic molecule at higher temperatures could
create a potential problem of control that could result in corrosion, so chelate programs are
usually limited to boilers operating below 1500 lb/in2 (100 bars). The addition of polymers as
scale control agents increases the effectiveness of chelate programs.
It also reduces the corrosion potential by reducing the chelant dosage below theoretical
requirements, so that there is no chelant residual in the boiler water.
Chelates can react with oxygen under boiler water conditions, which can increase the cost
of a chelate program substantially. Overfeed of chelates and concentration mechanisms in the
boiler can lead to severe localized corrosion and subsequent unit failure.

Coordinated Phosphate Program

In high-pressure, high heat transfer rate boilers, the internal treatment program must
contribute little or no solids. The potential for caustic attack of boiler metal increases with
increasing pressure, so free caustic alkalinity must be minimized. The coordinated phosphate
program is chosen for these conditions. This differs from the standard program in that the
phosphate is added to provide a controlled pH range in the boiler water as well as to react with
calcium if hardness should enter the boiler. Trisodium phosphate hydrolyzes to produce
hydroxide ions:
Na3PO4 + H2O 3Na+ + OH~ + HPO4
(5)
This cannot occur with the ionization of disodium and monosodium phosphate:
Na2HPO4 2Na+ + HPO4 (6)
NaH2PO4 Na+ + H+ + HPO4
(7)
The program is controlled by feeding combinations of disodium phosphate with
trisodium or monosodium phosphate to produce an optimum pH without the presence of free OH
~. To successfully control a coordinated phosphate program, the feed water must be extremely
pure and of consistent quality. Coordinated phosphate programs do not reduce precipitation; they
simply cause precipitation of less adherent calcium phosphate in the absence of caustic. A
dispersant must be added to condition deposits that would otherwise reduce the heat transfer rate.
The coordinated phosphate program was first developed for high-pressure utility boilers, and
most experience with this program has been gained in this field. More details on control of the
program can be found in Chapter 34, "Utilities."

COMPLEXATION/DISPERSION

The newest addition to internal treatment technology is the use of synthetic organic
polymers for complexation and dispersion. This type of program can be used to 1500 lb/in2 (100
bars) and is economical in all low-hardness feed water systems typical of those produced by ion
exchange. Heat transfer rates are maximized because these polymers produce the cleanest tube
surfaces of any of the available internal treatment programs. This treatment solubilizes calcium,
magnesium, and aluminum, and maintains silica in solution while avoiding corrosion potential
side effects as determined by hydrogen levels in the steam. Iron particulates returned from the
condensate system are likewise dispersed for removal via blowdown. A simple measure of ion
transport is used to demonstrate on-line performance of this program.

PROGRAM SUPPLEMENTS

In addition to controlling scale and deposits, internal treatment must also control
carryover, defined as entrainment of boiler water into the steam. Boiler salts carried as a mist
may subsequently deposit in the superheater, causing tube failures, or deposit on the blades of a
turbine. They may also contaminate a process in which the steam is used. Since a high
percentage of carryover is caused by foaming, this problem is usually solved by the addition of
antifoam to the boiler feed water.
Sludge in boiler water may settle to form deposits, which are as serious a problem as
scale. Chemicals are used to condition boiler water particulates so that they do not form large
crystalline precipitates; smaller particles will remain dispersed at the velocities encountered in
the boiler circuit. At lower pressures both the coagulation and phosphate residual programs
incorporate sludge conditioning agents for this purpose. A variety of natural organic materials
are used, including starches, tannins, and lignins. Figure 39.11 shows the effect of tannin in
stunting the growth OfCaCO3 crystals; Figure 39.12 illustrates the effectiveness of tannin in
preventing CaCO3 scale in 250 lb/in2 (17 bars) experimental boilers by this ability to control
crystal growth and disperse the precipitated CaCO3.
 At intermediate pressures, chemically reacted lignins have been widely used, though
synthetic polymers are replacing them. Figure 39.13 shows the approximate molecular
configuration of a lignin processed for high-temperature stability. Its effectiveness in controlling
calcium phosphate scale and magnetic iron oxide deposits at 1500 lb/in2 (100 bars) is shown in
Figures 39.14 and 39.15.
At pressures up to 1800 lb/in2 (120 bars), heat-stable polymers such as anionic
carboxylates and their derivatives are used as effective dispersants. An alkaline environment
generally increases their effectiveness. Lignin-type dispersants and other natural organic
derivatives are being replaced by these more effective synthetic organic polymers. These
dispersants have been designed for specific dispersion problems, with tailored molecules for
magnesium silicate, calcium phosphate, and iron particulates being available.
Somewhat related to carryover, in that steam quality is affected, is the discharge of
contaminants that volatilize under boiler operating conditions. The major volatiles are CO2,
created by the breakdown of carbonate and bicarbonate mentioned earlier, and SiO2. Although
the CO2 can be neutralized, it is prudent to reduce feed water alkalinity to minimize its
formation. For all practical purposes, external treatment for silica reduction and blowdown are
the only means to avoid excessive SiO2 discharges for protection of turbine blading. Hydroxyl
alkalinity helps reduce silica volatility.

Oxygen is the chief culprit in boiler systems corrosion. Deaeration reduces this to a low
concentration in the preboiler system, but does not completely eliminate it. Application of sulfite,
hydrazine, or hydrazine-like (all-volatile) compounds after deaeration scavenges the remaining
O2 and maintains a reducing condition in the boiler water. An advantage of hydrazine is that it is
discharged into the steam to become available in the condensate as protection against oxygen
corrosion in the return system. If oxygen is present, ammonia can attack copper alloys in
condensers and stage heaters. The removal OfNH3 by external treatment may be necessary. The
corrosive aspects of CO2 have already been mentioned in relation to condensate systems. The
beneficial and detrimental aspects of NaOH in the boiler circuit in relation to corrosion control
have also been discussed earlier.
BLOWDOWN

Boiler feed water, regardless of the type of treatment used to process the makeup, still
contains measurable concentrations of impurities. In some plants, contaminated condensate
contributes to feed water impurities. Internal boiler water treatment chemicals also add to the
level of solids in the boiler water.
When steam is generated, essentially pure H2O vapor is discharged from the boiler,
leaving the solids introduced in the feed water to remain in the boiler circuits. The net result of
impurities being continuously added and pure water vapor being withdrawn is a steady increase
in the level of dissolved solids in the boiler water. There is a limit to the concentration of each
component of the boiler water. To prevent exceeding these concentration limits, boiler water is
withdrawn as blowdown and discharged to waste. Figure 39.16 illustrates a material balance for
a boiler, showing that the blowdown must be adjusted so that solids leaving the boiler equal
those entering and the concentration is maintained at the predetermined limits.
Of course it is apparent that the substantial heat energy in the blowdown represents a
major factor detracting from the thermal efficiency of the boiler, so minimizing blowdown is a
goal in every steam plant. There are ways to reclaim this heat that will be examined later in the
chapter.

One way of looking at boiler blowdown is to consider it a process of diluting boiler water
solids by withdrawing boiler water from the system at a rate that induces a flow of feed water
into the boiler in excess of steam demand.
 There are two separate blowdown points in every boiler system. One accommodates the
blowdown flow that is controlled to regulate the dissolved solids or other factors in the boiler
water. The other is an intermittent or mass blowdown, usually from the mud drum or waterwall
headers, which is operated intermittently at reduced boiler load to rid the boiler of accumulated
settled solids in relatively stagnant areas. The following discussion of blowdown will be
confined only to that used for adjusting boiler water dissolved solids concentrations.
Blowdown may be either intermittent or continuous. If intermittent, the boiler is allowed
to concentrate to a level acceptable for the particular boiler design and pressure. When this
concentration level is reached, the blowdown valve is opened for a short period of time to reduce
the concentration of impurities, and the boiler is then allowed to reconcentrate until the control
limits are again reached. In continuous blowdown, on the other hand, the blowdown valve is kept
open at a fixed setting to remove water at a steady rate, maintaining a relatively constant boiler
water concentration. Since the average concentration level in a boiler blown down intermittently
is substantially less than that maintained by continuous blowdown, intermittent blowdown is less
efficientmore costlythan continuous blowdown.

Figure 39.17 is a schematic diagram of a typical industrial boiler plant that discharges
steam to a turbine, with part of the steam being condensed in the condenser and the remainder
extracted for a process use where the steam may be lost or the condensate become so
contaminated that it must be wasted. With reference to this diagram, the following relationships
apply in determining blowdown losses:
 It is common to express blowdown as a percentage of feed water. However, this may give
the utilities engineer a false sense of security. If the plant has 80% condensate return and 20%
makeup, a 5% blowdown would appear satisfactory, but it indicates that the makeup is being
concentrated only 4 timesof the four units of makeup entering the boiler, one unit is being
thrown away. Perhaps that is as much usage as can be made of that particular quality makeup,
but the operator should be aware of it.
Since the main purpose of blowdown control is to reach the maximum permissible
concentrations for best boiler efficiency without exceeding concentrations that would harm the
system, the first step in developing a blowdown control program is to establish allowable limits.
The conventional limits recommended to provide boiler cleanliness and adequate steam quality
are shown in Tables 39.8 and 39.9. These limits cover most situations encountered in industrial
boiler operations, but not the coagulation treatment used in low-pressure boilers. With the
coagulation treatment, total dissolved solids are usually limited to 3500 mg/ L, and adequate
alkalinity is maintained to provide the carbonate for calcium precipitation and the hydroxide for
magnesium precipitation. These levels can be established only after the nature of the makeup
treatment system has been considered.
As shown by Tables 39.8 and 39.9, the limits on such things as total dissolved solids,
silica, and alkalinity are basically related to the amounts of these materials entering with the
makeup water; these concentrations can be adjusted by blowdown, but also by some adjustment
in the makeup treatment system if that flexibility is provided. On the other hand, such
constituents as phosphate, organics, and sulfite are introduced as internal treatment chemicals,
and their concentration can be adjusted both by blowdown and by rate of application.
 For purposes of illustrating the calculation of boiler blowdown related to the
concentrations, a 900-lb/in2 (40 bars) boiler system in a paper mill is used as an example. The
steam goes both to a condensing turbine and a back pressure turbine, with 50% condensate
return. The makeup is treated by hot lime-zeolite softening, and, after treatment, has a total
dissolved solids concentration of 150 mg/ L, silica of 3 mg/L, and total alkalinity of 20 mg/L.
Table 39.10 summarizes the conditions established in this example.
With a silica concentration of 1.5 mg/L in the feed water and an allowable limit of only
10 mg/L in the boiler water, silica is the controlling factor and sets the concentration ratio (based
on feed water) at 6.7. Since the water could be concentrated to a factor of 10 based on total
dissolved solids, there is incentive for additional silica reduction in the hot process unit. If the
addition of dolomitic lime would permit a reduction from 3 mg/L shown to less than 2 mg/L in
the makeup, the blowdown rate could be reduced from 15 to 10%.
A second example explores the use of a simple sodium zeolite softener to treat city water
as makeup for a 300-lb/in2 boiler. The water analyses in Figure 39.18 show the results of treating
the city water through a zeolite softener, and the allowable concentrations in a 300-lb/in2 (20
bars) boiler. The concentration ratio is calculated for each of the constituents to be controlled; the
lowest CR determines the blowdown rate. In this example, the lowest ratio is 2.5, applying to
alkalinity. So the blowdown rate, controlled by alkalinity, would be:

This is a high blowdown loss, expressed as a percentage of makeup. However, in a small

plant that generates less than 50,000 Ib/h (22,700 kg/h) of steam with less than 10 to 20%
makeup, this process might be acceptable just for its simplicity and low cost. Larger plants
would find this high blowdown loss unacceptable because of the high energy loss and the cost of
preparing and treating makeup that is concentrated to such a limited degree.

Two processes are explored to modify the sodium zeolite system to reduce alkalinity,
Figure 39.19 shows these two modifications, sodium zeolite plus acid and split-stream treatment.
Both of these significantly reduce alkalinity and blowdown. The first process increases the
critical CR to 12.5, so blowdown would be controlled by alkalinity at a level close to the
optimum TDS. Further reduction in blowdown is achieved by using split-stream treatment, since
TDS is reduced as well as alkalinity. At these low levels, silica becomes a controlling factor at a
blowdown of 6% of makeup. Capital cost and operating cost figures are needed to decide
whether the reduction in blowdown from 8% achieved with the first process to 6%, which can be
reached with the split-stream treatment, is justified. The split-stream process is more costly and it
creates a secondary problemdisposal of spent regenerant acid.
These examples show that concentration ratios are determined by chemical analyses.
Since blowdown rate is never measured, but most plants meter both makeup and feed water as
well as steam, the chemical determination of concentration ratio is the most accurate means of
determining blowdown loss. It is apparent that careful sampling of both the feed water and
makeup is required to properly control blowdown and be able to determine blowdown rate. The
boiler water must be cool before it can be analyzed, and leakage in the cooler could affect the
composition of the boiler water. The boiler water sample is usually taken from the blowdown
collection pipe in the boiler drum, and if this is not properly designed, the blowdown sample may
be nonrepresentative. An example is the accumulation of steam bubbles within the blowdown
line which is then condensed through the sample cooler and dilutes the boiler water.
Although one of several boiler water constituents may determine the required blowdown
ratefor example, silicait is general practice to determine all of the critical concentrations in
the boiler on a regular basis. Each of these can then be related to the total dissolved solids as
measured by a conductivity instrument, and the actual control of blowdown can then be related
to conductivity for simplicity of control. The chloride test is another simple test to use for
controlling blowdown.
The continuous blowdown withdrawal pipe should be located in the boiler drum in the
area where the risers return to release steam behind baffles (Figure 39.20). It should never be
located where it can remove feed water and fresh chemicals that have not reacted. The holes in
the collecting pipe should face upward so that the pipe cannot become steam-bound, restricting
the rate of blowdown withdrawal and interfering with testing.
The valve controlling boiler blowdown is usually calibrated so that the operator can make
a simple adjustment if tests indicate that a change in blowdown rate is required. Because the
boiler operates at constant pressure and the blowdown discharges to constant pressure, this is a
very reliable and reproducible method of control. The control valve can be designed for
automatic actuation by a conductivity recorder.
Most plants have installed systems to recover valuable heat from boiler drum blowdown.
In smaller plants, the blowdown may go directly through a heat exchanger, where the heat of the
blOwdqwn water is transferred to makeup ahead of the deaerating heater. In larger plants,
blowdown is directed to a flash tank equalized to a process steam line, for example, operating at
15 lb/in2 gage (1 bar). In rare cases, a high-pressure boiler may be blown down into a low-
pressure boiler to obtain additional concentrations and steam, or it may be blown down to an
evaporator in a utility station. In some plants, more than one flash tank is used, depending on the
heat balance and the optimum recovery achievable in that plant.
 Many industrial plants produce an excess of low-pressure exhaust steam because of
a variety of processes that operate at temperatures below 250 to 30O0F (118 to 1490C) and have
a fluctuating demand for this exhaust steam (so-called because it is steam exhausted from a bleed
point, or extraction point, of a turbine or from a pressure reading station). The excess low-
pressure steam may be a regular operating situation or may be intermittent. Since the flash steam
from the blowdown flash tank usually goes to this low-pressure steam line which, in turn,
supplies steam to the deaerator, this type of blowdown system does not recover energy in plants
having excess low-pressure steam; the heat recovered at the heat exchanger simply means that
less steam is condensed in the deaerator and more exhaust steam is vented to the atmosphere.
However, some type of blowdown system may still be required to cool water going to the sewer
or to condense the exhaust steam as a high-purity source of makeup.
The amount of steam produced by blowdown to a flash tank can be calculated by
using the chart illustrated in Figure 39.21. Several typical blowdown arrangements are shown in
Figures 39.22 and 39.23. Where the heat is recovered through a heat exchanger, the exchanger is
normally designed to reduce the blowdown temperature to within 10 to 2O0F (6 to 110C) of the
cooling water, which is usually makeup water.

BOILER TYPES

A boiler is a vessel in which water is continuously vaporized into steam by the

application of heat. A primary objective in designing a boiler is to provide for the greatest
possible efficiency in absorption of heat. Other objectives are production of pure steam and safe,
reliable operation.
 Variations in the design of steam generators are almost without limit. This is partly
because each new development in improving the quality of boiler makeup has influenced the
boiler designer to make the steam generator more compact and efficient.
Design variations occur because of the numerous factors involved in selection and
operation of a steam generator: these include capacity, types of fuel available, burner design,
pressure and temperature conditions, feed water quality, load variations anticipated, and space
available for the installation.
Each of these factors affects the way steam bubbles form and the mechanism of
boiler water concentration at the metal surface. Figure 39.24 shows how scale initially forms as a
ring at the point of bubble formation and how this ring completely fills with scale if the chemical
environment is not properly controlled.
Boilers are of two general designs, firetube and watertube. In firetube boilers the
flame and hot gases are confined within tubes arranged in a bundle within a water drum. Water
circulates on the outside of these tubes (Figure 39.25). As the water changes to steam, it rises to
the top of the boiler drum and exits through a steam header. Firetube boilers are efficient steam
generators for steam requirements below 150,000 Ib/h (68,000 kg/h) and 150 lb/in2 (10 bars).
Higher pressure and greater capacity require thicker plates and tube walls in this design, so
watertube boilers are more economical for conditions above these limits.
The watertube boiler differs from the firetube in that the flame and hot combustion
gases flow across the outside of the tubes and water is circulated within the tubes. Combustion of
the fuel occurs in a furnace and some of the water tubes usually form the furnace walls.
In a simple watertube circuit (Figure 39.26) steam bubbles form on the heated side of the tubes.
The resulting steam-water mixture has a density below that of the cooler water on the unheated
side and rises, creating a circulation through the system. The steam bubbles rise until they reach
the steam drum where steam is released from the water into the vapor space.
Natural circulation boilerswhere circulation is induced by density differences
usually have many parallel circuits. Those sections of tubes in which heated water rises to the
steam drum are called risers and those through which the cooler water descends are downcomers.
Circulation usually occurs between several drums. The steam drum at the top separates steam
from water; the mud drum at the bottom separates suspended solids and sludge from water. A
schematic of such a boiler design showing risers, downcomers, and the location of the steam, and
mud drums is given in Figure 39.27. These basic items are found in all natural circulation boilers
regardless of the details of boiler design.
 In forced circulation boilers, a pump provides the water circulation (Figure 39.28).
This is a more positive control of the circulation pattern than that created simply by density
difference. This is important if the boiler may operate over a wide capacity range. If space
requirements limit the height of a boiler installation, the density differences available to create
natural circulation become small and forced circulation becomes advantageous. It is also
advantageous at high pressures as the difference in density between steam and water diminishes.
Once through boilers are special designs for utility operation.
Increased boiler efficiency can be obtained by bringing water into close contact
with the source of heat. Tubes are built into the boiler furnace to absorb the greatest amount of
heat possible. Usually the entire firebox, called the radiant section, is surrounded by waterwall
tubes, through which water circulates (Figure 39.29). Connections between various tube sections
of the boiler are accomplished by headers, named for their location, such as waterwall headers or
drum headers.
Steam quality is of paramount importance in most operations if high turbine
performance and long equipment life are to be achieved. Boiler water is separated from steam by
cyclone separators and steam scrubbers located in the steam drum (Figure 39.30). Steam entering
the steam drum is directed first toward the cyclone separator by baffles. The cyclones force the
steam into spiral motion on its path toward the exit at the top of the separator, and centrifugal
force separates the water from the steam. The purified steam exits at the top of the separator,
while the heavier water drains out the bottom and reenters the boiler drum.
After passing through the cyclone separators, final removal of entrained water from
the steam is accomplished by secondary steam scrubbers. They consist of baffles that change the
direction of the steam so that water impinging on them drains back to the steam drum. The final
steam should have less than 0.1 to 0.5% entrained water, depending on the design and
effectiveness of the separators. High-pressure boilers perform much better than this because of
their sophisticated designs required by low-steam sodium specifications.
 The presence of entrained moisture determines steam quality. A steam quality of
95% means the steam contains 5% moisture. This may be measured thermodynamically by a
device called a throttling calorimeter, but can be determined much more accurately by detecting
the solids in the entrained moisture. Since the bulk of the boiler solids are sodium salts, an ion
electrode specifically measuring sodium is used. This measures the sodium content of a sample
of condensed steam.
Figure 39.31 shows a plot of sodium content in steam leaving a 250 lb/in2 (17 bars)
boiler, and how the sodium level, which reflects entrained boiler water, is influenced by boiler
operating conditions. A plot of steam demand shows the sudden surges which produced gross
carryover. Assuming the boiler water contains 500 mg/L Na, a sodium content of 50 jug/L Na in
the steam indicates the following moisture content of the steam:
 The average efficiency of a watertube boiler producing saturated steam is about
85%. Most of the heat loss is via hot stack gases and radiation. Improved efficiency can be
achieved by adding heat recovery devices.
ency can be achieved by adding heat recovery devices. Table 39.11 shows a typical
survey of energy losses in a simple industrial boiler plant. This is a 250 lb/in2 oil-fired boiler
delivering saturated steam for a process having no heat recovery devices. In this example, the
plant has already achieved its optimum water conditions with a blowdown of only 3.5%, and
increased efficiency with the existing design is achievable only by a change in firing conditions.
However, appreciable energy could be recovered if the plant were retrofitted with heat recovery
auxiliaries.
References:
Steam-boiler Construction: A Practical Handbook for Engineers, Boiler-makers & Steam Users
By Walter S. Hutton
Combustion Engineering
By Gary L. Borman, Kenneth W. Ragland
Engine Operation, Troubles and Remedies

FAULTY OPERATION AND ADJUSTMENT

SYMPTOMS, CAUSES, AND CORRECTIVES

ENGINE-STARTING AND RUNNING DIFFICULTIES

1. Defective action is sometimes due to causes so apparent that explanations are
unnecessary; hence, for the sake of convenience all these possible sources of trouble have
been grouped under the headings Causes of Refusal to Start, Causes of Misfiring, and
Causes of Weak Explosions. In each case, the cause of the trouble may generally be
traced in the last analysis to faulty ignition, a faulty mixture or an insufficient supply of
mixture. These broad, ultimate causes have been stated first, and the principal mechanical
or electrical defects that produce the trouble are enumerated afterwards. It will be
understood that these do not comprise all the possible troubles with engines. In particular,
they omit entirely such matters as pre-ignition, knocking, and overheating. The object of
the following presentation is to enable the user to trace the difficulty when his engine
refuses to give its normal power through some trouble, the nature of which is not
immediately obvious.

2. It is a familiar fact that the internal-combustion engine is far more liable to stoppages and
weaknesses, for reasons at first mysterious, than is the steam engine. The explanation of
this is that, while the steam engine is purely a mechanical apparatus, the internal-
combustion engine is partly mechanical, partly chemical, and generally partly electrical
in its functions, and the chemical and electrical parts of its organism may go wrong
through causes not connected with the visible mechanism, or, as in the case of a badly
adjusted trembler, a poorly working timer, or a leaky float, through mechanical
derangements so slight as to escape notice.

From this it follows that, to manage successfully, an internal-combustion engine

(especially one that works under such a variety of conditions, often very severe, as the
automobile engine) it is first of all necessary for the operator to make good use of his
reasoning faculties. The symptoms of derangement, when taken singly, are often such as
may be caused by any one of several possible defects; in nearly every case the defect,
whatever it may be, will produce several symptoms a careful study of which will lead to
the elimination of causes that do not tally with all the symptoms; as, for instance, causes
affecting all cylinders when only one or two are misbehaving, or vice versa. When the
 user has reached this point, generally a short further investigation of the points at which
he has found trouble of that particular sort is most likely to occur will lead him to the
discovery of the true cause. The cause of loss of power, due to such faults as a loose
battery connection, a sticking inlet valve, or a bit of dirt in the carburetor, will at once be
recognized in its true character by the experienced operator. The only way to attain final
proficiency in these things is by extended experience with the particular engine in hand;
but, on the other hand, there is absolutely no excuse for the aimless groping of many
inexperienced users, who will often send needlessly for a tow, or will pull an engine to
pieces in their search for some simple fault that might have been located by intelligent
diagnosis.

3. Causes of Refusal to Start, or of Sudden Stoppage. - The fundamental reasons for an

engine refusing to run, or of a particular cylinder refusing to work, may be summed up as
due to (1) no spark; (2) no mixture; or (3) wholly wrong mixture. These cover all the
possible causes, which may be enumerated as follows:

1. Switch not closed.

2. Gasoline not turned on.
3. Carburetor not primed, or (rarely) primed too much.
4. Weak battery.
5. Gasoline stale or mixed with kerosene.
6. Gasoline too cold to vaporize.
7. Dirt or waste in carburetor or gasoline pipe.
8. Mud splashed into air intake.
9. Water in carburetor.
10. Soot on the spark plug or contact igniter.
11. Water on spark plugs.
12. Broken spark-plug porcelain.
13. Grounded wire (generally secondary).
14. Broken wire (generally primary), or loose connection.
15. Very bad adjustment of the coil tremblers.
16. Defective spark coil or condenser (rare).
17. Broken igniter spring.
18. Broken valve stem, spring, or key.
19. Valve cams slipped (rare).

4. Causes of Mis-firing. -The principal cause of misfiring is irregular sparking, which may
be due to a variety of causes. Irregular sparking may be caused by the following:

1. Soot on spark plugs or contact igniters.

2. Weak battery.
3. Broken wire, making intermittent contact through the vibration of the engine
(generally found in the primary circuit.
4. Loose connection to binding post (generally found in primary circuit).
 5. Wire occasionally grounded through vibration of engine. This is generally found in
the secondary circuit, and it is not necessary for the bare wire to make contact with
the metal into which this secondary current is escaping. If the insulation of the
secondary cable is weakened, and the cable is lying loosely on a metal part, the spark
will often jump through the insulation.
6. Timer contact surfaces roughened by sparking.
7. Wabbling timer.
8. Poor trembler adjustment.
9. Trembler sticking at high speeds, due to inertia of heavy armature.
10. Insufficient pressure on timer contacts.

A sticking inlet valve, which stays open when it ought to close, will cause irregular firing
and occasionally back firing. Another possible cause is a very lean or rich mixture
ignitable only by a strong spark. It can always be distinguished from ignition troubles by
the fact that the explosion impulses, when they occur, are of much less than normal
strength. If the mixture is too weak, the explosions are likely to occur every other cycle.

5. Causes of Weak Explosions. -The causes of the explosions being weak are as follows:

1. Mixture too lean or too rich.

2. Leakage of compression.
3. Mixture diluted by exhaust gases.
4. Spark timing later than, it should be, in one or all cylinders.

If the trouble is in the mixture, the explosions would be regular, unless the mixture is so
far defective that it sometimes fails to ignite in spite of the spark occurring regularly. The
same will be true in any case where, as is usual, the cause of the weakness is unconnected
with any irregularity in sparking.

The principal causes of 'weak explosions may be enumerated as follows:

1. Dirt or waste in carburetor or gasoline pipe, causing weak mixtures.

2. Stale gasoline.
3. Air intake partially obstructed, causing rich mixture.
4. Bad carburetor adjustment.
5. Trouble with float.
6. Choked muffler.
7. Lack of oil on piston, or too thin oil.
8. Leak through valve (generally the exhaust valve).
9. Leaky spark plug.
10. Valve timing wrong. This is most likely due to the fact that the cam-shaft, etc.,
have been taken out and replaced with the gears in incorrect angular relation. It may,
however, be caused also by wear of the cams, push rods, or valve stems, by spring in
the cam-shaft or valve lifters, or by the slipping of cams.
11. Broken or worn piston rings.
6. A two-cycle marine engine may be running along smoothly and begin gradually to slow
down. This condition may be caused by too much or too little gasoline; the ignition
devices may have become disarranged; there may be too little cylinder or other
lubrication or too little water circulating through the cylinder jacket; something may be
caught in the propeller wheel; in cool or cold weather, the moisture in the atmosphere
may have become frozen by the rapid evaporation of the gasoline, thus preventing the
free flow of air or the proper seating of the valve in the vaporizer controlling the gasoline
supply and the flow of mixture from the crank-chamber; the piston and rings may have
been fitted too snugly, causing them to bind in the cylinder, which may have become
distorted by the different temperatures to which it is subjected, there being a
comparatively cold inlet on one side of the cylinder and a hot exhaust port on the other;
the exhaust ports, piping, or muffler may have become partly stopped by water, carbon,
salt, or other deposits; the exhaust may have been submerged by a different trim of the
boat, or there may have arisen conditions such as could not have been foreseen or
provided against, and that might never again be experienced. At any rate, such slowing
down is a forerunner of trouble and should be investigated. If the cause of the trouble
cannot be discovered, the engine should be stopped when it is safe to do so, the position
of the boat being made such as not to endanger either boat or occupants through collision
with passing craft.

7. The remedies for slowing-down troubles due to the causes just mentioned will in practice
suggest themselves. In many cases, the cause of the difficulty can readily be determined
and overcome. For instance, trouble due to an insufficient quantity of cylinder oil or
circulating water might be attended to readily without stopping the engine, or a temporary
stop might be made to remove a rope, grass, etc., from the propeller, or foreign matter
from the sea-cock strainer or pump check-valves, or to adjust the ignition or replace a
broken or weak valve spring. Structural troubles, such as tight pistons and distorted
cylinders, would have to be attended to at some more opportune time.

If the vaporizer should freeze, it may be necessary to run the engine awhile and then give
the accumulation of ice and frost a chance to melt. If the water supply is insufficient and
the jacket becomes overheated, it may be possible in case of an emergency to continue
running by using a hand pump connected with the supply; or, with the supply open water
may be pumped through or poured into the water discharge. In such case, the
transformation of the water into steam might make it a little dangerous for the operator,
and should the cylinder be too hot the water might possibly crack the cylinder at its
weakest part, or at the point where it is subject to the greatest stress.

When it becomes necessary to run a four-cycle marine engine with too little circulating
water, the compression should be relieved, the cooling action of the large quantity of gas,
a part of which is wasted, helping to cool the cylinder, while the smaller amount
exploded does not heat the cylinder as much as would full charges at the usual high
compression pressure.
 8. Irregular running of marine engines is a condition rarely encountered, and its cause is
problematical. The trouble may be caused by back pressure in the exhaust, or may be due
to improper location, with reference to the exhaust port, of the transfer, or pass-over, port
connecting with the crank-case; this could occur only in two-cycle engines. As a result of
such improper location of the port, the engine cylinder might not be thoroughly
scavenged of 'burned gases at high speed, when it would slow down to normal speed or
slightly below, and, getting a better mixture at that speed, would speed up. It might also
be caused by the exhaust ports opening too late or the inlet ports opening too early. It is
well known that, with no thought of fuel economy, two-cycle engine ports should open
much earlier when designed for high than for low speed, in order to more thoroughly get
rid of the products of combustion. When it is discovered that the engine is being run at a
speed in excess of that to which it is best adapted, the remedy is to make the ports open
earlier, or hold the engine to slower speed by increasing the diameter, pitch, or blade
surface of the propeller.

Should the engine, without missing explosions, begin to increase its speed, and then miss
explosions and slow down, one would naturally be led to suppose the cause of the trouble
to be insufficient length of contact of the sparking device as well as poor scavenging of
the cylinder.

Trouble from loss of compression in the combustion chamber, whether in a two-cycle or

a four-cycle engine, must be remedied before the engine can be made to run
satisfactorily. If, in attempting to start, it is found that there is no compression, the valves
should be examined to see if they seat properly and are timed correctly. Loss of
compression may be caused by a leaky gasket, allowing the pressure to leak into the
water-jacket, which is the first place to look for the cause of trouble after examining the
valves. A leaky, gasket may sometimes be discovered by noting whether or not pressure
escaping into the water jacket shows at the water discharge.
Trouble from loss of compression in the combustion chamber, whether in a two-cycle or
a four-cycle engine, must be remedied before the engine can be made to run
satisfactorily. If, in attempting to start, it is found that there is no compression, the valves
should be examined to see if they seat properly and are timed correctly. Loss of
compression may be caused by a leaky gasket, allowing the pressure to leak into the
water-jacket, which is the first place to look for the cause of trouble after examining the
valves. A leaky, gasket may sometimes be discovered by noting whether or not pressure
escaping into the water jacket shows at the water discharge.

KNOCKING OR POUNDING
9. Undoubtedly the sense of hearing is more useful in detecting irregularities in the running
of an engine than any other sense. By means of the sounds produced, the engine talks to
the operator, and with a little intelligent study he will soon understand the language. Even
at a distance it is often possible to tell whether an engine is running regularly or whether,
as indicated by the sound of the exhaust, some of the charges admitted to the cylinder are
 expelled without being exploded. Standing in close proximity to the engine, the operator
may distinguish a variety of sounds indicating defects about the engine and calling
attention to the necessity of applying proper remedies 'at the first opportunity.

A sharp, knocking sound in stationary engines may be due to any one of the following
causes:

1. Lost motion in the bearings of the connecting-rod, either at the crankpin or the piston-
pin end.
2. Lateral movement of a piston ring, the groove in the piston having become widened by
wear.
3. A loose key in the flywheel or pulley.
4. Lost motion in the gears, causing the gear-shaft to be retarded in its revolution for a
fraction of a second when the exhaust or inlet-valve cam hits the roller and lever.
5. Piston or cylinder worn to a considerable extent, causing an up-and-down movement
of the piston.
6. The piston having worn a shoulder in the bore of the cylinder, and striking the shoulder
if any play in the bearings is developed.
7. The piston striking any foreign body that may accidentally have been drawn into the
cylinder.

10. sheared off or being too small for their holes. Knocking due to such causes is readily
detected by a careful inspection while the engine is running, and this inspection may be
aided by laying the hands on parts suspected of being loose, when vibration will easily be
felt; also by careful scrutiny with an electric flashlight for evidences of movement where
two parts are bolted together.

About the most likely place to find looseness of this description is in the holding-down
bolts that hold the engine to the frame on which it is mounted; but in certain horizontal
engines it way also be found that the caps over the main bearings are loose, owing to the
fact that they have not been properly tongued into the bottom halves or pillow blocks of
the bearings. Looseness at either of these two points should be remedied at the repair
shop, as it always necessitates the substitution of larger bolts, aided perhaps by dowel-
pins; and in the case of the bearing cap it may be necessary to make a wholly new cap,
with proper tongues fitting into grooves that must be machined or chiseled in the pillow-
block.

11. A more probable cause of knocking is looseness due to wear in the main-shaft bearings,
crankpin bearings, or the wristpin bearings. In a four-cylinder vertical engine, the main-
shaft bearings may be quite loose without causing a knock, because the weight of the
shaft and flywheel holds the shaft down; but a horizontal engine will, under certain
conditions of speed and load, pound with a small amount of looseness. Only a very
 limited amount of looseness should be permitted in the main-shaft bearings of any
engine, both on account of the danger of springing the shaft and because a bearing worn
beyond this extent is liable to begin cutting, as it is difficult to keep sufficient oil in it.

12. Looseness in the flywheel bearing of a vertical engine is disclosed by putting a jack under
the flywheel and working it gently up and down. In the case of a horizontal engine it is
necessary to move the shaft approximately in line with the pressure of the explosions, and
a lever will have to be applied to the flywheel or shaft in whatever manner seems most
practicable. Occasionally, looseness of the shaft can be detected by rocking the flywheel
back and forth against the compression in the cylinder. If the pull of the sprocket chain
comes on the engine shaft, it maybe possible to detect looseness in the adjacent bearing
by alternately stretching and relaxing the chain, which can be done by grasping it midway
between the sprockets and pulling it up and down as far as it will go.

A novice should not attempt to refit the main-shaft bearings, as this requires a good deal
of skill and experience for its correct execution.

Wear in the crankpin bearings is disclosed by setting the cranks at about half stroke, and
rocking the shaft back and forth.

13. Knocking in the wristpin, due to wear of the pin and its bushing, is not among the
commoner troubles, and it does not need to be attended to at once unless aggravated. It is
well, however, not to neglect it too long, as the bushings and the pin will be worn out of
round, so that they cannot be used. When it is taken out, the wristpin should be calipered
all around. If it is out of round, it should be ground true; or, if this is impracticable, a new
pin will have to be supplied, and the bushing reamed or scraped to fit. This, of course,
should be done in a repair shop.

14. A cause of knocking occasionally found is due to the wristpin and the crankpin not being
quite parallel. This causes the connecting-rod to oscillate from end to end of the wristpin
and crankpin bearings; and if, as is customary, there is 1/16 or more of end movement in
these bearings, the knocking may be quite noticeable. If, as is likely to be the case, it is
impossible to make the pins parallel, the only recourse is to take up the lost motion at the
end of one or the other bearing, and possibly both bearings, by the use of washers or
cheeks soldered to one end of the bushing and brasses. This is not a common cause of
knocking, particularly in the better class of engines.

15. The best construction is to secure flywheels to short shafts by bolting them to flanges
instead of keying them. Sometimes, however, a flywheel is held on by a common key, or
by two keys 90' apart, and frequently it will work loose on its keys. This will inevitably
result in a knock, which will be very loud if the engine has less than four cylinders. The
crank-case should be opened and the cranks blocked so that the shaft cannot turn, and
then force should be applied to the flywheel to disclose the looseness, if any. Sometimes
the flywheel will be so tight on its shaft as to resist turning in this manner by using any
 ordinary force. In this case, it is best to take the engine to a repair shop if a thorough
search has failed to disclose any other cause for the noise.

A sprung shaft will always cause knocking, and also rapid wear. and cutting of the
bearings.

16. Besides the foregoing mechanical causes of knocking, there is a class of what may be
called combustion knocks that are altogether distinct from the preceding, in that they may
occur without appreciable looseness in the bearings, and are due to excessive rapidity of
combustion, coupled generally with too-early ignition, the charge being completely
burned before the piston has reached the end of the compression stroke. Combustion
knocks are due to a variety of causes, the most obvious of which is simply too-early
ignition, as when running a heavy load without suitably retarding the spark. A
contributing cause is a slightly weak mixture, since such a mixture burns faster than a
normal or over-rich mixture. Pounding in particular cylinders of a multi-cylinder engine
may be due to unequal rapidity of combustion, which itself may be due to unequal
charges, as when the valves are unequally timed, or to irregular spark timing, such as may
result from a wabbling timer or badly adjusted vibrators. If the timer contact surfaces
have been roughened by sparking or by wear, they will cause the contact maker of the
timer to jump when running fast, and therefore to make erratic contact, resulting in
irregular firing.

17. The classes of combustion knocks just mentioned are easily traced to their causes. The
knocks are not necessarily violent, and they may sound a good deal like the knocks due to
loose bearings, except that, if caused by faulty action of timer or vibrators, they will
occur irregularly instead of regularly.

There is, however, another and very common sort of knocking due to spontaneous
ignition of the charge before the spark occurs. This may be caused by overheating of the
engine from lack of water or other trouble with the circulation - a trouble at once
indicated by boiling of the water in the radiator or by smoking of the exterior of the
engine. It is a temporary phenomenon, and involves no harm to the engine if the latter is
promptly stopped and allowed to cool.

18. Much more troublesome, and also more common, is spontaneous ignition, or Pre-
ignition, as it is termed, due to a deposit of carbon in the combustion chamber or on the
piston head. A carbon deposit of this nature may be caused by too much gasoline or by
too much cylinder oil, and it will accumulate gradually even with the carburetor and
lubrication correctly regulated. A small quantity of carbon will give no trouble, but as the
deposit thickens some portions of it will remain incandescent from one explosion to the
next, and will ignite the fresh charge at some point in the compression stroke, depending
on conditions. The fact that the charge is not ignited until some time during compression
is due to the fact that the more highly it is compressed, the more easily it ignites. True
Pre-ignition results almost always, except at the highest engine speeds, in the charge
 being completely burned before expansion begins, and it is easily distinguished,
especially if the engine is taking full charges, by the resulting sound, which is a sharp,
metallic sound closely resembling that produced by a hammer striking a block of cast
iron. Usually, though not always, an engine that pre-ignites in this manner will continue
running by spontaneous ignition for some seconds after the igniter switch has been
opened. The hammering due to Pre-ignition, as would be expected, is most marked when
the engine is running slowly with the spark suitably retarded, and it will generally
manifest itself under load, owing to the fact that the throttle is then wide open and the
spark necessarily retarded to suit the slow speed of the engine.

19. In stationary engines, a heavy, pounding noise, such as is caused by premature ignition,
may also be due to excessively high compression for the grade of fuel employed. In
addition to its initial effect in producing a pounding noise, either Pre-ignition or a too-
high compression pressure may cause the piston to expand unduly and to stick in the
cylinder, which it would not do if the conditions were normal. This sticking of the piston
would produce a knocking sound due to the small amount of play in the connecting-rod
bearings necessary for smooth running. A coughing or barking sound is caused by the
escape of pressure past the piston, and would indicate the necessity either of replacing
any worn or broken piston rings or of reboring the cylinder and fitting a new piston.

With marine engines, a loose coupling may cause a pound, as may also a loose propeller
wheel, but these pounds can easily be located.

CYLINDER AND PISTON DISORDERS

20. Scored and Leaky Cylinders - One cause of scoring of the cylinder lies in the fact that
the ends of the piston pin or wristpin when loose sometimes protrude through the hole or
bearing in the piston. Some pins have their bearing in the piston itself, while others, being
tightly secured in the piston, have their bearing in the upper end of the connecting rod.
No matter which construction is employed, the ends of the pins should never come in
contact with the cylinder walls. The pin must by some absolutely positive method be kept
in place. While a loose wristpin is often the cause of a scored cylinder, there are three
other causes, resulting from imperfections of design or of machine work, to which
scoring can be traced; namely, loose core sand, imperfectly fitted piston rings, and
loosening of the pins that are used to prevent the piston rings from turning in the slots in
the piston.

21. Trouble from loose core sand Is due to sharp sand that usually comes from the cored
passage connecting the crankcase with the inlet or pass-over port to the combustion
chamber of two-cycle engines. With cylinder castings properly pickled in dilute sulphuric
 acid to remove the sand, this trouble would not be experienced; but with modern methods
of cleaning castings by means of the sand blast, the cored passages are frequently
neglected. Some engines are provided with a removable plate over the inlet port, for the
express purpose of making sure that there shall be no core sand therein to cause trouble.

If, in an engine of the two-cycle type, the scoring consists of several parallel marks on the
side where the inlet port is located, it is safe to ascribe the trouble to sand. If the scoring
is on the exhaust-port side, it is usually an indication of insufficient lubrication; as the hot
exhaust gases pass out they burn the oil off that side of the piston and cylinder, the
exhaust side of a two-cycle engine cylinder being always hotter than the inlet side.
Scoring may occasionally be due to the presence in the cylinder of pieces of the porcelain
insulation of spark plugs. Cylinders have been practically ruined through rough dropping
into the cylinder the pin or nut holding in place the spring on an inverted inlet valve.

22. Leaky cylinders (particularly in two-cycle engines) render the wristpin, crankpin, and
main-shaft bearings subject to excessive wear, because the heat of the gases that pass by
the rings into the crank-case tends to burn up the oil and heat the bearings. If the engine is
of the two-cycle type, the leaking products of combustion not only foul the fresh charge
of gas so that it is not so explosive, but the quantity of each charge is reduced.

If, in an engine in which the inlet and exhaust valves are tight and there is no leaky
gasket, it is found that the compression has become materially reduced, the trouble is
probably caused by leaks from distorted, scored, or imperfect cylinders, the pistons or
piston rings being worn considerably or stuck in the slots in the piston. The only remedy
is to remove the pistons for examination. If the cylinder is found to be out of round or
scored, it will have to be rebored, and new pistons and rings fitted. If the rings are found
to be rusted or stuck in the slots, they will have to be removed, even if to do so it is
necessary to break them. They may have worn to such an extent that the openings at the
points of parting are such as to allow a loss of pressure, the leaking charge passing either
into the tight crank-case, if the engine is two-cycle, or into the atmosphere. If such
leakage is not stopped, the heat of the escaping gases will burn the oil out of the crank-
case, and the bearings will soon become badly worn, if not ruined.

23. The piston should be examined carefully for wear. The side on which the angular
pressure of the connecting rod is exerted should, of course, show the most wear. If the
front or rear side of the piston shows wear at top or bottom, with a corresponding amount
of wear on the opposite bottom or top, it is proof that the hole through the piston for the
piston pin, to which is connected the upper end of the connecting-rod, is higher at the end
showing wear at the top of the piston than at the end showing wear at the bottom. If this
is found to be the case, and the wristpin is tightly secured in the piston, the connecting-
rod bearing for the wristpin will be found to have worn badly and will be bell-mouthed,
that is, larger at the ends than at the center. The remedy for this is to true up the bole
carefully and bush it, or use a pin that is a trifle larger than the hole, increasing the size of
hole in the tipper bushing slightly. This is a repair job that should be entrusted only to a
 thoroughly reliable machinist having the tools and means for doing accurate work. Side
wear on the piston is much more likely to show in engines having the wristpin held
securely in the upper end of the connecting-rod, the ends of the pin having bearings in the
piston.

24. Piston rings become stuck in the slots in the piston from two causes; namely, from water
getting into the combustion chamber, causing the rings to rust, and from the sides of the
slots being slightly tapered instead of parallel. Where tapered sides are found, it is usually
necessary to straighten them up in a lathe and use slightly wider rings, Piston rings should
be renewed much oftener than is customary. As they become more and more open at the
ends, the hot gases passing by the ends of the rings have a harmful effect on the polished,
cylinder surfaces, and in two-cycle engines they foul the mixture in the crankcase.

25. Broken piston rings, particularly in engines with ports that are opened and closed by the
pistons, are a source of annoyance, and frequently cause much trouble. Broken piston
rings are frequently the result of insufficient care in putting the piston, with the rings in
place, into the cylinder, but are more likely the result of getting a ring end caught in a
port. To prevent this, two-cycle engine rings are usually pinned to prevent them from
turning until the ends can get into the port.

The breaking of a piston ring is rather an unusual occurrence; it will cause loss of
compression, that may be distinguished from leakage due to the rings being worn by the
fact that the broken ring will make a distinct clicking sound at the end of every stroke. It
will also be found that oil squirted on the piston when a ring is broken will not stop the
leak. If the engine has more than one cylinder, it is probable that loss of compression due
to lack of oil would affect all the cylinders, whereas a broken ring affects one only. If a
piston ring is broken, it becomes necessary to take off the cylinder without delay and put
in a new ring. Pinning Piston Rings.

26. Piston rings are supposed to be held in position by small pins, one in each ring, so that the
joints of adjacent rings are diametrically opposite. If for any reason these pins break, a
ring may slip round until its joint is in line with that of the next ring above or below. This
will cause loss of compression that may be very puzzling; it is an unusual occurrence, and
it may be necessary to take off the cylinder to locate the trouble.
27. A good method for pinning piston rings is shown in Fig. 1 (a) and (b) Fig. 1 (a) is a
diagram of a piston head, the dotted lines showing the bottom of the ring slot, while Fig.
1 (b) is a sketch of a portion of one side of the piston. With the piston square on its lower
end, drill, at a, a point about half way between the inlet and exhaust ports, through b, c,
and d, a hole large enough for clearance for a small tap, continue the hole into e with a
tap drill, tap the hole, and screw into it a slotted screw to extend into the slot for a
distance not quite one-half the width of the slot. Then tap and plug the hole through b, c,
and d with screws dipped in muriatic acid to rust them in place, the screw plugs being in
each case below the surface of the slot faces. At another point, where it would not come
opposite a port, drill a hole through b and c and tap into d, plugging the clearance holes,
as before. Drill at another point a hole through b, tapping into c. Slotted Piston Rings The
slotted screws extend one-half or less the width of the slots from the bottom, so that, if
the rings be parted as in Fig. 2 (a) one of the ends could be cut off slightly to receive the
pin, or, if parted diagonally, as in Fig. 2 (b), a space could be cut out for the pin. With this
method of (a) pinning the rings, there is no way for the pins to work out to score the
cylinders. While it is customary to pin the piston rings for two-cycle engines, pins are
rarely found necessary in four-cycle engines, as such engines have no ports to catch the
ends of the rings, except when an auxiliary exhaust is employed.

28. Cylinder-Packing Troubles -The joints between the cylinder head and the cylinder of
stationary gas engines are kept tight by packings usually cut out of asbestos sheet about
1/32 inch thick. When the packing is damaged by overheating or excessive pressure,
water from the jacket leaks either to the outside or into the cylinder. The latter is the more
serious leak of the two, as it interferes with the running of the engine by corroding the
points of contact on the igniter and the valve seats and stems, and prevents proper
 lubrication of the piston and cylinder. Leaking toward the cylinder i's generally indicated
by splashing of the cooling water at the overflow pipe when the explosion takes place.

In most cases, the blowing out of a packing is caused by the combustion pressure opening
the joint between the packing surfaces, the packing being heated and partly destroyed,
and allowing water to enter the combustion chamber. A partial or complete stoppage of
the cooling water supply or the clogging of the water spaces with lime or similar deposits
will also result in the overheating of the cylinder and consequent damage to the packings.

As soon as a leak of water from a faulty packing develops, preparations should be made
to renew the packing at the first opportunity. If the leak is to the outside, which may not
interfere with the operation of the engine, although it will cause inconvenience through
having to catch the water in buckets, it is not necessary to shut down the engine until the
day's work is done. If the leak is toward the combustion chamber, the engine will
generally stop in a short time.

29. Many engines have the cylinder heads and cylinders in one piece; but a few engines have
copper or aluminum water-jackets. There are, however, some old engines with separate
heads still in service. In some cases, the cylinder beads, when separate, are made a
ground fit on the cylinders, but they are commonly made tight by asbestos gaskets.
Leakage through these may be detected some. times by the sound, and sometimes by
putting a little oil over the suspected place and noting the resulting bubbles when the
crank is turned.

In case a cylinder-head gasket leaks, it will be necessary to put in a new gasket. The head
should be taken off, the old gasket removed, and the iron surfaces in contact with it
should be carefully scraped clean. The new gasket may be of sheet asbestos, and it should
be sprinkled evenly with powdered graphite to prevent it from sticking. It may be cut to
size by laying it on the cylinder and tapping it lightly with a small hammer to indicate the
outlines. Care should be taken not to let inwardly projecting edges interfere with the
valves or igniters; and, also, if there are openings through the head for the passage of
water, it should be seen to that these are not closed by the asbestos.

A good packing for cylinder heads is sheet asbestos with woven brass wire embedded in
it. This packing is much stronger than ordinary sheet asbestos, and will not blow out
unless the cylinder-head bolts are loose or the head is a bad fit. In replacing a cylinder
head, the bolts should be tightened gradually and evenly, each being tightened a little at a
time, and the round being made three or four times, so as to avoid localizing the stress on
any one bolt.

There is, of course, but one remedy for leaky gaskets, namely, renewal. The old gasket
should be carefully and completely removed, and by means of a straight edge a careful
examination should be made to discover, if possible, why the gasket gave way at a
particular point. There may have been insufficient surface or too little holding-down
 pressure to keep the packing in place; the studs may have been too far apart at the point
of rupture, or the nuts may not have been tightened after the engine had become heated.

VALVE DERANGEMENTS

30. Leaky Inlet and Exhaust Valves -Trouble from loss of compression in the combustion
chamber, when the spark plug is tight and there is plenty of oil on the piston, is generally
due to leaky valves. In order to determine whether the leak is in the valves or in the
piston rings, a moderate quantity of oil may be squirted through the compression relief
cocks and the crank turned two or three times, which will temporarily check whatever
leakage there may be around the piston. If the compressed charge still escapes, the inlet
valve, if located over the exhaust valve, may be taken out and examined. The leak,
however, is much more likely to be in the exhaust valve.

To take out the exhaust valve, turn the engine over by hand, with the switch off and the
compression relief cocks open, until the valve is opened. Then prop up the valve spring
with two pieces of wood or brass a, a, Fig. 3, cut to the proper length to go between the
spring collar b, and the upper end (or lower end, if this is more convenient) of the push-
rod guide c, and turn the engine again until the push rod d is down as far as it will go.
Push the I exhaust valve down; the key at e may now be slipped out If the props have
been made accurately to length, the valve may be slipped up and out, leaving the spring
and the collar in place. Inspection should show the valve seat to be of uniform appearance
all the way around, and dull - not glossy. If the seat of either valve is pitted or rough, or if
it is worn bright on one side, showing that it has been seating only on that side, it should
be reground.
31. The remedy for leaky valves is to regrind them to their seats. If badly scored and worn,
which will be shown by a blackening of the seat and valve, it may become necessary to
reseat and true up the valve, but if the engine has had ordinary care and attention,
grinding should be sufficient. For this purpose, the exhaust valves may need emery and
oil, finishing up with powdered oilstone, ground glass, silex, or the dirt that accumulates
under a grindstone. The valve should not be rotated its whole circumference (as is
frequently done, using a brace or breast drill with a bit screwdriver) but should be rotated
a little, first in one direction and then in the opposite direction, raising it off the seat very
often, and using oil freely, until a dull surface appears on both the valve and the seat
throughout their bearing surfaces. Rotating the valve rapidly is very likely to cause
grooves and ridges that are extremely hard to remove and make the valves tight.

While there is little or no danger of getting emery or other abrasive substance into the
cylinder when grinding exhaust valves, ordinary care to avoid doing so should be
exercised. The passage of the products of combustion being outwards, such matter would
be carried away from the cylinder. Grinding the inlet valves is a very particular operation,
for any particles of abrasive substance left behind to be drawn into the cylinder are liable
to cause trouble. All traces of grindstone dirt, which will be found well adapted for
grinding and may be mixed with water instead of oil, should be wiped off carefully.
The valve stems should be inspected, and, if rusted or rough, should be cleaned and
smoothed, a few drops of kerosene being applied to cut any deposits that may have
accumulated in the guides.
32. Weak or Broken Inlet-Valve Spring - Sometimes the inlet-valve spring, especially if
the valve is of the automatic variety, will weaken from becoming overheated. This is
almost sure to occur if the engine has been allowed to overheat from lack of water. In
time, a spring loaded too near its elastic limit will break from the jarring to which it is
subjected. The symptoms in either case are loss of power at high speeds (although the
power may still be ample at low speeds) and clattering of the valve and blowing back in
the intake pipe at high speeds. The latter may easily be detected with a single or double
cylinder engine by holding the fingers close to the air intake, when the backwards puffing
will be very perceptible. If the engine has four cylinders, it may be possible for the inlet
valve springs to be slightly weak without the mixture blowing back at the intake, owing
to the fact that one or another cylinder is aspirating all the time, and the air expelled from
one cylinder is drawn into the next. One way to get around this difficulty is to block open
the exhaust valves of two cylinders - the first and fourth or the second and third while the
others are tested. It will probably be simpler, however, to experiment with the valve-
spring tension. If the valve spring is weak, and if it is temporarily increased in stiffness
by putting washers under it to compress it, a marked increase in the power of the engine
at high speeds will be observed. The proper remedy, however, is to put in a new spring,
or, if this cannot be done, to stretch the old spring, For a valve lift of 1/8 inch, and for
average engine speeds, the tension should not be less than 1 pound per ounce of the
weight of the valve, washer, and key. The engine will work better if the springs are a little
too stiff than if they are not stiff enough. There will also be less danger of breakage of the
valve stems and keys.

33. Unequal Tension of Automatic Inlet-Valve Springs -The effect of unequal tension in
the springs of automatic inlet valves is to permit one cylinder to take more gas than
another. Consequently, at slow speeds the cylinder whose valve spring is weak will get
the larger charge; and at high speeds part of the charge will be blown back through the
valve whose spring is weak, so that the other cylinders will get stronger impulses. A
quick way to test the equality of valve-spring tension without taking out the valves is to
run the engine slowly with the throttle almost closed. This will cause the cylinders whose
springs are stiffer to receive scarcely any gas, and the cylinders whose valve springs are
weak will do most of the work. It is possible, however, to go to excess in a test of this
sort, since, when an engine is running light with the minimum quantity of gas, one
cylinder is almost sure to get more gas than another, if the inlet valves are automatic,
even with the most careful equalizing of the springs. If the tension of the valve springs is
under suspicion, the valves should be taken out and the springs tested by compressing the
valve stems together.

34. Excessive Lift of Automatic Inlet Valve -The lift of an automatic inlet valve should be
proportionate to the spring tension and to the weight of the valve, so that the spring will
be able to overcome the inertia of the valve, and close it before the piston has started so
far on its compression stroke as to expel any of the mixture through the open valve.
 The symptoms of too great a valve lift are loss of power and blowing back at high speeds.
A valve 2 inches in outer diameter should not ordinarily lift more than 1/8 inch and a lift
of 3/16 inch would be excessive for almost any valves found on high-speed engines. An
excessive lift, like a weak spring, is likely to result in breakage of the valve stems and
keys through unnecessary hammering of the valve when opening and closing.

35. Broken Inlet-Valve Stem or Key -Trouble from a broken inlet-valve stem or key is
more likely to occur with automatic valves than with those mechanically operated. The
result, if the valve opens downwards, is to let it stay open all the time, causing that
cylinder to cease work, while the sparks from the plug ignite the mixture in the intake
pipe and cause explosions there and in the carburetor. If the valve, whether automatic or
mechanically operated, opens upwards, it will clatter on its seat and permit much of the
mixture to be expelled during the first part of the compression stroke.

36. Weak or Broken Exhaust-Valve Spring -Owing to the heat to which it is subjected, the
exhaust-valve spring is more likely to weaken than that of the inlet valve. The symptoms
are loss of power, owing to the valve lingering open at the end of the exhaust stroke, and
clattering when the valve closes.

37. Broken Exhaust-Valve Stem or Key -As there is nothing to prevent the valve from
being sucked wide open on the suction stroke, an accident of this kind will generally
cause that cylinder to go out of action entirely. The clattering, if the engine continues
running by virtue of other cylinders, is likely to be marked.

38. Slipped Valve Cams -Some cheaply constructed engines have the valve cams held on
the shaft by taper pins that in time shear partly or wholly through, permitting the cams to
turn on the shaft. The cams may turn a short distance and then be jammed by fragments
of the taper pins. The symptom indicating trouble due to this cause is partial or complete
loss of power in the cylinder affected, when nothing is wrong with the ignition, valve-
spring tension, etc.; and it will be equally marked at all speeds. If a cam is pinned on its
shaft, the proper way to secure it is to add another pin, or, better, to add a key to take the
torsional stress, and depend on the pin only to keep the cam from slipping endwise on the
shaft.
LUBRICATION TROUBLES

39. Lack of Cylinder oil - The symptoms of lack of cylinder oil are manifested in a sudden
laboring of the engine, a dry or groaning sound, and partial loss of compression, followed
by probable seizing of the piston. If the piston does not seize, it and the cylinder walls
will at all events be scored.
 Among the causes of lack of cylinder oil are clogging of lubricator by dirt or waste,
obstruction in oil pipes, leaky check-valves, leaky pump packing, broken oil pipe, oil too
cold to feed, lack of oil in crank-case, etc.

The remedies for trouble from this source will become obvious on inspection. The engine
should be stopped and allowed to cool, and a liberal quantity of oil should be put in the
crank-case before starting again. Squirt a little oil through the compression relief cocks to
insure lubrication of the pistons, without waiting for oil to reach them from the regular
sources. Remove the obstruction or repair the break as soon as possible.

40. Lack of Oil in Bearings -A slightly loose main or crankpin bearing will sometimes be
cut badly as a result of a temporary stoppage of oil feed, and yet give no noticeable
symptom until the bearing is so badly cut that knocking begins. If a well-fitted bronze-
bushed bearing becomes dry, it is more likely to stop or at least retard the engine. A
babbitted bearing will melt out and let the shaft settle as far as other supports or bearings
will allow. The result may be a violent pounding, a bent or broken shaft, or cut bearings
generally, according to the particular conditions. There is no real safeguard against lack
of oil in bearings except in the vigilance of the operator, combined with a system of
oiling not liable to go wrong. It is not safe to depend on detecting a dry bearing by the
sense of touch, because often the metal adjacent to bearings is sufficient to carry the heat
away.

Generally, trouble from this cause is due to neglect to supply oil or to see that the sight
feeds are working properly. It may also be due to a broken pipe, cold oil, etc.

There is no excuse for neglect to clean the oil strainer, or failure to inspect the oil pipes,
unions, etc., or to know when starting out how much oil is in the crank-case. A badly cut
bearing should be sent to a repair shop, and should be attended to without delay; but a
bearing only slightly cut may be kept in service by the addition of a small quantity of
flake graphite to the oil. If possible, the shaft should be taken out and polished with
emery cloth and oil, else bronze from the bearing is likely to cling to it and aggravate the
cutting. A bearing supplied with oil from a well beneath it, and a chain running over the
shaft, may occasionally fail to receive oil owing to the chain catching on some internal
roughness or projection in the oil pocket. It is always safest to keep a more or less regular
supply of oil passing through bearings of this sort when in use, and depend on the oil well
only as an equalizer.

41. Improper Oil in Cylinders -The trouble symptoms produced by the use of oil unsuited
for lubricating the piston are white or yellow smoke in the exhaust, rapid fouling of spark
plugs, partial clogging of inlet and exhaust valves, and rapid accumulation of carbon on
the valves in the combustion chamber and about the piston rings.

To remedy the trouble, empty out all the unsuitable oil if possible, and substitute oil
known to be good. Inject kerosene freely through the compression relief cocks to loosen
 the carbon deposit on the piston rings, and use kerosene to free the valves if they stick.
Drain the crank-case, and, if possible, open it and clean out any carbon that may have
worked down past the piston and mingled with the oil. Change all the spark plugs, and
clean them when opportunity offers. Put in plenty of fresh oil before starting, and see that
oil is supplied to the pistons so that they will not go dry before oil begins to feed from the
cylinder lubricator.

42. Too Much Oil on Pistons -Too much oil on the pistons is indicated by white smoke in
the exhaust, fouled spark plugs and valves, substantially as when inferior oil is used,
though the symptoms will not be so pronounced. An examination of the combustion
chamber through the inlet valve or spark-plug hole, using a mirror and electric flashlight
if necessary, will show an unnecessary amount of oil around the top of the piston. With
the oil correctly regulated, it should not accumulate on the piston head in any great
quantity.

Trouble from this source is remedied by drawing off part or all the oil from the crank-
case, if it contains more than is necessary for running the engine, and reducing the oil
feeds to the cylinders if necessary.

COOLING-SYSTEM TROUBLES

43. Lack of Water - Lack of water in the radiator of the cooling system for engines is
indicated by the rapid emission of steam, if there is sufficient water to enter the engine
jacket; the bottom of radiator being cold; the overheating and smoking of the engine,
followed by laboring, groaning sounds, owing to the oil being burned away faster than it
is supplied to the pistons; and, if the engine still continues running, expansion and seizure
of the pistons in the cylinders.

Trouble from lack of water is due to carelessness in not filling the tank before starting;
leakage in radiator or piping; accidental opening of the drain cock at the lowest point of
the circulation system; breakage of drain cock, etc.

The remedies for such trouble are apparent on inspection. If the engine becomes
overheated so that the water boils rapidly away, and there is reason to think that the upper
portion of the water-jacket is dry, the engine should be allowed to cool before water is
added; otherwise, the sudden contraction may warp or even crack the cylinders, or it may
cause the cylinders to contract and seize the pistons. The crank-case should be liberally
supplied with oil to prevent the pistons from becoming dry, or, if a sight-feed oil cup is
put on the cylinder, it should be set to feed quite rapidly. The engine should be stopped at
the first sign of distress, as indicated by a groaning sound, turning with difficulty, or
knocking caused by pre-ignition due to hot cylinders.
44. Obstructed Circulation -An obstruction to the circulation of the cooling water
elsewhere than in the radiator will cause the bottom of the radiator to remain cool while
the top is, probably, boiling hot.

Among the causes of obstructed circulation are a broken pump, broken driving
connection to pump, or slipping belt or friction pulley, if the pump is driven in that
manner; waste or the like lodged in the pump or piping.

The remedies for this trouble will become obvious on inspection. If the belt or friction
pulley has oil on it, gasoline may be used to clean the pulley, as well as the flywheel if it
drives the pulley.

45. Scale or Sediment in Radiator -The presence of scale or sediment in the radiator is
indicated when the whole radiator becomes hot or when steam formed in the jacket forces
water out of the upper pipe to the radiator, there being no oil on the inside or dirt on the
outside of the radiator.

Scale will deposit from hard water if the temperature of the water is allowed to approach
the boiling point. A similar scale, almost impossible to eliminate, will crystallize from
calcium-chloride non-freezing mixture; if these are allowed to become supersaturated.

A radiator badly choked with lime scale is practically hopeless, although, if it is made
entirely of brass and copper, it may sometimes be helped by the use of a dilute solution of
hydrochloric acid in the proportion of about one of acid to ten of water. This should be
left in the radiator long enough only to loosen the scale, and should then be drawn off,
and the radiator washed out. It is better in doing this to disconnect the radiator from the
engine, in order to confine the effects of the acid. Another method is to use washing soda.
Ordinary dirt maybe cleaned out by a strong, hot solution of lye, which should be used
with care, as it burns the skin badly. Rainwater should be used wherever possible, and all
the water should be strained.

46. Dirty Radiator -When the whole radiator is hot and it is impossible to run without
boiling the water, the circulation being good, it is evident that the radiator is dirty.

Flying oil about the engine may lodge on the air surfaces of the radiator tubes, and gather
dust, which forms a non-conducting covering. Oil sometimes gathers on the water
surfaces by gradual escape from the pump bearings, or may remain after an attempt to
substitute refrigerator oil for water as a cooling medium in freezing weather. The film of
oil, preventing the water from coming in contact with the metal, acts practically as an
insulator.

To remove the oil from the radiator use kerosene, or a mixture of 'kerosene and mineral-
oil soap. Dissolve the soap in water and add it to the kerosene, fill up the radiator with the
 mixture, and run the engine for an hour or more until the radiator gets well heated. The
soap and kerosene will form an emulsion with the oil, and when the mixture is hot it may
be drawn off and the radiator washed out with cold water. For the removal of the external
oil and dirt, use gasoline, with a brush or swab.

A simple trouble, but one likely to be mistaken by the novice for radiator or circulation
trouble, is slipping of the fan belt. The belt should be tested occasionally, and not allowed
to get so loose that the fan pulley can spin inside it. It does not need to be tight.

CARBURETOR DISTURBANCES
PROPORTIONING OF MIXTURE

47. Over-rich Mixture. -If a mixture is very rich, that is, if there is an excessive amount of
gasoline in the charge, the fact will be manifested by black smoke in the exhaust. If the
mixture is not rich enough to produce smoke, it will still produce an acrid odor in the
exhaust, and will cause overheating of the radiator, unnecessary sooting of the plugs,
accumulation of carbon in the combustion chamber, and unnecessarily rapid consumption
of gasoline, with diminished power.

The causes of an over-rich mixture are: faulty carburetor adjustment; leaky float; leaky
float valves; float too high on its stem or too heavy; spray nozzle loosened or unscrewed
by vibration; and dirt on the wire-gauze screen over the mouth of the air-intake pipe.

48. Flooding is the most common source of trouble in marine engines using vaporizers. It is
caused by leakage of gasoline into the vaporizer, from which in a two-cycle engine it
readily runs into the crank-chamber; the resulting mixture is too rich in gasoline, and, not
having sufficient oxygen, is unexplosive. When trouble from flooding is suspected, turn
the engine over two or three times, with the gasoline valve and the switch closed. If there
is an explosion, note the color of the flame at the relief cock, or priming cup, which
should be left open for the purpose, If no explosion occurs, leave the cock or cup open
and slowly turn the flywheel to a point just before the exhaust port opens, thus drawing
air into the cylinder through the priming cup to dilute what is thought to bean over-rich
mixture. Now revolve the flywheel in the opposite direction rather rapidly until the spark
occurs. If there is no explosion, try again, and repeat the operation two or three times if
necessary. If an explosion then takes place, it is evident that flooding is present.

To remedy this in a two-cycle engine, open the draw-off, or drain cock in the lowest part
of the crank-case, and draw off the contents, taking care, however, to replace with a fresh
supply the lubricating oil thus drawn out. If there is no draw-off cock, it will be necessary
 to turn the flywheel many times to exhaust the excess of gasoline in the crank-case,
leaving the switch closed and the compression relieved as much as possible. After a
while, an explosion should take place, then another, gradually becoming more frequent,
until finally the engine may run with an explosion at every other revolution or so. The
gasoline valve should be kept closed until the charges explode regularly and the red tinge
to the flame at the relief cock and smoky exhaust disappear, after which the gasoline may
be turned on and regulated at the needle valve in the vaporizer, closing it slightly at first;
and, if the engine slows down somewhat, open it slightly until it is possible to tell
whether it is getting too little or too much gasoline.

In case of flooding in a four-cycle engine using a vaporizer, two or three revolutions of

the crankshaft will usually dispose of any excess of gasoline, for there cannot be as large
an amount in the exhaust piping of a four-cycle engine as could accumulate in the crank-
case of a two-cycle engine. Trouble from flooding in a two-cycle engine is the first thing
to be suspected when an engine of that type refuses to start readily.

If the cause of a failure to start is found to be an insufficient supply of gasoline, due to

dirt in the needle valve, or to a small amount of water in the gasoline piping, lift the valve
in the vaporizer from its seat and let a little gasoline run through to clear the obstruction
or get a drop or two of the water out, being sure to catch the drip for examination. If there
is any water it will show in globular form at the bottom of the vessel. In case water is
found, the pipe must be disconnected and drained, and any water in the tank must, if
possible, be removed, for a single drop of water will completely close the aperture in the
seat of a needle valve.

49. Weak Mixture -Among the symptoms produced by a weak mixture are insufficient
power, although the explosions are regular; a tendency to pre-ignite or to burn very
rapidly if there is the slightest carbon deposit; the engine sometimes will miss every other
explosion. There is likely also to be difficulty in starting the engine. It is not always easy
to distinguish between lack of power due to an over-rich mixture and that due to a weak
mixture, but the tendency of the former is to produce black smoke and of the latter to pre-
ignite and Miss explosions. Some experimenting with the carburetor adjustment will
often be necessary to settle the point.

Nearly all the causes named in paragraph 47 will make a mixture richer at some speeds
than at others, and if the carburetor has been readjusted, for example, in the attempt to
correct trouble due in reality to a heavy float, the result will be to make the mixture faulty
again at certain other speeds. Special causes of weak mixture are dirt or waste in the
gasoline pipe or strainer; stale gasoline; carburetor too cold to vaporize; dirt in the spray
nozzle; float too light or too low on its stem.

For float-trouble remedies see paragraphs 52 to 55, inclusive. Experimenting with the
carburetor adjustment should be very cautiously done, with the original setting or
adjustment marked so that it can be restored if necessary. The carburetor should then be
 adjusted slightly in one direction or the other, and the effect noted before further change
is made. Very often a combination of adjustments will be necessary, but it is best to make
them one at a time. If a radical change is made it may be very difficult to start the engine
at all, and this would leave the experimenter completely in the dark as to what was
required.

DIRT IN CARBURETOR AND GASOLINE PIPING

50. Dirt in Carburetor -If there is dirt in the float valve, it will prevent the latter from
closing and will cause the carburetor to flood. This will produce an over-rich mixture,
especially at low speeds, and is highly dangerous on account of the liability to fire. If the
dirt is in the spray nozzle, it will produce a weak mixture. If the dirt has been splashed
into the air intake, it will produce an over-rich mixture, especially it high speeds.

The remedies for trouble due to dirt in the carburetor will become obvious when the
nature of the trouble is located. A carburetor that has previously worked well and that
suddenly begins to leak has in all probability dirt in the float valve. A carburetor that
suddenly gives a very weak mixture has dirt probably in the gasoline pipe, strainer, or
spray nozzle.

51. Dirt or Waste in Gasoline Pipe - Dirt or other obstructions sometimes accumulate,
especially if the gasoline has not been properly strained. The symptom is a sudden or
gradual weakness of the mixture, necessitating readjustment of the carburetor in order to
keep the engine running. The most probable place of lodgment for obstructions of this
sort is in the gasoline line pipe where the latter connects to the carburetor, or in the
strainer, through which the gasoline generally passes just before it enters the float
chamber. Disconnecting the gasoline pipe or the union exposing this strainer will
generally disclose the obstruction. Sometimes it may be necessary to disconnect the
gasoline pipe at both ends, and blow it out. This is necessary only when the pipe has been
disconnected near the carburetor and gasoline does not flow freely from it when turned
on at the tank.

FOAT TROUBLES

52. Leaky Float Valve -With a leaky float, the carburetor drips when the main gasoline
valve is opened. The leakage is not stopped when the top of the float chamber is opened
and the needle valve pressed down with the finger, or when the mixing chamber is
opened and the spray nozzle covered with the finger.
To remedy the trouble grind in the valve with pumice or fine sandstone.
53. Float Too High -By the expression float too high is meant that the float is set too high on
its stem so that it is not lifted by the gasoline sufficiently to close the float valve before
gasoline escapes from the spray nozzle.

When this trouble is present, the carburetor drips when the main gasoline valve is
opened; but the float valve is soon closed by the float if the spray orifice is covered by the
finger. The float valve closes tight when manipulated by the fingers, or when the float is
lifted by a pair of bent wires, When the trouble is due to a high float, it will be found that
the float itself is empty, and, if of cork, that it not gasoline soaked.
Unless the float is adjustable on its stem, the easiest remedy for this trouble is to bend the
levers by which the float acts on the float valve. If this cannot be done, shift the float 1/16
inch lower on the stem by the use of a soldering iron.

54. Float Too Heavy --The same symptoms are present when the float is too heavy as when
the float is too high, but they are caused generally by a leak in the float or by its being
gasoline-soaked.

If the float is hollow, it will sometimes be found that there is present in it a minute leak
due generally to some oversight in soldering. If the float is taken out and shaken with the
hand, the presence of the gasoline inside of it will at once be apparent. The float should
be immersed in warm water until all the gasoline in it is slowly boiled away and its vapor
has been expelled through the aperture in the float, By holding the float under water, the
escape of bubbles will indicate this aperture. Care should be taken that the vapor escaping
from the float does not cause fire. When the leak has been located it should be marked
with a pencil, and after the float has become cold the leak may be closed with a minute
drop of solder. If the float is of cork, it may be saturated with gasoline. It should be taken
out, allowed to dry slowly, and given a coat of shellac care being taken that the shellac
enters all the holes on the surface.

55. Float Too Light or Adjusted Too Low. - By the expressions float too light or adjusted
too low is meant that the float is lifted by the gasoline in the float chamber when the
gasoline level is still some distance below the orifice of the spray nozzle.

Among the symptoms produced by a light float or a low adjustment are a weak mixture at
slow speed, and, probably, difficulty in starting the engine, owing to the fact that
considerable suction is required to lift the gasoline to the mouth of the spray nozzle. The
height of the gasoline in the spray nozzle can generally be determined, with the aid of an
electric flashlight, by a little experimenting with the float, pushing the latter down for an
instant after it has closed the valve.

To remedy the trouble, the float must be weighted slightly, so that the gasoline Will rise
higher before the float closes its valve. The weight may take the form of a few drops of
 solder carefully distributed over the float so as not to over-balance it on one side; or, if
this is not sufficient, a ring of sheet brass may be soldered to the top of the float.

FUEL TROUBLES

56. Stale Gasoline. -If an engine has been left standing for some time unused, more or less of
the gasoline in the tank will evaporate, and it may get too stale to give a correct mixture
without readjustment of the carburetor. The usual symptoms are difficulty in starting the
engine, and insufficient power owing to a weak mixture. The best remedy is simply to fill
up the tank, when the mixture of old and fresh liquid will probably work satisfactorily. It
may be necessary, however, to readjust the carburetor or to throw away the stale fuel.

57. Water in Gasoline. -Water maybe found in gasoline taken from a barrel standing out of
doors. The water, being heavier than the gasoline, will always settle to the bottom, and by
close observation it may be seen before it is poured into the tank. If the gasoline is
strained through a piece of chamois skin or several layers of cheese cloth, or even
through very fine brass-wire gauze, the strainer will hold the Water while permitting the
gasoline to pass through.

The user should make it an invariable rule to strain his gasoline in this manner.

The symptom of water in the gasoline will be immediate stoppage of the engine when the
water reaches the spray nozzle, in spite of the fact that the timer, coils, battery, spark
plugs, etc., are in perfect order, and the gasoline tank is known not to be empty. The only
remedy is to unscrew the wash-out plug at the bottom of the carburetor, and let the water
and gasoline run out until it is certain that all the water has escaped. Sometimes it may be
necessary to disconnect the gasoline pipe entirely mid blow it out in order to expel the
last drop of water. It is well also to look into the tank with an electric flashlight and see if
any drops of water can be discovered on the bottom. If so, it may be well to drain the
entire tank. Extreme care should be taken to avoid fire while gasoline is being run off.

58. In stationary practice, besides using gasoline of proper quality, it is of course supposed
that the storage tank contains a sufficient quantity of fuel to run the engine. This appears
to be a superfluous precaution, nevertheless it has frequently happened that an expert has
been sent several hundred miles, on complaint from the purchaser of an engine that he
was unable to start it, only to find that there was no gasoline in the tank. In other cases, it
was discovered that, instead of gasoline, almost pure water was pumped to the engine.
The explanation was that fuel purchased from a local dealer contained a considerable
quantity of water, which of course settled to the bottom of the tank, and accumulated
gradually until with the tank about one quarter filled, nothing but water would be
delivered to the engine. To avoid this, the contents of the tank should be examined at
 regular intervals or when the supply is low, and the tank drained whenever there is any
doubt about the quality of the liquid that settles in the lower portions.

BACK FIRING

59. The cause of back firing in stationary engines is in most cases due to the delayed
combustion of a weak mixture containing an insufficient amount of fuel. The result of
such a mixture is a weak explosion and slow burning, so that, during the entire exhaust
stroke and even at the beginning of the suction stroke, there is a flame in the combustion
chamber. The fresh charge will therefore be ignited by the flame of the delayed
combustion of the previous charge; and, as the inlet valve is open at that time toward the
air-supply pipe or passage, a loud report will be heard in the air vessel or in the space
under the engine bed whence the air is taken. The remedy for this condition is to increase
the fuel supply until the explosions become of normal strength and the back firing ceases.

Another cause of back firing may be the presence of an incandescent body in the
combustion chamber, such as a sharp point or edge of metal, A projecting piece of
asbestos packing, soot, or carbonized oil and similar impurities accumulating in the
cylinder. To stop back firing from these causes, any projections of metal or other material
should be removed with a suitable tool, and the walls of the combustion chamber made as
smooth as possible, or the cylinder should be cleared of any deposit of soot or carbonized
oil that may have gathered there.

Failure of the igniter to fire all charges admitted to the cylinder, or improper composition
of the mixture resulting in the same way, will be indicated by heavy reports at the end of
the exhaust pipe. One or more charges may in this manner be forced through the cylinder
into the exhaust pipe, and the first hot exhaust resulting from the combustion of a charge
will fire the mixture that has accumulated in the pipe and the explosion will be
accompanied by a report similar to that of the firing of a heavy cannon.

60. On account of the shorter time between the opening of the exhaust port and the admission
of the new charge in a two-cycle engine, there is much greater liability to back firing in
an engine of that type, than in a four-cycle engine. In a four-cycle engine back firing will
occur only when the inlet valve is off its seat; hence, in marine practice, back firing is
more of an element of danger in four-cycle than in two-cycle engines. If there is no
check-valve in the carburetor or vaporizer, and there is no direct opening to the
atmosphere, the column of flame that would be blown into a boat through a carburetor or
auxiliary air supply on account of back firing would be particularly dangerous because
accumulations of gasoline vapor, especially in cabin boats, might thereby become ignited.

To be absolutely safe, a marine four-cycle engine having a float-feed carburetor not

supplied with a check-valve should take its supply of air from some point outside of the
cabin or from the top of the engine, rather than from a point near the base. As the use of a
check-valve in the carburetor would materially reduce the efficiency of the engine, it is
rarely used. If a float-feed carburetor is used, and indications point to imperfect
carburization, the carburetor should be examined carefully. If the float leaks, so, that the
 height of gasoline is constantly above the desired level, or if the float does not cut off the
supply where it should, it will be necessary to take the carburetor apart to ascertain the
trouble, which may be due to a stopped-up needle valve or nozzle.

61. Explosions in the muffler and exhaust piping are usually caused by the ignition of the gas
accumulating from missed explosions due to weak mixtures or faulty ignition. They are
not usually dangerous unless the muffler is large and is weakened by rusting inside or
out, as from saltwater passing through it or from damp salt air, against which it seems
almost impossible to protect it in a boat.

62. Explosions in the carburetor are sometimes caused by the inlet valve sticking open and
permitting the flame to communicate from the spark. More often it is due to improper
mixture, which bums so slowly that flame lingers in the cylinder even after the exhaust
stroke is completed and the inlet valve begins to open. Either a weak or a rich mixture
will produce this result, though not always both in the same engine. Carburetor
explosions are often attributed to the exhaust valve closing after the inlet valve opens, or
to simple leakage of the inlet valve; but these are seldom the real causes.

IGNITION TROUBLES

PRE-IGNITION

63. Definition. -Premature ignition, or Pre-ignition, while somewhat similar to back firing in
its nature and origin, manifests itself in a different way and has a different effect on the
action of the engine. Premature ignition, as usually understood, is the firing of the partly
compressed mixture before the time fixed by the igniting mechanism. Its causes are
similar to those that result in back firing, the effect being different in that the charge is
ignited later than when back firing takes place, but before the end of the compression
stroke. Pre-ignition will cause the engine to lose power on account of the maximum
pressure being exerted on the crank before it reaches the inner dead center and thus
having a tendency to turn it in the wrong direction, against the momentum of the
flywheels.

64. Causes of Pre-ignition.-Besides the causes cited in connection with back firing, Pre-
ignition may be due to any one of the following defects: Insufficient cooling of the
cylinder, due either to shortage of cooling water or to the fact that portions of the water-
jacket become filled with lime deposits or impurities contained in the water, thus
interfering with proper circulation; compression too high for the grade of fuel used;
imperfections in the surfaces of the piston end or valve beads exposed to the combustion,
such as sand holes or similar cavities in which a small portion of the burning charge may
 be confined; electrodes or other parts of the engine exposed to the burning charge too
light; or the piston head or exhaust-valve poppet insufficiently cooled and becoming red
hot while the engine is running under a fairly heavy load.

65. Premature ignition manifests itself by a pounding in the cylinder, and, if permitted to
continue, a drop in speed, finally resulting in the stopping of the engine. It will also put
an excessive amount of pressure on the bearings, especially the connecting-rod brasses,
and cause them to run hot even when properly lubricated. After a shut-down due to
premature ignition and a short period during which the engine is idle, allowing the
overheated parts to cool off, it is possible to start again without difficulty and run
smoothly until the conditions of load will cause a repetition of the trouble.

66. The remedies to be applied, according to the source of the difficulty, are as follows;
Increase the water supply until the cooling water leaves the cylinder at a reasonable
temperature, which may vary with the fuel used, but which should never be over 180
degrees F. Clean the water space and ports of any dirt or deposit so as to insure free
circulation of the cooling water. Reduce the compression by partly throttling the air and
fuel supply. Plug any sand holes or blowholes in the piston or valve heads, and make
these surfaces perfectly smooth. Replace electrodes or other light parts with more
substantial ones, capable of absorbing and carrying off the beat without becoming red
hot. If necessary, arrange for cooling the piston by blowing air into the open end of the
cylinder.

If the head of the exhaust valve becomes too hot, it is a sign that it is not heavy enough,
and it should be replaced by one with a head of sufficient thickness to carry off through
the valve stem the heat imparted to it by the combustion. If a small particle of dirt lodges
in a remote portion of the combustion chamber, the richer part of the charge may not
reach it until the piston has traveled over a considerable portion of the compression
stroke, and the resulting self-ignition may properly be called Pre-ignition. It is advisable,
therefore, to examine thoroughly every part of the combustion chamber and remove any
dirt that may have lodged there.

67. Pre-ignition in engines is Indicated by early ignition with a retarded spark. Usually, the
engine will continue running for several seconds after the switch has been opened. The
knock due to Pre-ignition has a sharp, metallic ring, easily distinguishable from other
knocks in the engine. Even if ignition is not actually started by hot carbon or other cause,
the first increase in pressure after the spark occurs may produce spontaneous ignition of
the mixture near the heated object, so that the charge burns from two or more points at
once, thus spreading the flame far mom rapidly than usual.

If the engine has two or more cylinders, and only some of them incline to Pre-ignition,
the result is that it is impossible to time the ignition correctly for all cylinders. The
 cylinders having a tendency to Pre-ignition must receive a late spark to prevent
combustion from being completed too early, while the other cylinders will require an
early spark. It follows from this that it is impossible to get the engine to develop its full
torque, or turning moment, unless it is running so fast that the tendency to Pre-ignition
may be neglected. As the effect of Pre-ignition is to cause combustion to be completed
before expansion has begun, it is dangerous to run the engine slowly, and this is true even
if only one cylinder is pre-igniting. If the engine is running at good speed, with an early
spark, the symptoms will be those of rapid combustion in the cylinders affected; namely,
a hardness in the sound of the explosion, without actual knocking, while in the other
cylinders, if any the explosion will be soft. As the speed of the engine is reduced, and the
spark retarded to suit, the hard sound of the explosions gives place to unmistakable
knocking. A good test for Pre-ignition due to carbon is to start the engine with everything
cold, and run it under load before the water in the radiator has had time to get hot.

In automobile as in stationary engines, Pre-ignition is brought about by incandescent

carbon deposits in the combustion chamber, on piston head, or on valves, or by bits of
loose carbon left after scraping out, etc. It is sometimes due to small, accidental
projections on the inner wall of the combustion chamber or head, due to defects in
casting. If these are located in the path of the hot gases, it will take wry little carbon
deposit on them to overheat. Pre-ignition is also caused by lack of water, resulting in
general overheating.

It must not be supposed that all carbon deposits are due to neglect. Even the most
scrupulous regulation of the best possible oil, and even the most efficient carburetor, will
not wholly prevent a gradual accumulation of carbon, but it ought not to become
troublesome in less than a season or two. A high-compression engine will, other things
being equal, pre-ignite sooner than one with low compression.

The only remedy for carbon deposit that amounts to anything is to scrape it out. To do
this it may be necessary to take off the cylinders, but it may also be done in some cases
by the use of special forms of scrapers that will much into the combustion chamber
through the inlet-valve or spark-plug hole.

If it is impracticable to scrape the cylinders at once, the trouble may be evaded after a
fashion by running throttled and by running on a lower gear at the first symptoms of a
pound. Increasing the richness of the mixture will also prevent pounding by making the
charges burn more slowly, but this brings its penalty by adding to the carbon already
present, If this trouble is due to chance projections in the combustion chamber, then may
generally be disclosed by an electric lamp and mirror and when the cylinders are taken
off, the projections can be cut away with a cold chisel.

TIMER TROUBLES
 68. Timer Contacts Roughened by Sparking. Trouble due to roughening of the timer
contacts by sparking is likely to occur in any timer in which the contact segments are
inserted flush with the insulator barrel or internal ring, instead of projecting therefrom.

The symptom produced by roughened contacts is irregular firing, due to jumping of the
contact roller or fingers. This is not noticeable at low speeds, but becomes marked as the
speed increases. The remedy is to true the insulator ring and segments in a lathe, and, if
necessary, put in a new roller or contact fingers.

69. Wabbling Timer. -Some timers have their stationary portion supported on the shaft by a
very short bearing that quickly wears loose and allows the stationary portion to wabble
out of its correct plane. This will cause irregular, firing or even misfiring. One may easily
determine whether the cause of the misfiring is here or elsewhere by steadying the tinier
with the hand. The remedy is to bush the bearing, and, if possible, to make it longer.

70. Incorrect Timing. -- With marine engines having make-and-break ignition mechanism,
even if the current is sufficient and there are no leaks, the time of contact may be too
short, may be made at the wrong point in the stroke, or may be broken when it should not
be, owing to incorrect timing. The timing may be tested by turning the flywheel carefully
in the proper direction, and noting when the contact is made and at what point the spark
occurs. By scratching the flywheel at these points, when the engine is running
satisfactorily, it is always a simple matter to correct any trouble in the time of sparking.
Raising or lowering the igniter pin without following any particular rule or without
knowledge of what one is doing is very bad practice, and is more likely to aggravate than
to remedy the difficulty. It is evident that, in multi-cylinder engines, it is quite important
that there should be for each cylinder the same relative time of making and breaking the
contact, with the same length of time in contact.

MISCELLANEOUS TROUBLES

GASOLINE LEAKS

71. Probably the most dangerous trouble experienced with marine engines is due to leaks in
the gasoline tanks or piping. They are more likely to occur at unions than anywhere else,
and all joints and fittings should be soldered or brazed, as well as screwed. Hence, the
piping is not liable to be broken at the threads, reinforced as they are with solder. Unions
should be very heavy, and should be examined for leaks carefully and often. Do not use a
light or match, but rub the finger around the joint, when, if there is a leak, it may be
detected by the odor that will remain on the finger. Small leaks may be stopped
 temporarily by means of cloth and shellac or soap. Insulating tape will be found useless
for the purpose, as the gasoline is a solvent for the Insulating material.

A good cord closely and tightly wound will be found serviceable. Shellac and cloth
bound on tightly and allowed to dry with no gasoline in the pipe will be found very
effective in stopping leaks. It is necessary to be extremely careful of fire in the presence
or suspected presence of gasoline, particularly when in the form of vapor and mixed with
air.

WATER IN EXHAUST PIPE OR MUFFLER

72. The exhaust gases from stationary gas or gasoline engines contain a certain amount of
moisture, part of which is condensed and deposited in the exhaust pipe or muffler, where
it may become a source of trouble if no provision has been made to drain these
connections properly or if the draining devices accidentally fail to perform their functions
as expected. Especially during cold weather, when the condensation in the exhaust
connections is greater then at more moderate temperatures, it is advisable to inspect
closely the condition of the drain cocks. If neglected, the level of the water in the muffler
may rise to such an extent as to prevent the exhaust gas from being expelled, first causing
loss of power and finally stopping of the engine.

In engines in which the governor acts on the exhaust valve, and this valve is kept open
while running under light load, the trouble from water in the exhaust, when no charges
are admitted to the cylinder, is naturally intensified, on account of the fact that a portion
of this water is drawn into the cylinder while the valve is open during the suction stroke.
The presence of water in the exhaust connections is usually indicated by steam or water
spray issuing from the end of the exhaust pipe.

As before stated, water is frequently used for deadening the noise of the exhaust by
introducing it in a small steady stream into the exhaust pipe and allowing it to be carried
off in the shape of vapor or spray with the exhaust gases. In such cases, the draining
devices require particular attention, because, in the case of failure to have a free outlet to
the drain for any part of the water not carried off with the exhaust, the accumulation of
water would in a short time be sufficient to stop the engine.

WATER IN ENGINE CYLINDER

73. An accumulation of water in the cylinder - a condition encountered more or less

frequently in marine practice - will effectually prevent a gas engine from starting. The
water may get in through the exhaust pipe because the installation is faulty, because the
exhaust extends below the surface of the water, or because there is a leak due to a crack
in the cylinder or to a broken and imperfect gasket between the cylinder and the water-
jacket. Running the exhaust cooling water into the engine exhaust is a frequent source of
such trouble.
 Provided the trouble from water in the cylinder is not due to leaks the remedy is to
remove the water entirely, by means of absorbent materials, through any openings there
maybe in the cylinder. The insulated electrode should then be carefully dried out, the
defect in installation remedied by changing the exhaust piping to drain outboard, and, if
exhausting below the surface of the water, a vent provided in the highest part of the
exhaust piping.

FAILURE TO GOVERN

74. If the connection between the governor and the throttle is too long, the throttle may fail to
close until the governor balls have been moved out to an excessive extent by the speed of
the engine. In an old engine, wear of the connecting links may produce the same result.
Sometimes there is an adjustable screw and nut connection between the governor and the
throttle, and this is easily adjusted. Sometimes, however, it may be necessary to bend the
rod connecting the two The throttle should be opened, and its position when barely open
should be marked in such a way that it will be known when the throttle is reassembled.
Then the engine should be run idle and the position of the governor lever noted when the
engine is running at the speed at which it is desired that the governor should act. With
these particulars known, it is easy to shorten the rod to bring the throttle to the desired
position. It should be remembered that a very slight opening of the throttle is sufficient to
keep the motor running.

REPAIRS

CYLINDER AND PISTON REPAIR WORK

REFITTING PISTON AND PISTON RINGS

75. It is practically impossible to turn a piston in a lathe so as to fit the cylinder in such a
manner that the engine will run properly even under a partial load. The best that can be
done is to have the cylinder bored slightly larger at the end nearest the crank-shaft, so that
the piston can be pushed in easily from this end and will fit rather Snugly at the other end
near the combustion chamber. To put the piston and cylinder in condition to stand
constant running under load necessitates filing the surface of the piston by hand, as
follows; See that both cylinder and piston are thoroughly clean and free from dust or
filings. Apply a liberal amount of lubricating oil, place the piston in the cylinder, and
attach the connecting-rod to the crank-shaft. Start the engine, and let it run idle for a
while. As soon as the heat of the explosion causes the piston to expand, it will begin to
stick in the cylinder, as the water-cooled walls of the cylinder do not expand to the same
extent as the piston. The sticking is manifested by a pounding or knocking sound caused
by the very slight amount of play that necessarily exists in the bearings of the connecting-
rod at both the crankpin and the piston end. As soon as this pounding appears, apply more
 lubricating oil to the piston, and let it run for a few minutes in this manner, without any
load. Then stop the engine, take out the piston, and wipe it dry. The portions of the piston
that bear hard against the cylinder will be indicated by glossy spots, which should be
carefully filed with a smooth, flat file, removing only a little at a time. To facilitate filing,
remove all traces of lubricating oil by means of kerosene. After filing the piston surface
in this way, clean the piston, put it back in the engine, and start up again. It will be
noticed that it is now possible to run the engine for a longer period without any pounding
in the cylinder and perhaps to be able to put on a light lend for a short time. Do not keep
the engine running with any load for any length of time, so long as there is any pounding
noticeable. This operation may have to be repeated from four to six times, depending on
the skill of the operator, before the engine can Turn steadily with the usual maximum
load.

These instructions apply also to cylinders that have been rebored and fitted with new
pistons, as the conditions in this case are the same as in a new cylinder.

76. The piston rings also require fitting in a similar manner, and in this connection the
following points must be observed: Before placing the rings in the grooves, each ring
should be tried, to ascertain that it fits in the groove for which it is intended. If the ring is
found too thick, place it on a straight board, and hold it in place by fastening three or four
nails within the ring, driving them down until the heads are slightly below the top of the
ring. Having thus secured the ring on the board, file it carefully and reduce its thickness
so as to get an easy sliding and uniform fit in its groove.

The rings can now be put in place by opening them and slipping them over the piston
from the closed end. In doing so, the rings should be expanded and twisted as little as
possible. The first ring must be placed in the groove farthest away from the closed end of
the piston, the others following in order. If, after running the engine with new rings for a
short time, the rings show that they bear hard and unevenly, the hard-bearing portions
must be touched up with a fine file. Should it become necessary at any time to replace a
broken ring located between other rings, the use of small pieces of thin sheet tin will be
found of advantage. They are slipped in between the inside of the ring and the outside of
the piston, at a convenient point of the circumference, so as to keep the ring evenly
expanded and enable it to be moved laterally over other rings already in place to the
groove for which it is intended. Having reached its groove, the pieces of tin are
withdrawn, and the ring is allowed to enter the groove.

A ring that, from undue expansion or twisting, has lost its original diameter will not bear
evenly and will wear out the cylinder in a short time, causing leakage and loss of power.

REPAIRING CRACKED WATER-JACKET

77. Neglect in draining the cylinder jacket when stopping the engine after the day's run may
result in cracking the outer shell in cold weather, owing to the freezing of the water. It is
very seldom that the inner cylinder is damaged in such a case, but if it should happen to
be injured, the casting is generally rendered useless and must be replaced with a new one.
 The outer shell, being much lighter than the cylinder itself, provides a safeguard against
damage to the latter, and in most cases, if the cylinder and jacket are, cast in one piece, it
will be possible and economical to repair the cracked shell.

The following directions are intended to cover repairs for various kinds of cracks, and
apply to cracks in cylinder jackets proper, as well as to cracks in the outer shell of
cylinder heads or valve casings of larger sizes. In large castings it will pay to repair the
part, rather than replace it with a new one; but with small castings it may be found to be
more convenient and cheaper to replace the heads or casings with new ones.

Fig. 4 (a) and (b) shows a cylinder, the outer shell of which has been burst by frost. The
crack a b extends only a portion of the entire length. After the ice has been thawed and
the jacket emptied, the first thing to do is to drill two holes a and b, about 1/4 inch in
diameter, at the ends of the crack. The purpose of these holes is to prevent the crack from
extending any farther on account of the chipping necessary in the next operation. Then
take a chisel about 3/16 inch to 1/4 inch wide and cut a groove along the line of the crack,
dove tailed as shown at c in the sectional view of the cylinder and jacket, Fig. 4 (b), the
groove being widest at the bottom.

Next secure a piece of 1/4 inch round copper wire, well annealed, and hammer it tightly
into the groove. By careful calking, a crack of this nature can be made perfectly tight.

78. Fig. 4 (a) also shows a crack d e extending from one of the water ports to the outer end of
the cylinder. In such a case, it will be necessary to shrink a steel band f on the end of the
cylinder, before the crack is chipped out and calked in the manner just referred to. Use a
flat steel band about 1/2 inch by 3/8 inch, and be sure that the finished end of the cylinder
projects about 1/8 inch beyond the band when in place.

If the crack extends over the entire length of the jacket, as shown at g h, it will require
additional bands i and j as shown. If the cylinder has finished collars at the ends, as is
frequently the case, it will not be possible to slip the ring j over the end of the cylinder
into its proper place, unless an auxiliary band k, open to the extent of about 1/4 inch as
 shown at l, is first placed on the cylinder. This band k must, of course, be thick enough to
make up the difference in diameter of the cylinder body and the finished collar. In
shrinking rings on a cylinder, they should be heated to a dull red beat and must be
handled dexterously, as the cooling takes place rapidly and the ring may shrink so as to
stick before it reaches its position if not applied quickly. After the bands have been put in
place and have been found to be tight, the cracks should be grooved and calked as
directed.

If a crack should develop in the surface of a joint between the cylinder and one of the
valve casings attached to it, and if this crack crosses the port through which the entering
charge or the exhaust gases pass, as shown at m n, Fig. 4 (a), it will be practically
impossible to repair the casting in such a manner that a packing can be made to stand, and
the only remedy is to replace the damaged part with a new one.

79. Another method of repairing a short crack in the surface of the jacket wall consists in
applying a piece of steel boiler plate, about 1/8 inch thick. Before putting on the plate,
two 1/4 inch holes should be drilled at the ends of the crack, to prevent it from going
farther, and a V-shaped groove cut along the crack from end to end. The plate must be
bent so as to conform to the shape of the cylinder jacket. A packing of thin asbestos wick
soaked in white-lead paste is now put in the V-shaped groove, after which a packing of
sheet asbestos the size of the plate and dipped in water is placed over the surface to be
covered by the plate. Now apply the plate, which is held in place by a number of 1/4 inch
to 3/8 inch screws, the size of the screws depending on the thickness of the water-jacket.
The screws should be about 1 inch apart, 1 inch on each side of the crack; and, if
possible, the tapped holes in the jacket, in order to prevent water from leaking past the
screws, should not be drilled all the way through.

If the jacket is so thin as to make it necessary to drill the holes all the way through, each
screw head must be packed with hemp or asbestos soaked in white lead.

REGRINDING VALVES

80. It is not often that inlet valves must be reground, because they remain comparatively cool
under the influence of the incoming charge, and, moreover, the seats are not exposed to
the erosion of burning gases. Exhaust valves, on the other hand, require regrinding at
intervals, depending somewhat on the temperatures in the cylinder, and to a large extent
on the material of which the exhaust valves are made. Ordinary mild-steel valves must be
reground quite frequently. A much better material is an alloy of nickel and steel
containing a high percentage of the former metal, usually about 25 per cent. Such an
alloy as this has a very small coefficient of expansion, and is less subject to erosion due
to the heated gases. Moreover, it is not liable to warp out of shape.

For large engines, and occasionally for small ones also, cast iron has been found to be a
very good material for the exhaust valves. If cast iron is used, the stems and heads are
 made separate; the stems are made of steel, and the heads are riveted on the stems. The
only drawback to cast iron for this purpose is that it has not the strength of steel, and the
valve head must be of unusual thickness, which, of course, adds to the weight and inertia
of the valve.

81. Inlet and exhaust valves are reground with emery. If an exhaust valve, the spring is first
slipped off to make sure that there is no sidewise pressure on the stem to prevent a true
bearing of the valve on its seat. The emery is mixed with oil until it forms a paste, and is
applied freely to the surface of the valve and its seat. Extreme care must be taken to
prevent any of the emery from getting into the interior of the cylinder, where it would
quickly ruin the piston and the cylinder walls. In some cases, a plug of waste can be
thrust into the valve chamber between the valve and the piston; but, if the chamber is not
long enough for this, the work will have to be watched carefully, using an electric light, if
necessary, to see that none of the paste works away from the valve toward the piston.

82. If the valve seat is badly out of true, the operation of grinding may be begun with emery
of medium coarseness; but this is seldom necessary, for the reason that, before the valve
had reached such a condition, the cylinder in question would have lost almost all of its
power. In any case, the work is finished with fine flour of emery. The emery being
applied, the valve is set into its place in the valve seat, and a screwdriver is used in the
slot in the valve head to rotate the valve, which should be worked by quarter-turns back
and forth with moderate pressure, and should be lifted at frequent intervals to allow the
paste to work in between the valve and its seat. In order to grind the valve evenly all
around, it should occasionally be advanced a quarter-turn, and the grinding-in process
continued. When the grinding is almost finished, the pressure should be comparatively
light.

If the valve has been pitted, it will not be necessary to grind it until the pits have entirely
disappeared, so long as there is a good bearing around them.

When the work is finished, the ground portion of the valve should have a smooth, dull
appearance, and neither the valve nor its seat should at any point be bright, as this would
indicate that metal had been rubbing on metal without emery between.

83. After the valve has been reground several times, it is likely to have settled so much lower
in its seat as to cause the valve stem to remain in contact with the push rod when the
valve is supposed to be seated. When the valve is closed, the clearance between the valve
and the push rod should be fully equal to the thickness of an ordinary visiting card. If the
distance is less than this, any slight irregularity in the cam, or some slight springing of the
metal parts when the engine is running, might bring the valve stem and the push rod
together and cause the valve to be opened slightly.
84. In an old engine, it may be found that the bushing or sleeve in which the valve stem runs
is worn to such an extent as to permit considerable sidewise movement of the stem. A
valve in this condition will still operate if it has been carefully ground, but it is likely to
need grinding much oftener than if it were truly guided by its bearing. It should never be
ground with the spring washer merely blocked up; the spring should in each case be
wholly removed.
PRINCIPLES OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

The purpose of this topic is to increase your knowledge of the principles, components,
and operation of internal combustion engines.

Describe the principles, components, and operation of both the two stroke and four
stroke diesel engines.

1. Introduction

In this task, the operation of a four stroke gasoline engine and a four stroke diesel engine will
be compared. In addition, information will be provided on the two stroke diesel engine and the
combustion chambers.

2. Gasoline Engine Versus Diesel Engine

A. General.
In many respects, the four stroke cycle gasoline engine and the four stroke cycle
diesel engine are very similar. They both follow an operating cycle consisting of intake,
compression, power, and exhaust strokes. They also share the same system for intake
and exhaust valves. The component parts of a diesel engine are shown in (figure 25).
The main differences between gasoline engines and diesel engines follow:

1. In a diesel engine the fuel and air mixture is ignited by the heat generated by the
compression stroke, versus the use of a spark ignition system in a gasoline engine.
The diesel engine therefore needs no ignition system. For this reason, the gasoline
engine is referred to as a spark ignition engine and a diesel engine is referred to as a
compression ignition engine.

2. In a diesel engine the fuel and air mixture is compressed to about one-twentieth of
its original volume. In contrast, the fuel and air mixture in a gasoline engine is
compressed to about one-eighth of its original volume. The diesel engine must
 compress the mixture this tightly to generate enough heat to ignite the fuel and air
mixture. The contrast between the two engines is shown in figure 26 on the
following page.

3. The gasoline engine mixes the fuel and air before it reaches the combustion
chamber. A diesel engine takes in only air through the intake port. Fuel is put into
the combustion chamber directly through an injection system. The air and fuel then
mix in the combustion chamber. This is illustrated in figure 27 on the following
page.

4. The engine speed and the power output of a diesel engine are controlled by the
quantity of fuel admitted to the combustion chamber. The amount of air is
constant. This contrasts with the gasoline engine where the speed and power
output are regulated by limiting the air entering the engine. This comparison is
illustrated in figure 28 on the following page.
b. Operation.

1. Intake (figure 29, view A). The piston is at top dead center at the beginning of the
intake stroke. As the piston moves downward, the intake valve opens. The
downward movement of the piston draws air into the cylinder. As the piston
reaches bottom dead center, the intake valve closes, ending the intake stroke.

2. Compression (figure 29, view B). The piston is at bottom dead center at the
beginning of the compression stroke. The piston moves upward, compressing the
air. As the piston reaches top dead center, the compression stroke ends.

3. Power (figure 29, view C, on the following page). The piston begins the power
stroke at top dead center. At this time, air is compressed in the upper cylinder to as
much as 500 psi (3448kPa). The tremendous pressure in the upper cylinder brings
the temperature of the compressed air to approximately 1000 F (538 C). The
power stroke then begins with the injection of a fuel charge into the engine. The
heat of compression ignites the fuel as it is injected. The expanding force of the
burning gases pushes the piston downward, providing power to the crankshaft. The
power generated in a diesel engine is continuous throughout the power stroke. This
 contrasts with a gasoline engine, which has a power stroke with rapid combustion in
the beginning and little or no combustion at the end.

4. Exhaust (figure 29, view D). As the piston reaches bottom dead center on the power
stroke, the power stroke ends and the exhaust stroke begins. The exhaust valve
opens and the piston pushes the burnt gas out through the exhaust port. As the
piston reaches top dead center, the exhaust valve closes and the intake valve opens.
The engine is then ready to begin another operating cycle.

c. Advantages.
1. The diesel engine is much more efficient than a gasoline engine due to the much tighter
compression of the fuel and air mixture. The diesel engine produces tremendous low-
speed power, and gets much greater fuel mileage than its gasoline counterpart. This
makes the engine very suitable for large trucks.

2. The diesel engine requires no ignition tune-ups because there is no ignition system.

3. Because diesel fuel is of an oily consistency and is less volatile than gasoline, it is not as
likely to explode in a collision.

d. Disadvantages.

1. The diesel engine must be made very heavy to have enough strength to withstand the
tighter compression of the fuel and air mixture.

2. The diesel engine is very noisy.

3. Diesel fuel creates a large amount of fumes.

4. Because diesel fuel is not very volatile, cold weather starting is difficult.

5. A diesel engine operates well only in low-speed ranges in relation to gasoline engines.
This creates problems when using them in passenger cars, which require a wide speed
range.

e. Usage.

Diesel engines are widely used in all types of heavy trucks, trains, and boats. In recent
years, more attention has been focused on using diesels in passenger cars.

f. Multi-fuel Engine (figure 30 on the following page).

The multi-fuel engine is basically a four stroke cycle diesel engine with the capability of
operating on a wide variety of fuel oils without adjustment or modification. The fuel
injection system is equipped with a device called a fuel density compensator. Its job is
to vary the amount of fuel, keeping the power output constant regardless of the fuel
being used. The multi-fuel engine uses a spherical combustion chamber to aid in
thorough mixing, complete combustion, and minimized knocks.
3. Two Stroke Cycle Diesel
a. General.
The two stroke cycle diesel (figure 31 on the following page) is a hybrid engine sharing
operating principles of both a two stroke cycle gasoline engine and a four stroke cycle
diesel engine. The major features of the engine are as follows:

1. It completes an operating cycle every two piston strokes or every crankshaft

revolution. Like a two stroke cycle gasoline engine, it provides a power stroke every
time the piston moves downward.

2. It is a compression ignition engine, making it a true diesel engine.

3. It uses an exhaust valve on top of the combustion chamber as in a four stroke cycle
diesel engine. Intake ports are cut into the cylinder wall as in a two stroke cycle
gasoline engine.
 4. It mixes its fuel and air in the combustion chamber as in a four stroke cycle diesel
engine. The air enters through the intake ports and the fuel is injected into the
combustion chamber by the fuel injection system.

5. The air supply to the engine is constant while the speed and power output of the
engine is regulated by controlling the quantity of fuel injected into the combustion
chamber.

6. Unlike any of the other engine types, the two stroke cycle diesel engine must have a
supercharger to force the intake air into the upper cylinder. The most common type
used is the Rootes.

b. Operation (figure 32 on the following page).

1. Scavenging. Scavenging begins with the piston at bottom dead center. The intake ports
are uncovered in the cylinder wall and the exhaust valve opens. Air is forced into the upper
 cylinder by the supercharger. As the air is forced in, the burnt gases from the previous
operating cycle are forced out.

2. Compression. As the piston moves toward top dead center, it covers the intake ports. The
exhaust valve closes at this point sealing the upper cylinder. As the piston continues
upward, the air in the cylinder is tightly compressed. As in the four stroke cycle diesel, a
tremendous amount of heat is generated by the compression.

3. Power. As the piston reaches top dead center, the compression stroke ends. Fuel is
injected at this point. The intense heat of compression causes the fuel to ignite. The
burning fuel pushes the piston down, giving power to the crankshaft. The power stroke
ends when the piston gets down to the point where the intake ports are uncovered. At
about this point, the exhaust valve opens and scavenging begins again.
c. Advantages
 The two stroke cycle diesel engine has all of the advantages that a four stroke
cycle engine has over a gasoline engine, plus the following:
1. Because it is a two stroke cycle engine, it will run smoother than its four stroke cycle
counterpart. This is because there is a power stroke generated for every crankshaft
revolution.

2. The two stroke cycle diesel has a less complicated valve train because it does not use
intake valves.

d. Disadvantages

1. The two stroke cycle engine must use a supercharger to force in the intake air and
push out the burnt exhaust gases. This is because the movement of the piston is not
such that it will accomplish this naturally. The supercharger uses engine power to
operate.

2. The two stroke cycle diesel uses either two or four exhaust valves per cylinder,
which complicates the valve mechanism.

3. As with the two stroke cycle gasoline engine, the diesel counterpart will not produce
twice as much power as a four stroke cycle engine, even though it produces twice as
many power strokes. By studying figure 33 on the following page, it can be seen
that the power stroke occupies only a portion of the down-stroke of the piston in a
two stroke cycle diesel. In a four stroke cycle diesel, the power stroke lasts from top
dead center to bottom dead center.

e. Usage.

The two stroke cycle diesel is used in most of the same applications as the four stroke
cycle diesel.
4. Combustion Chamber Design

A. General. The fuel injected into the combustion chamber must be mixed thoroughly with
the compressed air and be distributed as evenly as possible throughout the chamber if
the engine is to function at maximum driveability. The well-designed diesel engine uses
a combustion chamber that is designed for the engine's intended usage. The injectors
used in the engine should compliment the combustion chamber. The combustion
chambers described in the following subparagraphs are the most common and cover
virtually all of the designs that are used in current automotive applications.

B. Open Chamber (figure 34 on the following page). The open chamber is the simplest
form of chamber. It is suitable for slow-speed, four stroke cycle engines, and is used
widely in two stroke cycle diesel engines. In the open chamber, the fuel is injected
directly into the space at the top of the cylinder. The combustion space, formed by the
top of the piston and the cylinder head, is usually shaped to provide a swirling action of
 the air as the piston comes up on the compression stroke. There are no special pockets,
cells, or passages to aid the mixing of the fuel and air. This type of chamber requires a
higher injection pressure and a greater degree of fuel atomization than is required by
other combustion chambers to obtain an acceptable level of fuel mixing. This chamber
design is very susceptible to ignition lag.

C. Precombustion Chamber (figure 35 on the following page). The precombustion

chamber is an auxiliary chamber at the top of the cylinder. It is connected to the main
combustion chamber by a restricted throat or passage. The precombustion chamber
conditions the fuel for final combustion in the cylinder. A hollowed-out portion of the
piston top causes turbulence in the main combustion chamber as the fuel enters from
the precombustion chamber to aid in mixing with air. The following steps occur during
the combustion process:
 1. During the compression stroke of the engine, air is forced into the pre-compression
chamber and, because the air is compressed, it is hot. At the beginning of injection,
the pre-combustion chamber contains a definite volume of air.

2. As the injection begins, combustion begins in the pre-combustion chamber. The

burning of the fuel, combined with the restricted passage to the main combustion
chamber, creates a tremendous amount of pressure in the chamber. The pressure
and the initial combustion cause a superheated fuel charge to enter the main
combustion chamber at a tremendous velocity.

3. The entering mixture hits the hollowed-out piston top, creating turbulence in the
chamber to ensure complete mixing of the fuel charge with the air. This mixing
ensures even and complete combustion. This chamber design will provide
satisfactory performance with low fuel injector pressures and coarse spray patterns,
because a large amount of vaporization takes place in the combustion chamber.
This chamber also is not very susceptible to ignition lag, making it more suitable for
high-speed applications.

D. Turbulence Chamber (figure 36 on the following page). The turbulence chamber is

similar in appearance to the pre-combustion chamber, but its function is different.
 There is very little clearance between the top of the piston and the head, so that a high
percentage of the air between the piston and the cylinder head is forced into the
turbulence chamber during the compression stroke. The chamber usually is spherical,
and the opening through which the air must pass becomes smaller as the piston reaches
the top of the stroke, thereby increasing the velocity of the air in the chamber. This
turbulence speed is approximately 60 times crankshaft speed. The fuel injection is
timed to occur when the turbulence in the chamber is the greatest. This ensures a
thorough mixing of the fuel and the air, with the result that the greater part of
combustion takes place in the turbulence chamber itself. The pressure created by the
expansion of the burning gases is the force that drives the piston downward on the
power stroke.

E. Spherical Combustion Chamber (figure 37 on the following page). The spherical

combustion chamber is principally designed for use in the multifuel engine. The
chamber consists of a basic open-type chamber with a spherical-shaped relief in the top
of the piston head. The chamber works in conjunction with a strategically positioned
injector and an intake port that produces a swirling effect on the intake air as it enters
the chamber. Operation of the chamber is as follows:

1. As the air enters the combustion chamber, a swirl effect is introduced to it by the
shape of the intake port (figure 37, view A).
2. During the compression stroke, the swirling motion of the air continues as the
temperature in the chamber increases (figure 37, view B, on the previous page).

3. As the fuel is injected, approximately 95 percent of it is deposited on the head of the

piston; the remainder mixes with the air in the spherical combustion chamber
(figure 37, view C).

4. As combustion begins, the main portion of the fuel is swept off the piston head by
the high-velocity swirl that was created by the intake and the compression strokes.
As the fuel is swept off the head, it burns through the power stroke, maintaining
even combustion and eliminating detonation (figure 37, view D and E).
PRACTICAL EXERCISE
1. Instructions:
Read the scenario and respond to the requirements that follow the scenario.
2. Scenario:
Mr. Anders has been attending a Career Enhancement course for four weeks. This week
the subject has been internal combustion engines, which he understands completely. One of
his classmates, Mr. Ross, is not very sure about this subject and is nervous about the exam
which is coming up in two days. Mr. Anders asks Mr. Ross if he would mind helping him study
for the exam. Mr. Anders agrees to help and decides that the best way to prepare Ross for the
exam is to give him a pretest.
3. Requirement:
Below is a list of questions that SSG Fredrick feels will give SSG Olson a general
understanding of internal combustion engines.

1. If the engine is going to operate, the fuel and air mixture must be fed into the
__________________________.

2. What component opens and closes the intake and exhaust valves in a timed
sequence?

3. How many revolutions does the crankshaft rotate when the piston moves from top
dead center to bottom dead center?

4. What are the four strokes of operation in a piston engine?

5. What system ignites the fuel and air mixture in the combustion chamber at the
precise moment needed to make the engine run?

6. What type of engine is used almost exclusively in very small equipment because it is
lightweight and able to run at very high speeds due to the absence of a mechanical
valve train?

7. What piston ring keeps the engine's lubrication oil from getting into the combustion
chamber?

8. Why is a diesel engine referred to as a compression ignition engine?

9. Why is the diesel engine much more efficient than the gasoline engine?

10. The two stroke cycle engine must use a supercharger to force in the intake air and
push out the burnt exhaust gases because
_____________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________.

11. What type of combustion chamber is designed principally for use in the multi-fuel
engine?
ANSWERS:
1. combustion chamber.

2. The valve train.

3. Exactly one-half.

4. Intake, compression, power, and exhaust.

5. The ignition system.

6. The two stroke cycle engine.

7. The oil control ring.

8. The fuel and air mixture is ignited by the heat generated by the compression stroke.

9. The diesel engine is much more efficient than the gasoline engine due to the much
tighter compression of the fuel and air mixture.

10. the movement of the piston is not such that it will accomplish this naturally and the
supercharger uses engine power to run it.

11. The spherical combustion chamber.

Engine Operation, Troubles and Remedies

FAULTY OPERATION AND ADJUSTMENT

SYMPTOMS, CAUSES, AND CORRECTIVES

ENGINE-STARTING AND RUNNING DIFFICULTIES

85. Defective action is sometimes due to causes so apparent that explanations are
unnecessary; hence, for the sake of convenience all these possible sources of trouble
have been grouped under the headings Causes of Refusal to Start, Causes of Misfiring,
and Causes of Weak Explosions. In each case, the cause of the trouble may generally be
traced in the last analysis to faulty ignition, a faulty mixture or an insufficient supply of
mixture. These broad, ultimate causes have been stated first, and the principal
mechanical or electrical defects that produce the trouble are enumerated afterwards. It
will be understood that these do not comprise all the possible troubles with engines. In
particular, they omit entirely such matters as pre-ignition, knocking, and overheating.
The object of the following presentation is to enable the user to trace the difficulty
when his engine refuses to give its normal power through some trouble, the nature of
which is not immediately obvious.

86. It is a familiar fact that the internal-combustion engine is far more liable to stoppages
and weaknesses, for reasons at first mysterious, than is the steam engine. The
explanation of this is that, while the steam engine is purely a mechanical apparatus, the
internal-combustion engine is partly mechanical, partly chemical, and generally partly
electrical in its functions, and the chemical and electrical parts of its organism may go
wrong through causes not connected with the visible mechanism, or, as in the case of a
badly adjusted trembler, a poorly working timer, or a leaky float, through mechanical
derangements so slight as to escape notice.

From this it follows that, to manage successfully, an internal-combustion engine

(especially one that works under such a variety of conditions, often very severe, as the
automobile engine) it is first of all necessary for the operator to make good use of his
reasoning faculties. The symptoms of derangement, when taken singly, are often such
as may be caused by any one of several possible defects; in nearly every case the defect,
 whatever it may be, will produce several symptoms a careful study of which will lead to
the elimination of causes that do not tally with all the symptoms; as, for instance, causes
affecting all cylinders when only one or two are misbehaving, or vice versa. When the
user has reached this point, generally a short further investigation of the points at which
he has found trouble of that particular sort is most likely to occur will lead him to the
discovery of the true cause. The cause of loss of power, due to such faults as a loose
battery connection, a sticking inlet valve, or a bit of dirt in the carburetor, will at once be
recognized in its true character by the experienced operator. The only way to attain final
proficiency in these things is by extended experience with the particular engine in hand;
but, on the other hand, there is absolutely no excuse for the aimless groping of many
inexperienced users, who will often send needlessly for a tow, or will pull an engine to
pieces in their search for some simple fault that might have been located by intelligent
diagnosis.

87. Causes of Refusal to Start, or of Sudden Stoppage. - The fundamental reasons for an
engine refusing to run, or of a particular cylinder refusing to work, may be summed up
as due to (1) no spark; (2) no mixture; or (3) wholly wrong mixture. These cover all the
possible causes, which may be enumerated as follows:

1. Switch not closed.

2. Gasoline not turned on.
3. Carburetor not primed, or (rarely) primed too much.
4. Weak battery.
5. Gasoline stale or mixed with kerosene.
6. Gasoline too cold to vaporize.
7. Dirt or waste in carburetor or gasoline pipe.
8. Mud splashed into air intake.
9. Water in carburetor.
10. Soot on the spark plug or contact igniter.
11. Water on spark plugs.
12. Broken spark-plug porcelain.
13. Grounded wire (generally secondary).
14. Broken wire (generally primary), or loose connection.
15. Very bad adjustment of the coil tremblers.
16. Defective spark coil or condenser (rare).
17. Broken igniter spring.
18. Broken valve stem, spring, or key.
19. Valve cams slipped (rare).

88. Causes of Mis-firing. -The principal cause of misfiring is irregular sparking, which may be
due to a variety of causes. Irregular sparking may be caused by the following:
 1. Soot on spark plugs or contact igniters.
2. Weak battery.
3. Broken wire, making intermittent contact through the vibration of the engine
(generally found in the primary circuit.
4. Loose connection to binding post (generally found in primary circuit).
5. Wire occasionally grounded through vibration of engine. This is generally found in
the secondary circuit, and it is not necessary for the bare wire to make contact with
the metal into which this secondary current is escaping. If the insulation of the
secondary cable is weakened, and the cable is lying loosely on a metal part, the
spark will often jump through the insulation.
6. Timer contact surfaces roughened by sparking.
7. Wabbling timer.
8. Poor trembler adjustment.
9. Trembler sticking at high speeds, due to inertia of heavy armature.
10. Insufficient pressure on timer contacts.

A sticking inlet valve, which stays open when it ought to close, will cause irregular firing
and occasionally back firing. Another possible cause is a very lean or rich mixture
ignitable only by a strong spark. It can always be distinguished from ignition troubles by
the fact that the explosion impulses, when they occur, are of much less than normal
strength. If the mixture is too weak, the explosions are likely to occur every other cycle.

89. Causes of Weak Explosions. -The causes of the explosions being weak are as follows:

1. Mixture too lean or too rich.

2. Leakage of compression.
3. Mixture diluted by exhaust gases.
4. Spark timing later than, it should be, in one or all cylinders.

If the trouble is in the mixture, the explosions would be regular, unless the mixture is so
far defective that it sometimes fails to ignite in spite of the spark occurring regularly.
The same will be true in any case where, as is usual, the cause of the weakness is
unconnected with any irregularity in sparking.

The principal causes of 'weak explosions may be enumerated as follows:

1. Dirt or waste in carburetor or gasoline pipe, causing weak mixtures.

2. Stale gasoline.
3. Air intake partially obstructed, causing rich mixture.
4. Bad carburetor adjustment.
5. Trouble with float.
6. Choked muffler.
7. Lack of oil on piston, or too thin oil.
8. Leak through valve (generally the exhaust valve).
 9. Leaky spark plug.
10. Valve timing wrong. This is most likely due to the fact that the cam-shaft, etc.,
have been taken out and replaced with the gears in incorrect angular relation. It
may, however, be caused also by wear of the cams, push rods, or valve stems, by
spring in the cam-shaft or valve lifters, or by the slipping of cams.
11. Broken or worn piston rings.

90. A two-cycle marine engine may be running along smoothly and begin gradually to slow
down. This condition may be caused by too much or too little gasoline; the ignition
devices may have become disarranged; there may be too little cylinder or other
lubrication or too little water circulating through the cylinder jacket; something may be
caught in the propeller wheel; in cool or cold weather, the moisture in the atmosphere
may have become frozen by the rapid evaporation of the gasoline, thus preventing the
free flow of air or the proper seating of the valve in the vaporizer controlling the
gasoline supply and the flow of mixture from the crank-chamber; the piston and rings
may have been fitted too snugly, causing them to bind in the cylinder, which may have
become distorted by the different temperatures to which it is subjected, there being a
comparatively cold inlet on one side of the cylinder and a hot exhaust port on the other;
the exhaust ports, piping, or muffler may have become partly stopped by water, carbon,
salt, or other deposits; the exhaust may have been submerged by a different trim of the
boat, or there may have arisen conditions such as could not have been foreseen or
provided against, and that might never again be experienced. At any rate, such slowing
down is a forerunner of trouble and should be investigated. If the cause of the trouble
cannot be discovered, the engine should be stopped when it is safe to do so, the
position of the boat being made such as not to endanger either boat or occupants
through collision with passing craft.

91. The remedies for slowing-down troubles due to the causes just mentioned will in
practice suggest themselves. In many cases, the cause of the difficulty can readily be
determined and overcome. For instance, trouble due to an insufficient quantity of
cylinder oil or circulating water might be attended to readily without stopping the
engine, or a temporary stop might be made to remove a rope, grass, etc., from the
propeller, or foreign matter from the sea-cock strainer or pump check-valves, or to
adjust the ignition or replace a broken or weak valve spring. Structural troubles, such as
tight pistons and distorted cylinders, would have to be attended to at some more
opportune time.

If the vaporizer should freeze, it may be necessary to run the engine awhile and then
give the accumulation of ice and frost a chance to melt. If the water supply is insufficient
and the jacket becomes overheated, it may be possible in case of an emergency to
continue running by using a hand pump connected with the supply; or, with the supply
open water may be pumped through or poured into the water discharge. In such case,
the transformation of the water into steam might make it a little dangerous for the
 operator, and should the cylinder be too hot the water might possibly crack the cylinder
at its weakest part, or at the point where it is subject to the greatest stress.

When it becomes necessary to run a four-cycle marine engine with too little circulating
water, the compression should be relieved, the cooling action of the large quantity of
gas, a part of which is wasted, helping to cool the cylinder, while the smaller amount
exploded does not heat the cylinder as much as would full charges at the usual high
compression pressure.

92. Irregular running of marine engines is a condition rarely encountered, and its cause is
problematical. The trouble may be caused by back pressure in the exhaust, or may be
due to improper location, with reference to the exhaust port, of the transfer, or pass-
over, port connecting with the crank-case; this could occur only in two-cycle engines. As
a result of such improper location of the port, the engine cylinder might not be
thoroughly scavenged of 'burned gases at high speed, when it would slow down to
normal speed or slightly below, and, getting a better mixture at that speed, would speed
up. It might also be caused by the exhaust ports opening too late or the inlet ports
opening too early. It is well known that, with no thought of fuel economy, two-cycle
engine ports should open much earlier when designed for high than for low speed, in
order to more thoroughly get rid of the products of combustion. When it is discovered
that the engine is being run at a speed in excess of that to which it is best adapted, the
remedy is to make the ports open earlier, or hold the engine to slower speed by
increasing the diameter, pitch, or blade surface of the propeller.

Should the engine, without missing explosions, begin to increase its speed, and then
miss explosions and slow down, one would naturally be led to suppose the cause of the
trouble to be insufficient length of contact of the sparking device as well as poor
scavenging of the cylinder.

Trouble from loss of compression in the combustion chamber, whether in a two-cycle or

a four-cycle engine, must be remedied before the engine can be made to run
satisfactorily. If, in attempting to start, it is found that there is no compression, the
valves should be examined to see if they seat properly and are timed correctly. Loss of
compression may be caused by a leaky gasket, allowing the pressure to leak into the
water-jacket, which is the first place to look for the cause of trouble after examining the
valves. A leaky, gasket may sometimes be discovered by noting whether or not pressure
escaping into the water jacket shows at the water discharge.
Trouble from loss of compression in the combustion chamber, whether in a two-cycle or
a four-cycle engine, must be remedied before the engine can be made to run
satisfactorily. If, in attempting to start, it is found that there is no compression, the
valves should be examined to see if they seat properly and are timed correctly. Loss of
compression may be caused by a leaky gasket, allowing the pressure to leak into the
water-jacket, which is the first place to look for the cause of trouble after examining the
 valves. A leaky, gasket may sometimes be discovered by noting whether or not pressure
escaping into the water jacket shows at the water discharge.

KNOCKING OR POUNDING
93. Undoubtedly the sense of hearing is more useful in detecting irregularities in the
running of an engine than any other sense. By means of the sounds produced, the
engine talks to the operator, and with a little intelligent study he will soon understand
the language. Even at a distance it is often possible to tell whether an engine is running
regularly or whether, as indicated by the sound of the exhaust, some of the charges
admitted to the cylinder are expelled without being exploded. Standing in close
proximity to the engine, the operator may distinguish a variety of sounds indicating
defects about the engine and calling attention to the necessity of applying proper
remedies 'at the first opportunity.

A sharp, knocking sound in stationary engines may be due to any one of the following
causes:

1. Lost motion in the bearings of the connecting-rod, either at the crankpin or the
piston-pin end.
2. Lateral movement of a piston ring, the groove in the piston having become widened
by wear.
3. A loose key in the flywheel or pulley.
4. Lost motion in the gears, causing the gear-shaft to be retarded in its revolution for a
fraction of a second when the exhaust or inlet-valve cam hits the roller and lever.
5. Piston or cylinder worn to a considerable extent, causing an up-and-down movement
of the piston.
6. The piston having worn a shoulder in the bore of the cylinder, and striking the
shoulder if any play in the bearings is developed.
7. The piston striking any foreign body that may accidentally have been drawn into the
cylinder.

94. sheared off or being too small for their holes. Knocking due to such causes is readily
detected by a careful inspection while the engine is running, and this inspection may be
aided by laying the hands on parts suspected of being loose, when vibration will easily
be felt; also by careful scrutiny with an electric flashlight for evidences of movement
where two parts are bolted together.
 About the most likely place to find looseness of this description is in the holding-down
bolts that hold the engine to the frame on which it is mounted; but in certain horizontal
engines it way also be found that the caps over the main bearings are loose, owing to
the fact that they have not been properly tongued into the bottom halves or pillow
blocks of the bearings. Looseness at either of these two points should be remedied at
the repair shop, as it always necessitates the substitution of larger bolts, aided perhaps
by dowel-pins; and in the case of the bearing cap it may be necessary to make a wholly
new cap, with proper tongues fitting into grooves that must be machined or chiseled in
the pillow-block.

95. A more probable cause of knocking is looseness due to wear in the main-shaft bearings,
crankpin bearings, or the wristpin bearings. In a four-cylinder vertical engine, the main-
shaft bearings may be quite loose without causing a knock, because the weight of the
shaft and flywheel holds the shaft down; but a horizontal engine will, under certain
conditions of speed and load, pound with a small amount of looseness. Only a very
limited amount of looseness should be permitted in the main-shaft bearings of any
engine, both on account of the danger of springing the shaft and because a bearing
worn beyond this extent is liable to begin cutting, as it is difficult to keep sufficient oil in
it.

96. Looseness in the flywheel bearing of a vertical engine is disclosed by putting a jack
under the flywheel and working it gently up and down. In the case of a horizontal engine
it is necessary to move the shaft approximately in line with the pressure of the
explosions, and a lever will have to be applied to the flywheel or shaft in whatever
manner seems most practicable. Occasionally, looseness of the shaft can be detected by
rocking the flywheel back and forth against the compression in the cylinder. If the pull of
the sprocket chain comes on the engine shaft, it maybe possible to detect looseness in
the adjacent bearing by alternately stretching and relaxing the chain, which can be done
by grasping it midway between the sprockets and pulling it up and down as far as it will
go.

A novice should not attempt to refit the main-shaft bearings, as this requires a good
deal of skill and experience for its correct execution.

Wear in the crankpin bearings is disclosed by setting the cranks at about half stroke, and
rocking the shaft back and forth.

97. Knocking in the wristpin, due to wear of the pin and its bushing, is not among the
commoner troubles, and it does not need to be attended to at once unless aggravated.
It is well, however, not to neglect it too long, as the bushings and the pin will be worn
 out of round, so that they cannot be used. When it is taken out, the wristpin should be
calipered all around. If it is out of round, it should be ground true; or, if this is
impracticable, a new pin will have to be supplied, and the bushing reamed or scraped to
fit. This, of course, should be done in a repair shop.

98. A cause of knocking occasionally found is due to the wristpin and the crankpin not being
quite parallel. This causes the connecting-rod to oscillate from end to end of the
wristpin and crankpin bearings; and if, as is customary, there is 1/16 or more of end
movement in these bearings, the knocking may be quite noticeable. If, as is likely to be
the case, it is impossible to make the pins parallel, the only recourse is to take up the
lost motion at the end of one or the other bearing, and possibly both bearings, by the
use of washers or cheeks soldered to one end of the bushing and brasses. This is not a
common cause of knocking, particularly in the better class of engines.

99. The best construction is to secure flywheels to short shafts by bolting them to flanges
instead of keying them. Sometimes, however, a flywheel is held on by a common key, or
by two keys 90' apart, and frequently it will work loose on its keys. This will inevitably
result in a knock, which will be very loud if the engine has less than four cylinders. The
crank-case should be opened and the cranks blocked so that the shaft cannot turn, and
then force should be applied to the flywheel to disclose the looseness, if any.
Sometimes the flywheel will be so tight on its shaft as to resist turning in this manner by
using any ordinary force. In this case, it is best to take the engine to a repair shop if a
thorough search has failed to disclose any other cause for the noise.

A sprung shaft will always cause knocking, and also rapid wear. and cutting of the
bearings.

100. Besides the foregoing mechanical causes of knocking, there is a class of what
may be called combustion knocks that are altogether distinct from the preceding, in that
they may occur without appreciable looseness in the bearings, and are due to excessive
rapidity of combustion, coupled generally with too-early ignition, the charge being
completely burned before the piston has reached the end of the compression stroke.
Combustion knocks are due to a variety of causes, the most obvious of which is simply
too-early ignition, as when running a heavy load without suitably retarding the spark. A
contributing cause is a slightly weak mixture, since such a mixture burns faster than a
normal or over-rich mixture. Pounding in particular cylinders of a multi-cylinder engine
may be due to unequal rapidity of combustion, which itself may be due to unequal
charges, as when the valves are unequally timed, or to irregular spark timing, such as
may result from a wabbling timer or badly adjusted vibrators. If the timer contact
surfaces have been roughened by sparking or by wear, they will cause the contact
 maker of the timer to jump when running fast, and therefore to make erratic contact,
resulting in irregular firing.

101. The classes of combustion knocks just mentioned are easily traced to their
causes. The knocks are not necessarily violent, and they may sound a good deal like the
knocks due to loose bearings, except that, if caused by faulty action of timer or
vibrators, they will occur irregularly instead of regularly.

There is, however, another and very common sort of knocking due to spontaneous
ignition of the charge before the spark occurs. This may be caused by overheating of the
engine from lack of water or other trouble with the circulation - a trouble at once
indicated by boiling of the water in the radiator or by smoking of the exterior of the
engine. It is a temporary phenomenon, and involves no harm to the engine if the latter
is promptly stopped and allowed to cool.

102. Much more troublesome, and also more common, is spontaneous ignition, or
Pre-ignition, as it is termed, due to a deposit of carbon in the combustion chamber or on
the piston head. A carbon deposit of this nature may be caused by too much gasoline or
by too much cylinder oil, and it will accumulate gradually even with the carburetor and
lubrication correctly regulated. A small quantity of carbon will give no trouble, but as
the deposit thickens some portions of it will remain incandescent from one explosion to
the next, and will ignite the fresh charge at some point in the compression stroke,
depending on conditions. The fact that the charge is not ignited until some time during
compression is due to the fact that the more highly it is compressed, the more easily it
ignites. True Pre-ignition results almost always, except at the highest engine speeds, in
the charge being completely burned before expansion begins, and it is easily
distinguished, especially if the engine is taking full charges, by the resulting sound,
which is a sharp, metallic sound closely resembling that produced by a hammer striking
a block of cast iron. Usually, though not always, an engine that pre-ignites in this
manner will continue running by spontaneous ignition for some seconds after the igniter
switch has been opened. The hammering due to Pre-ignition, as would be expected, is
most marked when the engine is running slowly with the spark suitably retarded, and it
will generally manifest itself under load, owing to the fact that the throttle is then wide
open and the spark necessarily retarded to suit the slow speed of the engine.

103. In stationary engines, a heavy, pounding noise, such as is caused by premature

ignition, may also be due to excessively high compression for the grade of fuel
employed. In addition to its initial effect in producing a pounding noise, either Pre-
ignition or a too-high compression pressure may cause the piston to expand unduly and
to stick in the cylinder, which it would not do if the conditions were normal. This sticking
of the piston would produce a knocking sound due to the small amount of play in the
 connecting-rod bearings necessary for smooth running. A coughing or barking sound is
caused by the escape of pressure past the piston, and would indicate the necessity
either of replacing any worn or broken piston rings or of reboring the cylinder and fitting
a new piston.

With marine engines, a loose coupling may cause a pound, as may also a loose propeller
wheel, but these pounds can easily be located.

CYLINDER AND PISTON DISORDERS

104. Scored and Leaky Cylinders - One cause of scoring of the cylinder lies in the fact
that the ends of the piston pin or wristpin when loose sometimes protrude through the
hole or bearing in the piston. Some pins have their bearing in the piston itself, while
others, being tightly secured in the piston, have their bearing in the upper end of the
connecting rod. No matter which construction is employed, the ends of the pins should
never come in contact with the cylinder walls. The pin must by some absolutely positive
method be kept in place. While a loose wristpin is often the cause of a scored cylinder,
there are three other causes, resulting from imperfections of design or of machine work,
to which scoring can be traced; namely, loose core sand, imperfectly fitted piston rings,
and loosening of the pins that are used to prevent the piston rings from turning in the
slots in the piston.

105. Trouble from loose core sand Is due to sharp sand that usually comes from the
cored passage connecting the crankcase with the inlet or pass-over port to the
combustion chamber of two-cycle engines. With cylinder castings properly pickled in
dilute sulphuric acid to remove the sand, this trouble would not be experienced; but
with modern methods of cleaning castings by means of the sand blast, the cored
passages are frequently neglected. Some engines are provided with a removable plate
over the inlet port, for the express purpose of making sure that there shall be no core
sand therein to cause trouble.

If, in an engine of the two-cycle type, the scoring consists of several parallel marks on
the side where the inlet port is located, it is safe to ascribe the trouble to sand. If the
scoring is on the exhaust-port side, it is usually an indication of insufficient lubrication;
as the hot exhaust gases pass out they burn the oil off that side of the piston and
cylinder, the exhaust side of a two-cycle engine cylinder being always hotter than the
inlet side. Scoring may occasionally be due to the presence in the cylinder of pieces of
 the porcelain insulation of spark plugs. Cylinders have been practically ruined through
rough dropping into the cylinder the pin or nut holding in place the spring on an
inverted inlet valve.

106. Leaky cylinders (particularly in two-cycle engines) render the wristpin, crankpin,
and main-shaft bearings subject to excessive wear, because the heat of the gases that
pass by the rings into the crank-case tends to burn up the oil and heat the bearings. If
the engine is of the two-cycle type, the leaking products of combustion not only foul the
fresh charge of gas so that it is not so explosive, but the quantity of each charge is
reduced.

If, in an engine in which the inlet and exhaust valves are tight and there is no leaky
gasket, it is found that the compression has become materially reduced, the trouble is
probably caused by leaks from distorted, scored, or imperfect cylinders, the pistons or
piston rings being worn considerably or stuck in the slots in the piston. The only remedy
is to remove the pistons for examination. If the cylinder is found to be out of round or
scored, it will have to be rebored, and new pistons and rings fitted. If the rings are found
to be rusted or stuck in the slots, they will have to be removed, even if to do so it is
necessary to break them. They may have worn to such an extent that the openings at
the points of parting are such as to allow a loss of pressure, the leaking charge passing
either into the tight crank-case, if the engine is two-cycle, or into the atmosphere. If
such leakage is not stopped, the heat of the escaping gases will burn the oil out of the
crank-case, and the bearings will soon become badly worn, if not ruined.

107. The piston should be examined carefully for wear. The side on which the angular
pressure of the connecting rod is exerted should, of course, show the most wear. If the
front or rear side of the piston shows wear at top or bottom, with a corresponding
amount of wear on the opposite bottom or top, it is proof that the hole through the
piston for the piston pin, to which is connected the upper end of the connecting-rod, is
higher at the end showing wear at the top of the piston than at the end showing wear at
the bottom. If this is found to be the case, and the wristpin is tightly secured in the
piston, the connecting-rod bearing for the wristpin will be found to have worn badly and
will be bell-mouthed, that is, larger at the ends than at the center. The remedy for this is
to true up the bole carefully and bush it, or use a pin that is a trifle larger than the hole,
increasing the size of hole in the tipper bushing slightly. This is a repair job that should
be entrusted only to a thoroughly reliable machinist having the tools and means for
doing accurate work. Side wear on the piston is much more likely to show in engines
having the wristpin held securely in the upper end of the connecting-rod, the ends of
the pin having bearings in the piston.
108. Piston rings become stuck in the slots in the piston from two causes; namely,
from water getting into the combustion chamber, causing the rings to rust, and from the
sides of the slots being slightly tapered instead of parallel. Where tapered sides are
found, it is usually necessary to straighten them up in a lathe and use slightly wider
rings, Piston rings should be renewed much oftener than is customary. As they become
more and more open at the ends, the hot gases passing by the ends of the rings have a
harmful effect on the polished, cylinder surfaces, and in two-cycle engines they foul the
mixture in the crankcase.

109. Broken piston rings, particularly in engines with ports that are opened and
closed by the pistons, are a source of annoyance, and frequently cause much trouble.
Broken piston rings are frequently the result of insufficient care in putting the piston,
with the rings in place, into the cylinder, but are more likely the result of getting a ring
end caught in a port. To prevent this, two-cycle engine rings are usually pinned to
prevent them from turning until the ends can get into the port.

The breaking of a piston ring is rather an unusual occurrence; it will cause loss of
compression, that may be distinguished from leakage due to the rings being worn by the
fact that the broken ring will make a distinct clicking sound at the end of every stroke. It
will also be found that oil squirted on the piston when a ring is broken will not stop the
leak. If the engine has more than one cylinder, it is probable that loss of compression
due to lack of oil would affect all the cylinders, whereas a broken ring affects one only. If
a piston ring is broken, it becomes necessary to take off the cylinder without delay and
put in a new ring. Pinning Piston Rings.

110. Piston rings are supposed to be held in position by small pins, one in each ring,
so that the joints of adjacent rings are diametrically opposite. If for any reason these
pins break, a ring may slip round until its joint is in line with that of the next ring above
or below. This will cause loss of compression that may be very puzzling; it is an unusual
occurrence, and it may be necessary to take off the cylinder to locate the trouble.
111. A good method for pinning piston rings is shown in Fig. 1 (a) and (b) Fig. 1 (a) is a
diagram of a piston head, the dotted lines showing the bottom of the ring slot, while Fig.
1 (b) is a sketch of a portion of one side of the piston. With the piston square on its
lower end, drill, at a, a point about half way between the inlet and exhaust ports,
through b, c, and d, a hole large enough for clearance for a small tap, continue the hole
into e with a tap drill, tap the hole, and screw into it a slotted screw to extend into the
slot for a distance not quite one-half the width of the slot. Then tap and plug the hole
through b, c, and d with screws dipped in muriatic acid to rust them in place, the screw
plugs being in each case below the surface of the slot faces. At another point, where it
would not come opposite a port, drill a hole through b and c and tap into d, plugging the
clearance holes, as before. Drill at another point a hole through b, tapping into c. Slotted
Piston Rings The slotted screws extend one-half or less the width of the slots from the
bottom, so that, if the rings be parted as in Fig. 2 (a) one of the ends could be cut off
slightly to receive the pin, or, if parted diagonally, as in Fig. 2 (b), a space could be cut
out for the pin. With this method of (a) pinning the rings, there is no way for the pins to
work out to score the cylinders. While it is customary to pin the piston rings for two-
cycle engines, pins are rarely found necessary in four-cycle engines, as such engines
have no ports to catch the ends of the rings, except when an auxiliary exhaust is
employed.

112. Cylinder-Packing Troubles -The joints between the cylinder head and the
cylinder of stationary gas engines are kept tight by packings usually cut out of asbestos
sheet about 1/32 inch thick. When the packing is damaged by overheating or excessive
pressure, water from the jacket leaks either to the outside or into the cylinder. The
 latter is the more serious leak of the two, as it interferes with the running of the engine
by corroding the points of contact on the igniter and the valve seats and stems, and
prevents proper lubrication of the piston and cylinder. Leaking toward the cylinder i's
generally indicated by splashing of the cooling water at the overflow pipe when the
explosion takes place.

In most cases, the blowing out of a packing is caused by the combustion pressure
opening the joint between the packing surfaces, the packing being heated and partly
destroyed, and allowing water to enter the combustion chamber. A partial or complete
stoppage of the cooling water supply or the clogging of the water spaces with lime or
similar deposits will also result in the overheating of the cylinder and consequent
damage to the packings.

As soon as a leak of water from a faulty packing develops, preparations should be made
to renew the packing at the first opportunity. If the leak is to the outside, which may not
interfere with the operation of the engine, although it will cause inconvenience through
having to catch the water in buckets, it is not necessary to shut down the engine until
the day's work is done. If the leak is toward the combustion chamber, the engine will
generally stop in a short time.

113. Many engines have the cylinder heads and cylinders in one piece; but a few
engines have copper or aluminum water-jackets. There are, however, some old engines
with separate heads still in service. In some cases, the cylinder beads, when separate,
are made a ground fit on the cylinders, but they are commonly made tight by asbestos
gaskets. Leakage through these may be detected some. times by the sound, and
sometimes by putting a little oil over the suspected place and noting the resulting
bubbles when the crank is turned.

In case a cylinder-head gasket leaks, it will be necessary to put in a new gasket. The
head should be taken off, the old gasket removed, and the iron surfaces in contact with
it should be carefully scraped clean. The new gasket may be of sheet asbestos, and it
should be sprinkled evenly with powdered graphite to prevent it from sticking. It may be
cut to size by laying it on the cylinder and tapping it lightly with a small hammer to
indicate the outlines. Care should be taken not to let inwardly projecting edges interfere
with the valves or igniters; and, also, if there are openings through the head for the
passage of water, it should be seen to that these are not closed by the asbestos.

A good packing for cylinder heads is sheet asbestos with woven brass wire embedded in
it. This packing is much stronger than ordinary sheet asbestos, and will not blow out
unless the cylinder-head bolts are loose or the head is a bad fit. In replacing a cylinder
head, the bolts should be tightened gradually and evenly, each being tightened a little at
 a time, and the round being made three or four times, so as to avoid localizing the stress
on any one bolt.

There is, of course, but one remedy for leaky gaskets, namely, renewal. The old gasket
should be carefully and completely removed, and by means of a straight edge a careful
examination should be made to discover, if possible, why the gasket gave way at a
particular point. There may have been insufficient surface or too little holding-down
pressure to keep the packing in place; the studs may have been too far apart at the
point of rupture, or the nuts may not have been tightened after the engine had become
heated.

VALVE DERANGEMENTS

114. Leaky Inlet and Exhaust Valves -Trouble from loss of compression in the
combustion chamber, when the spark plug is tight and there is plenty of oil on the
piston, is generally due to leaky valves. In order to determine whether the leak is in the
valves or in the piston rings, a moderate quantity of oil may be squirted through the
compression relief cocks and the crank turned two or three times, which will
temporarily check whatever leakage there may be around the piston. If the compressed
charge still escapes, the inlet valve, if located over the exhaust valve, may be taken out
and examined. The leak, however, is much more likely to be in the exhaust valve.

To take out the exhaust valve, turn the engine over by hand, with the switch off and the
compression relief cocks open, until the valve is opened. Then prop up the valve spring
with two pieces of wood or brass a, a, Fig. 3, cut to the proper length to go between the
spring collar b, and the upper end (or lower end, if this is more convenient) of the push-
rod guide c, and turn the engine again until the push rod d is down as far as it will go.
Push the I exhaust valve down; the key at e may now be slipped out If the props have
been made accurately to length, the valve may be slipped up and out, leaving the spring
and the collar in place. Inspection should show the valve seat to be of uniform
appearance all the way around, and dull - not glossy. If the seat of either valve is pitted
or rough, or if it is worn bright on one side, showing that it has been seating only on that
side, it should be reground.
115. The remedy for leaky valves is to regrind them to their seats. If badly scored and
worn, which will be shown by a blackening of the seat and valve, it may become
necessary to reseat and true up the valve, but if the engine has had ordinary care and
attention, grinding should be sufficient. For this purpose, the exhaust valves may need
emery and oil, finishing up with powdered oilstone, ground glass, silex, or the dirt that
accumulates under a grindstone. The valve should not be rotated its whole
circumference (as is frequently done, using a brace or breast drill with a bit screwdriver)
but should be rotated a little, first in one direction and then in the opposite direction,
raising it off the seat very often, and using oil freely, until a dull surface appears on both
the valve and the seat throughout their bearing surfaces. Rotating the valve rapidly is
very likely to cause grooves and ridges that are extremely hard to remove and make the
valves tight.

While there is little or no danger of getting emery or other abrasive substance into the
cylinder when grinding exhaust valves, ordinary care to avoid doing so should be
exercised. The passage of the products of combustion being outwards, such matter
would be carried away from the cylinder. Grinding the inlet valves is a very particular
operation, for any particles of abrasive substance left behind to be drawn into the
cylinder are liable to cause trouble. All traces of grindstone dirt, which will be found well
adapted for grinding and may be mixed with water instead of oil, should be wiped off
carefully.
 The valve stems should be inspected, and, if rusted or rough, should be cleaned and
smoothed, a few drops of kerosene being applied to cut any deposits that may have
accumulated in the guides.

116. Weak or Broken Inlet-Valve Spring - Sometimes the inlet-valve spring, especially
if the valve is of the automatic variety, will weaken from becoming overheated. This is
almost sure to occur if the engine has been allowed to overheat from lack of water. In
time, a spring loaded too near its elastic limit will break from the jarring to which it is
subjected. The symptoms in either case are loss of power at high speeds (although the
power may still be ample at low speeds) and clattering of the valve and blowing back in
the intake pipe at high speeds. The latter may easily be detected with a single or double
cylinder engine by holding the fingers close to the air intake, when the backwards
puffing will be very perceptible. If the engine has four cylinders, it may be possible for
the inlet valve springs to be slightly weak without the mixture blowing back at the
intake, owing to the fact that one or another cylinder is aspirating all the time, and the
air expelled from one cylinder is drawn into the next. One way to get around this
difficulty is to block open the exhaust valves of two cylinders - the first and fourth or the
second and third while the others are tested. It will probably be simpler, however, to
experiment with the valve-spring tension. If the valve spring is weak, and if it is
temporarily increased in stiffness by putting washers under it to compress it, a marked
increase in the power of the engine at high speeds will be observed. The proper remedy,
however, is to put in a new spring, or, if this cannot be done, to stretch the old spring,
For a valve lift of 1/8 inch, and for average engine speeds, the tension should not be less
than 1 pound per ounce of the weight of the valve, washer, and key. The engine will
work better if the springs are a little too stiff than if they are not stiff enough. There will
also be less danger of breakage of the valve stems and keys.

117. Unequal Tension of Automatic Inlet-Valve Springs -The effect of unequal

tension in the springs of automatic inlet valves is to permit one cylinder to take more
gas than another. Consequently, at slow speeds the cylinder whose valve spring is weak
will get the larger charge; and at high speeds part of the charge will be blown back
through the valve whose spring is weak, so that the other cylinders will get stronger
impulses. A quick way to test the equality of valve-spring tension without taking out the
valves is to run the engine slowly with the throttle almost closed. This will cause the
cylinders whose springs are stiffer to receive scarcely any gas, and the cylinders whose
valve springs are weak will do most of the work. It is possible, however, to go to excess
in a test of this sort, since, when an engine is running light with the minimum quantity of
gas, one cylinder is almost sure to get more gas than another, if the inlet valves are
automatic, even with the most careful equalizing of the springs. If the tension of the
valve springs is under suspicion, the valves should be taken out and the springs tested
by compressing the valve stems together.
 118. Excessive Lift of Automatic Inlet Valve -The lift of an automatic inlet valve
should be proportionate to the spring tension and to the weight of the valve, so that the
spring will be able to overcome the inertia of the valve, and close it before the piston
has started so far on its compression stroke as to expel any of the mixture through the
open valve.

The symptoms of too great a valve lift are loss of power and blowing back at high
speeds. A valve 2 inches in outer diameter should not ordinarily lift more than 1/8 inch
and a lift of 3/16 inch would be excessive for almost any valves found on high-speed
engines. An excessive lift, like a weak spring, is likely to result in breakage of the valve
stems and keys through unnecessary hammering of the valve when opening and closing.

119. Broken Inlet-Valve Stem or Key -Trouble from a broken inlet-valve stem or key is
more likely to occur with automatic valves than with those mechanically operated. The
result, if the valve opens downwards, is to let it stay open all the time, causing that
cylinder to cease work, while the sparks from the plug ignite the mixture in the intake
pipe and cause explosions there and in the carburetor. If the valve, whether automatic
or mechanically operated, opens upwards, it will clatter on its seat and permit much of
the mixture to be expelled during the first part of the compression stroke.

120. Weak or Broken Exhaust-Valve Spring -Owing to the heat to which it is

subjected, the exhaust-valve spring is more likely to weaken than that of the inlet valve.
The symptoms are loss of power, owing to the valve lingering open at the end of the
exhaust stroke, and clattering when the valve closes.

121. Broken Exhaust-Valve Stem or Key -As there is nothing to prevent the valve
from being sucked wide open on the suction stroke, an accident of this kind will
generally cause that cylinder to go out of action entirely. The clattering, if the engine
continues running by virtue of other cylinders, is likely to be marked.

122. Slipped Valve Cams -Some cheaply constructed engines have the valve cams
held on the shaft by taper pins that in time shear partly or wholly through, permitting
the cams to turn on the shaft. The cams may turn a short distance and then be jammed
by fragments of the taper pins. The symptom indicating trouble due to this cause is
partial or complete loss of power in the cylinder affected, when nothing is wrong with
the ignition, valve-spring tension, etc.; and it will be equally marked at all speeds. If a
cam is pinned on its shaft, the proper way to secure it is to add another pin, or, better,
to add a key to take the torsional stress, and depend on the pin only to keep the cam
from slipping endwise on the shaft.
LUBRICATION TROUBLES
123. Lack of Cylinder oil - The symptoms of lack of cylinder oil are manifested in a
sudden laboring of the engine, a dry or groaning sound, and partial loss of compression,
followed by probable seizing of the piston. If the piston does not seize, it and the
cylinder walls will at all events be scored.

Among the causes of lack of cylinder oil are clogging of lubricator by dirt or waste,
obstruction in oil pipes, leaky check-valves, leaky pump packing, broken oil pipe, oil too
cold to feed, lack of oil in crank-case, etc.

The remedies for trouble from this source will become obvious on inspection. The
engine should be stopped and allowed to cool, and a liberal quantity of oil should be put
in the crank-case before starting again. Squirt a little oil through the compression relief
cocks to insure lubrication of the pistons, without waiting for oil to reach them from the
regular sources. Remove the obstruction or repair the break as soon as possible.

124. Lack of Oil in Bearings -A slightly loose main or crankpin bearing will sometimes
be cut badly as a result of a temporary stoppage of oil feed, and yet give no noticeable
symptom until the bearing is so badly cut that knocking begins. If a well-fitted bronze-
bushed bearing becomes dry, it is more likely to stop or at least retard the engine. A
babbitted bearing will melt out and let the shaft settle as far as other supports or
bearings will allow. The result may be a violent pounding, a bent or broken shaft, or cut
bearings generally, according to the particular conditions. There is no real safeguard
against lack of oil in bearings except in the vigilance of the operator, combined with a
system of oiling not liable to go wrong. It is not safe to depend on detecting a dry
bearing by the sense of touch, because often the metal adjacent to bearings is sufficient
to carry the heat away.

Generally, trouble from this cause is due to neglect to supply oil or to see that the sight
feeds are working properly. It may also be due to a broken pipe, cold oil, etc.

There is no excuse for neglect to clean the oil strainer, or failure to inspect the oil pipes,
unions, etc., or to know when starting out how much oil is in the crank-case. A badly cut
bearing should be sent to a repair shop, and should be attended to without delay; but a
bearing only slightly cut may be kept in service by the addition of a small quantity of
flake graphite to the oil. If possible, the shaft should be taken out and polished with
emery cloth and oil, else bronze from the bearing is likely to cling to it and aggravate the
cutting. A bearing supplied with oil from a well beneath it, and a chain running over the
shaft, may occasionally fail to receive oil owing to the chain catching on some internal
roughness or projection in the oil pocket. It is always safest to keep a more or less
 regular supply of oil passing through bearings of this sort when in use, and depend on
the oil well only as an equalizer.

125. Improper Oil in Cylinders -The trouble symptoms produced by the use of oil
unsuited for lubricating the piston are white or yellow smoke in the exhaust, rapid
fouling of spark plugs, partial clogging of inlet and exhaust valves, and rapid
accumulation of carbon on the valves in the combustion chamber and about the piston
rings.

To remedy the trouble, empty out all the unsuitable oil if possible, and substitute oil
known to be good. Inject kerosene freely through the compression relief cocks to loosen
the carbon deposit on the piston rings, and use kerosene to free the valves if they stick.
Drain the crank-case, and, if possible, open it and clean out any carbon that may have
worked down past the piston and mingled with the oil. Change all the spark plugs, and
clean them when opportunity offers. Put in plenty of fresh oil before starting, and see
that oil is supplied to the pistons so that they will not go dry before oil begins to feed
from the cylinder lubricator.

126. Too Much Oil on Pistons -Too much oil on the pistons is indicated by white
smoke in the exhaust, fouled spark plugs and valves, substantially as when inferior oil is
used, though the symptoms will not be so pronounced. An examination of the
combustion chamber through the inlet valve or spark-plug hole, using a mirror and
electric flashlight if necessary, will show an unnecessary amount of oil around the top of
the piston. With the oil correctly regulated, it should not accumulate on the piston head
in any great quantity.

Trouble from this source is remedied by drawing off part or all the oil from the crank-
case, if it contains more than is necessary for running the engine, and reducing the oil
feeds to the cylinders if necessary.

COOLING-SYSTEM TROUBLES

127. Lack of Water - Lack of water in the radiator of the cooling system for engines is
indicated by the rapid emission of steam, if there is sufficient water to enter the engine
jacket; the bottom of radiator being cold; the overheating and smoking of the engine,
followed by laboring, groaning sounds, owing to the oil being burned away faster than it
is supplied to the pistons; and, if the engine still continues running, expansion and
seizure of the pistons in the cylinders.
 Trouble from lack of water is due to carelessness in not filling the tank before starting;
leakage in radiator or piping; accidental opening of the drain cock at the lowest point of
the circulation system; breakage of drain cock, etc.

The remedies for such trouble are apparent on inspection. If the engine becomes
overheated so that the water boils rapidly away, and there is reason to think that the
upper portion of the water-jacket is dry, the engine should be allowed to cool before
water is added; otherwise, the sudden contraction may warp or even crack the
cylinders, or it may cause the cylinders to contract and seize the pistons. The crank-case
should be liberally supplied with oil to prevent the pistons from becoming dry, or, if a
sight-feed oil cup is put on the cylinder, it should be set to feed quite rapidly. The engine
should be stopped at the first sign of distress, as indicated by a groaning sound, turning
with difficulty, or knocking caused by pre-ignition due to hot cylinders.

128. Obstructed Circulation -An obstruction to the circulation of the cooling water
elsewhere than in the radiator will cause the bottom of the radiator to remain cool
while the top is, probably, boiling hot.

Among the causes of obstructed circulation are a broken pump, broken driving
connection to pump, or slipping belt or friction pulley, if the pump is driven in that
manner; waste or the like lodged in the pump or piping.

The remedies for this trouble will become obvious on inspection. If the belt or friction
pulley has oil on it, gasoline may be used to clean the pulley, as well as the flywheel if it
drives the pulley.

129. Scale or Sediment in Radiator -The presence of scale or sediment in the radiator
is indicated when the whole radiator becomes hot or when steam formed in the jacket
forces water out of the upper pipe to the radiator, there being no oil on the inside or
dirt on the outside of the radiator.

Scale will deposit from hard water if the temperature of the water is allowed to
approach the boiling point. A similar scale, almost impossible to eliminate, will
crystallize from calcium-chloride non-freezing mixture; if these are allowed to become
supersaturated.

A radiator badly choked with lime scale is practically hopeless, although, if it is made
entirely of brass and copper, it may sometimes be helped by the use of a dilute solution
of hydrochloric acid in the proportion of about one of acid to ten of water. This should
be left in the radiator long enough only to loosen the scale, and should then be drawn
off, and the radiator washed out. It is better in doing this to disconnect the radiator
 from the engine, in order to confine the effects of the acid. Another method is to use
washing soda. Ordinary dirt maybe cleaned out by a strong, hot solution of lye, which
should be used with care, as it burns the skin badly. Rainwater should be used wherever
possible, and all the water should be strained.

130. Dirty Radiator -When the whole radiator is hot and it is impossible to run
without boiling the water, the circulation being good, it is evident that the radiator is
dirty.

Flying oil about the engine may lodge on the air surfaces of the radiator tubes, and
gather dust, which forms a non-conducting covering. Oil sometimes gathers on the
water surfaces by gradual escape from the pump bearings, or may remain after an
attempt to substitute refrigerator oil for water as a cooling medium in freezing weather.
The film of oil, preventing the water from coming in contact with the metal, acts
practically as an insulator.

To remove the oil from the radiator use kerosene, or a mixture of 'kerosene and
mineral-oil soap. Dissolve the soap in water and add it to the kerosene, fill up the
radiator with the mixture, and run the engine for an hour or more until the radiator gets
well heated. The soap and kerosene will form an emulsion with the oil, and when the
mixture is hot it may be drawn off and the radiator washed out with cold water. For the
removal of the external oil and dirt, use gasoline, with a brush or swab.

A simple trouble, but one likely to be mistaken by the novice for radiator or circulation
trouble, is slipping of the fan belt. The belt should be tested occasionally, and not
allowed to get so loose that the fan pulley can spin inside it. It does not need to be tight.

CARBURETOR DISTURBANCES
PROPORTIONING OF MIXTURE

131. Over-rich Mixture. -If a mixture is very rich, that is, if there is an excessive
amount of gasoline in the charge, the fact will be manifested by black smoke in the
exhaust. If the mixture is not rich enough to produce smoke, it will still produce an acrid
odor in the exhaust, and will cause overheating of the radiator, unnecessary sooting of
the plugs, accumulation of carbon in the combustion chamber, and unnecessarily rapid
consumption of gasoline, with diminished power.
 The causes of an over-rich mixture are: faulty carburetor adjustment; leaky float; leaky
float valves; float too high on its stem or too heavy; spray nozzle loosened or unscrewed
by vibration; and dirt on the wire-gauze screen over the mouth of the air-intake pipe.

132. Flooding is the most common source of trouble in marine engines using
vaporizers. It is caused by leakage of gasoline into the vaporizer, from which in a two-
cycle engine it readily runs into the crank-chamber; the resulting mixture is too rich in
gasoline, and, not having sufficient oxygen, is unexplosive. When trouble from flooding
is suspected, turn the engine over two or three times, with the gasoline valve and the
switch closed. If there is an explosion, note the color of the flame at the relief cock, or
priming cup, which should be left open for the purpose, If no explosion occurs, leave the
cock or cup open and slowly turn the flywheel to a point just before the exhaust port
opens, thus drawing air into the cylinder through the priming cup to dilute what is
thought to bean over-rich mixture. Now revolve the flywheel in the opposite direction
rather rapidly until the spark occurs. If there is no explosion, try again, and repeat the
operation two or three times if necessary. If an explosion then takes place, it is evident
that flooding is present.

To remedy this in a two-cycle engine, open the draw-off, or drain cock in the lowest part
of the crank-case, and draw off the contents, taking care, however, to replace with a
fresh supply the lubricating oil thus drawn out. If there is no draw-off cock, it will be
necessary to turn the flywheel many times to exhaust the excess of gasoline in the
crank-case, leaving the switch closed and the compression relieved as much as possible.
After a while, an explosion should take place, then another, gradually becoming more
frequent, until finally the engine may run with an explosion at every other revolution or
so. The gasoline valve should be kept closed until the charges explode regularly and the
red tinge to the flame at the relief cock and smoky exhaust disappear, after which the
gasoline may be turned on and regulated at the needle valve in the vaporizer, closing it
slightly at first; and, if the engine slows down somewhat, open it slightly until it is
possible to tell whether it is getting too little or too much gasoline.

In case of flooding in a four-cycle engine using a vaporizer, two or three revolutions of

the crankshaft will usually dispose of any excess of gasoline, for there cannot be as large
an amount in the exhaust piping of a four-cycle engine as could accumulate in the crank-
case of a two-cycle engine. Trouble from flooding in a two-cycle engine is the first thing
to be suspected when an engine of that type refuses to start readily.

If the cause of a failure to start is found to be an insufficient supply of gasoline, due to

dirt in the needle valve, or to a small amount of water in the gasoline piping, lift the
valve in the vaporizer from its seat and let a little gasoline run through to clear the
obstruction or get a drop or two of the water out, being sure to catch the drip for
 examination. If there is any water it will show in globular form at the bottom of the
vessel. In case water is found, the pipe must be disconnected and drained, and any
water in the tank must, if possible, be removed, for a single drop of water will
completely close the aperture in the seat of a needle valve.

133. Weak Mixture -Among the symptoms produced by a weak mixture are
insufficient power, although the explosions are regular; a tendency to pre-ignite or to
burn very rapidly if there is the slightest carbon deposit; the engine sometimes will miss
every other explosion. There is likely also to be difficulty in starting the engine. It is not
always easy to distinguish between lack of power due to an over-rich mixture and that
due to a weak mixture, but the tendency of the former is to produce black smoke and of
the latter to pre-ignite and Miss explosions. Some experimenting with the carburetor
adjustment will often be necessary to settle the point.

Nearly all the causes named in paragraph 47 will make a mixture richer at some speeds
than at others, and if the carburetor has been readjusted, for example, in the attempt to
correct trouble due in reality to a heavy float, the result will be to make the mixture
faulty again at certain other speeds. Special causes of weak mixture are dirt or waste in
the gasoline pipe or strainer; stale gasoline; carburetor too cold to vaporize; dirt in the
spray nozzle; float too light or too low on its stem.

For float-trouble remedies see paragraphs 52 to 55, inclusive. Experimenting with the
carburetor adjustment should be very cautiously done, with the original setting or
adjustment marked so that it can be restored if necessary. The carburetor should then
be adjusted slightly in one direction or the other, and the effect noted before further
change is made. Very often a combination of adjustments will be necessary, but it is
best to make them one at a time. If a radical change is made it may be very difficult to
start the engine at all, and this would leave the experimenter completely in the dark as
to what was required.

DIRT IN CARBURETOR AND GASOLINE PIPING

134. Dirt in Carburetor -If there is dirt in the float valve, it will prevent the latter from
closing and will cause the carburetor to flood. This will produce an over-rich mixture,
especially at low speeds, and is highly dangerous on account of the liability to fire. If the
dirt is in the spray nozzle, it will produce a weak mixture. If the dirt has been splashed
into the air intake, it will produce an over-rich mixture, especially it high speeds.
 The remedies for trouble due to dirt in the carburetor will become obvious when the
nature of the trouble is located. A carburetor that has previously worked well and that
suddenly begins to leak has in all probability dirt in the float valve. A carburetor that
suddenly gives a very weak mixture has dirt probably in the gasoline pipe, strainer, or
spray nozzle.

135. Dirt or Waste in Gasoline Pipe - Dirt or other obstructions sometimes

accumulate, especially if the gasoline has not been properly strained. The symptom is a
sudden or gradual weakness of the mixture, necessitating readjustment of the
carburetor in order to keep the engine running. The most probable place of lodgment
for obstructions of this sort is in the gasoline line pipe where the latter connects to the
carburetor, or in the strainer, through which the gasoline generally passes just before it
enters the float chamber. Disconnecting the gasoline pipe or the union exposing this
strainer will generally disclose the obstruction. Sometimes it may be necessary to
disconnect the gasoline pipe at both ends, and blow it out. This is necessary only when
the pipe has been disconnected near the carburetor and gasoline does not flow freely
from it when turned on at the tank.

FOAT TROUBLES

136. Leaky Float Valve -With a leaky float, the carburetor drips when the main
gasoline valve is opened. The leakage is not stopped when the top of the float chamber
is opened and the needle valve pressed down with the finger, or when the mixing
chamber is opened and the spray nozzle covered with the finger.
To remedy the trouble grind in the valve with pumice or fine sandstone.

137. Float Too High -By the expression float too high is meant that the float is set too
high on its stem so that it is not lifted by the gasoline sufficiently to close the float valve
before gasoline escapes from the spray nozzle.

When this trouble is present, the carburetor drips when the main gasoline valve is
opened; but the float valve is soon closed by the float if the spray orifice is covered by
the finger. The float valve closes tight when manipulated by the fingers, or when the
float is lifted by a pair of bent wires, When the trouble is due to a high float, it will be
found that the float itself is empty, and, if of cork, that it not gasoline soaked.
Unless the float is adjustable on its stem, the easiest remedy for this trouble is to bend
the levers by which the float acts on the float valve. If this cannot be done, shift the float
1/16 inch lower on the stem by the use of a soldering iron.
138. Float Too Heavy --The same symptoms are present when the float is too heavy
as when the float is too high, but they are caused generally by a leak in the float or by its
being gasoline-soaked.

If the float is hollow, it will sometimes be found that there is present in it a minute leak
due generally to some oversight in soldering. If the float is taken out and shaken with
the hand, the presence of the gasoline inside of it will at once be apparent. The float
should be immersed in warm water until all the gasoline in it is slowly boiled away and
its vapor has been expelled through the aperture in the float, By holding the float under
water, the escape of bubbles will indicate this aperture. Care should be taken that the
vapor escaping from the float does not cause fire. When the leak has been located it
should be marked with a pencil, and after the float has become cold the leak may be
closed with a minute drop of solder. If the float is of cork, it may be saturated with
gasoline. It should be taken out, allowed to dry slowly, and given a coat of shellac care
being taken that the shellac enters all the holes on the surface.

139. Float Too Light or Adjusted Too Low. - By the expressions float too light or
adjusted too low is meant that the float is lifted by the gasoline in the float chamber
when the gasoline level is still some distance below the orifice of the spray nozzle.

Among the symptoms produced by a light float or a low adjustment are a weak mixture
at slow speed, and, probably, difficulty in starting the engine, owing to the fact that
considerable suction is required to lift the gasoline to the mouth of the spray nozzle. The
height of the gasoline in the spray nozzle can generally be determined, with the aid of
an electric flashlight, by a little experimenting with the float, pushing the latter down for
an instant after it has closed the valve.

To remedy the trouble, the float must be weighted slightly, so that the gasoline Will rise
higher before the float closes its valve. The weight may take the form of a few drops of
solder carefully distributed over the float so as not to over-balance it on one side; or, if
this is not sufficient, a ring of sheet brass may be soldered to the top of the float.

FUEL TROUBLES

140. Stale Gasoline. -If an engine has been left standing for some time unused, more
or less of the gasoline in the tank will evaporate, and it may get too stale to give a
correct mixture without readjustment of the carburetor. The usual symptoms are
difficulty in starting the engine, and insufficient power owing to a weak mixture. The
best remedy is simply to fill up the tank, when the mixture of old and fresh liquid will
 probably work satisfactorily. It may be necessary, however, to readjust the carburetor or
to throw away the stale fuel.

141. Water in Gasoline. -Water maybe found in gasoline taken from a barrel standing
out of doors. The water, being heavier than the gasoline, will always settle to the
bottom, and by close observation it may be seen before it is poured into the tank. If the
gasoline is strained through a piece of chamois skin or several layers of cheese cloth, or
even through very fine brass-wire gauze, the strainer will hold the Water while
permitting the gasoline to pass through.

The user should make it an invariable rule to strain his gasoline in this manner.

The symptom of water in the gasoline will be immediate stoppage of the engine when
the water reaches the spray nozzle, in spite of the fact that the timer, coils, battery,
spark plugs, etc., are in perfect order, and the gasoline tank is known not to be empty.
The only remedy is to unscrew the wash-out plug at the bottom of the carburetor, and
let the water and gasoline run out until it is certain that all the water has escaped.
Sometimes it may be necessary to disconnect the gasoline pipe entirely mid blow it out
in order to expel the last drop of water. It is well also to look into the tank with an
electric flashlight and see if any drops of water can be discovered on the bottom. If so, it
may be well to drain the entire tank. Extreme care should be taken to avoid fire while
gasoline is being run off.

142. In stationary practice, besides using gasoline of proper quality, it is of course

supposed that the storage tank contains a sufficient quantity of fuel to run the engine.
This appears to be a superfluous precaution, nevertheless it has frequently happened
that an expert has been sent several hundred miles, on complaint from the purchaser of
an engine that he was unable to start it, only to find that there was no gasoline in the
tank. In other cases, it was discovered that, instead of gasoline, almost pure water was
pumped to the engine. The explanation was that fuel purchased from a local dealer
contained a considerable quantity of water, which of course settled to the bottom of
the tank, and accumulated gradually until with the tank about one quarter filled,
nothing but water would be delivered to the engine. To avoid this, the contents of the
tank should be examined at regular intervals or when the supply is low, and the tank
drained whenever there is any doubt about the quality of the liquid that settles in the
lower portions.

BACK FIRING

143. The cause of back firing in stationary engines is in most cases due to the delayed
combustion of a weak mixture containing an insufficient amount of fuel. The result of
such a mixture is a weak explosion and slow burning, so that, during the entire exhaust
 stroke and even at the beginning of the suction stroke, there is a flame in the
combustion chamber. The fresh charge will therefore be ignited by the flame of the
delayed combustion of the previous charge; and, as the inlet valve is open at that time
toward the air-supply pipe or passage, a loud report will be heard in the air vessel or in
the space under the engine bed whence the air is taken. The remedy for this condition is
to increase the fuel supply until the explosions become of normal strength and the back
firing ceases.

Another cause of back firing may be the presence of an incandescent body in the
combustion chamber, such as a sharp point or edge of metal, A projecting piece of
asbestos packing, soot, or carbonized oil and similar impurities accumulating in the
cylinder. To stop back firing from these causes, any projections of metal or other
material should be removed with a suitable tool, and the walls of the combustion
chamber made as smooth as possible, or the cylinder should be cleared of any deposit
of soot or carbonized oil that may have gathered there.

Failure of the igniter to fire all charges admitted to the cylinder, or improper
composition of the mixture resulting in the same way, will be indicated by heavy reports
at the end of the exhaust pipe. One or more charges may in this manner be forced
through the cylinder into the exhaust pipe, and the first hot exhaust resulting from the
combustion of a charge will fire the mixture that has accumulated in the pipe and the
explosion will be accompanied by a report similar to that of the firing of a heavy cannon.

144. On account of the shorter time between the opening of the exhaust port and the
admission of the new charge in a two-cycle engine, there is much greater liability to
back firing in an engine of that type, than in a four-cycle engine. In a four-cycle engine
back firing will occur only when the inlet valve is off its seat; hence, in marine practice,
back firing is more of an element of danger in four-cycle than in two-cycle engines. If
there is no check-valve in the carburetor or vaporizer, and there is no direct opening to
the atmosphere, the column of flame that would be blown into a boat through a
carburetor or auxiliary air supply on account of back firing would be particularly
dangerous because accumulations of gasoline vapor, especially in cabin boats, might
thereby become ignited.

To be absolutely safe, a marine four-cycle engine having a float-feed carburetor not

supplied with a check-valve should take its supply of air from some point outside of the
cabin or from the top of the engine, rather than from a point near the base. As the use
of a check-valve in the carburetor would materially reduce the efficiency of the engine,
it is rarely used. If a float-feed carburetor is used, and indications point to imperfect
carburization, the carburetor should be examined carefully. If the float leaks, so, that
the height of gasoline is constantly above the desired level, or if the float does not cut
off the supply where it should, it will be necessary to take the carburetor apart to
ascertain the trouble, which may be due to a stopped-up needle valve or nozzle.
 145. Explosions in the muffler and exhaust piping are usually caused by the ignition of
the gas accumulating from missed explosions due to weak mixtures or faulty ignition.
They are not usually dangerous unless the muffler is large and is weakened by rusting
inside or out, as from saltwater passing through it or from damp salt air, against which it
seems almost impossible to protect it in a boat.

146. Explosions in the carburetor are sometimes caused by the inlet valve sticking
open and permitting the flame to communicate from the spark. More often it is due to
improper mixture, which bums so slowly that flame lingers in the cylinder even after the
exhaust stroke is completed and the inlet valve begins to open. Either a weak or a rich
mixture will produce this result, though not always both in the same engine. Carburetor
explosions are often attributed to the exhaust valve closing after the inlet valve opens,
or to simple leakage of the inlet valve; but these are seldom the real causes.

IGNITION TROUBLES

PRE-IGNITION

147. Definition. -Premature ignition, or Pre-ignition, while somewhat similar to back

firing in its nature and origin, manifests itself in a different way and has a different effect
on the action of the engine. Premature ignition, as usually understood, is the firing of
the partly compressed mixture before the time fixed by the igniting mechanism. Its
causes are similar to those that result in back firing, the effect being different in that the
charge is ignited later than when back firing takes place, but before the end of the
compression stroke. Pre-ignition will cause the engine to lose power on account of the
maximum pressure being exerted on the crank before it reaches the inner dead center
and thus having a tendency to turn it in the wrong direction, against the momentum of
the flywheels.

148. Causes of Pre-ignition.-Besides the causes cited in connection with back firing,
Pre-ignition may be due to any one of the following defects: Insufficient cooling of the
cylinder, due either to shortage of cooling water or to the fact that portions of the
water-jacket become filled with lime deposits or impurities contained in the water, thus
interfering with proper circulation; compression too high for the grade of fuel used;
imperfections in the surfaces of the piston end or valve beads exposed to the
combustion, such as sand holes or similar cavities in which a small portion of the
burning charge may be confined; electrodes or other parts of the engine exposed to the
 burning charge too light; or the piston head or exhaust-valve poppet insufficiently
cooled and becoming red hot while the engine is running under a fairly heavy load.

149. Premature ignition manifests itself by a pounding in the cylinder, and, if

permitted to continue, a drop in speed, finally resulting in the stopping of the engine. It
will also put an excessive amount of pressure on the bearings, especially the connecting-
rod brasses, and cause them to run hot even when properly lubricated. After a shut-
down due to premature ignition and a short period during which the engine is idle,
allowing the overheated parts to cool off, it is possible to start again without difficulty
and run smoothly until the conditions of load will cause a repetition of the trouble.

150. The remedies to be applied, according to the source of the difficulty, are as
follows; Increase the water supply until the cooling water leaves the cylinder at a
reasonable temperature, which may vary with the fuel used, but which should never be
over 180 degrees F. Clean the water space and ports of any dirt or deposit so as to
insure free circulation of the cooling water. Reduce the compression by partly throttling
the air and fuel supply. Plug any sand holes or blowholes in the piston or valve heads,
and make these surfaces perfectly smooth. Replace electrodes or other light parts with
more substantial ones, capable of absorbing and carrying off the beat without becoming
red hot. If necessary, arrange for cooling the piston by blowing air into the open end of
the cylinder.

If the head of the exhaust valve becomes too hot, it is a sign that it is not heavy enough,
and it should be replaced by one with a head of sufficient thickness to carry off through
the valve stem the heat imparted to it by the combustion. If a small particle of dirt
lodges in a remote portion of the combustion chamber, the richer part of the charge
may not reach it until the piston has traveled over a considerable portion of the
compression stroke, and the resulting self-ignition may properly be called Pre-ignition. It
is advisable, therefore, to examine thoroughly every part of the combustion chamber
and remove any dirt that may have lodged there.

151. Pre-ignition in engines is Indicated by early ignition with a retarded spark.

Usually, the engine will continue running for several seconds after the switch has been
opened. The knock due to Pre-ignition has a sharp, metallic ring, easily distinguishable
from other knocks in the engine. Even if ignition is not actually started by hot carbon or
other cause, the first increase in pressure after the spark occurs may produce
spontaneous ignition of the mixture near the heated object, so that the charge burns
from two or more points at once, thus spreading the flame far mom rapidly than usual.
If the engine has two or more cylinders, and only some of them incline to Pre-ignition,
the result is that it is impossible to time the ignition correctly for all cylinders. The
cylinders having a tendency to Pre-ignition must receive a late spark to prevent
combustion from being completed too early, while the other cylinders will require an
early spark. It follows from this that it is impossible to get the engine to develop its full
torque, or turning moment, unless it is running so fast that the tendency to Pre-ignition
may be neglected. As the effect of Pre-ignition is to cause combustion to be completed
before expansion has begun, it is dangerous to run the engine slowly, and this is true
even if only one cylinder is pre-igniting. If the engine is running at good speed, with an
early spark, the symptoms will be those of rapid combustion in the cylinders affected;
namely, a hardness in the sound of the explosion, without actual knocking, while in the
other cylinders, if any the explosion will be soft. As the speed of the engine is reduced,
and the spark retarded to suit, the hard sound of the explosions gives place to
unmistakable knocking. A good test for Pre-ignition due to carbon is to start the engine
with everything cold, and run it under load before the water in the radiator has had time
to get hot.

In automobile as in stationary engines, Pre-ignition is brought about by incandescent

carbon deposits in the combustion chamber, on piston head, or on valves, or by bits of
loose carbon left after scraping out, etc. It is sometimes due to small, accidental
projections on the inner wall of the combustion chamber or head, due to defects in
casting. If these are located in the path of the hot gases, it will take wry little carbon
deposit on them to overheat. Pre-ignition is also caused by lack of water, resulting in
general overheating.

It must not be supposed that all carbon deposits are due to neglect. Even the most
scrupulous regulation of the best possible oil, and even the most efficient carburetor,
will not wholly prevent a gradual accumulation of carbon, but it ought not to become
troublesome in less than a season or two. A high-compression engine will, other things
being equal, pre-ignite sooner than one with low compression.

The only remedy for carbon deposit that amounts to anything is to scrape it out. To do
this it may be necessary to take off the cylinders, but it may also be done in some cases
by the use of special forms of scrapers that will much into the combustion chamber
through the inlet-valve or spark-plug hole.

If it is impracticable to scrape the cylinders at once, the trouble may be evaded after a
fashion by running throttled and by running on a lower gear at the first symptoms of a
pound. Increasing the richness of the mixture will also prevent pounding by making the
charges burn more slowly, but this brings its penalty by adding to the carbon already
present, If this trouble is due to chance projections in the combustion chamber, then
may generally be disclosed by an electric lamp and mirror and when the cylinders are
taken off, the projections can be cut away with a cold chisel.
TIMER TROUBLES

152. Timer Contacts Roughened by Sparking. Trouble due to roughening of the timer
contacts by sparking is likely to occur in any timer in which the contact segments are
inserted flush with the insulator barrel or internal ring, instead of projecting therefrom.

The symptom produced by roughened contacts is irregular firing, due to jumping of the
contact roller or fingers. This is not noticeable at low speeds, but becomes marked as
the speed increases. The remedy is to true the insulator ring and segments in a lathe,
and, if necessary, put in a new roller or contact fingers.

153. Wabbling Timer. -Some timers have their stationary portion supported on the
shaft by a very short bearing that quickly wears loose and allows the stationary portion
to wabble out of its correct plane. This will cause irregular, firing or even misfiring. One
may easily determine whether the cause of the misfiring is here or elsewhere by
steadying the tinier with the hand. The remedy is to bush the bearing, and, if possible,
to make it longer.

154. Incorrect Timing. -- With marine engines having make-and-break ignition

mechanism, even if the current is sufficient and there are no leaks, the time of contact
may be too short, may be made at the wrong point in the stroke, or may be broken
when it should not be, owing to incorrect timing. The timing may be tested by turning
the flywheel carefully in the proper direction, and noting when the contact is made and
at what point the spark occurs. By scratching the flywheel at these points, when the
engine is running satisfactorily, it is always a simple matter to correct any trouble in the
time of sparking. Raising or lowering the igniter pin without following any particular rule
or without knowledge of what one is doing is very bad practice, and is more likely to
aggravate than to remedy the difficulty. It is evident that, in multi-cylinder engines, it is
quite important that there should be for each cylinder the same relative time of making
and breaking the contact, with the same length of time in contact.

MISCELLANEOUS TROUBLES

GASOLINE LEAKS
 155. Probably the most dangerous trouble experienced with marine engines is due to
leaks in the gasoline tanks or piping. They are more likely to occur at unions than
anywhere else, and all joints and fittings should be soldered or brazed, as well as
screwed. Hence, the piping is not liable to be broken at the threads, reinforced as they
are with solder. Unions should be very heavy, and should be examined for leaks
carefully and often. Do not use a light or match, but rub the finger around the joint,
when, if there is a leak, it may be detected by the odor that will remain on the finger.
Small leaks may be stopped temporarily by means of cloth and shellac or soap.
Insulating tape will be found useless for the purpose, as the gasoline is a solvent for the
Insulating material.

A good cord closely and tightly wound will be found serviceable. Shellac and cloth bound
on tightly and allowed to dry with no gasoline in the pipe will be found very effective in
stopping leaks. It is necessary to be extremely careful of fire in the presence or
suspected presence of gasoline, particularly when in the form of vapor and mixed with
air.

WATER IN EXHAUST PIPE OR MUFFLER

156. The exhaust gases from stationary gas or gasoline engines contain a certain
amount of moisture, part of which is condensed and deposited in the exhaust pipe or
muffler, where it may become a source of trouble if no provision has been made to
drain these connections properly or if the draining devices accidentally fail to perform
their functions as expected. Especially during cold weather, when the condensation in
the exhaust connections is greater then at more moderate temperatures, it is advisable
to inspect closely the condition of the drain cocks. If neglected, the level of the water in
the muffler may rise to such an extent as to prevent the exhaust gas from being
expelled, first causing loss of power and finally stopping of the engine.

In engines in which the governor acts on the exhaust valve, and this valve is kept open
while running under light load, the trouble from water in the exhaust, when no charges
are admitted to the cylinder, is naturally intensified, on account of the fact that a
portion of this water is drawn into the cylinder while the valve is open during the
suction stroke. The presence of water in the exhaust connections is usually indicated by
steam or water spray issuing from the end of the exhaust pipe.

As before stated, water is frequently used for deadening the noise of the exhaust by
introducing it in a small steady stream into the exhaust pipe and allowing it to be carried
off in the shape of vapor or spray with the exhaust gases. In such cases, the draining
devices require particular attention, because, in the case of failure to have a free outlet
to the drain for any part of the water not carried off with the exhaust, the accumulation
of water would in a short time be sufficient to stop the engine.

WATER IN ENGINE CYLINDER

 157. An accumulation of water in the cylinder - a condition encountered more or less
frequently in marine practice - will effectually prevent a gas engine from starting. The
water may get in through the exhaust pipe because the installation is faulty, because
the exhaust extends below the surface of the water, or because there is a leak due to a
crack in the cylinder or to a broken and imperfect gasket between the cylinder and the
water-jacket. Running the exhaust cooling water into the engine exhaust is a frequent
source of such trouble.

Provided the trouble from water in the cylinder is not due to leaks the remedy is to
remove the water entirely, by means of absorbent materials, through any openings
there maybe in the cylinder. The insulated electrode should then be carefully dried out,
the defect in installation remedied by changing the exhaust piping to drain outboard,
and, if exhausting below the surface of the water, a vent provided in the highest part of
the exhaust piping.

FAILURE TO GOVERN

158. If the connection between the governor and the throttle is too long, the throttle
may fail to close until the governor balls have been moved out to an excessive extent by
the speed of the engine. In an old engine, wear of the connecting links may produce the
same result. Sometimes there is an adjustable screw and nut connection between the
governor and the throttle, and this is easily adjusted. Sometimes, however, it may be
necessary to bend the rod connecting the two The throttle should be opened, and its
position when barely open should be marked in such a way that it will be known when
the throttle is reassembled. Then the engine should be run idle and the position of the
governor lever noted when the engine is running at the speed at which it is desired that
the governor should act. With these particulars known, it is easy to shorten the rod to
bring the throttle to the desired position. It should be remembered that a very slight
opening of the throttle is sufficient to keep the motor running.

REPAIRS

CYLINDER AND PISTON REPAIR WORK

REFITTING PISTON AND PISTON RINGS

159. It is practically impossible to turn a piston in a lathe so as to fit the cylinder in

such a manner that the engine will run properly even under a partial load. The best that
can be done is to have the cylinder bored slightly larger at the end nearest the crank-
shaft, so that the piston can be pushed in easily from this end and will fit rather Snugly
 at the other end near the combustion chamber. To put the piston and cylinder in
condition to stand constant running under load necessitates filing the surface of the
piston by hand, as follows; See that both cylinder and piston are thoroughly clean and
free from dust or filings. Apply a liberal amount of lubricating oil, place the piston in the
cylinder, and attach the connecting-rod to the crank-shaft. Start the engine, and let it
run idle for a while. As soon as the heat of the explosion causes the piston to expand, it
will begin to stick in the cylinder, as the water-cooled walls of the cylinder do not
expand to the same extent as the piston. The sticking is manifested by a pounding or
knocking sound caused by the very slight amount of play that necessarily exists in the
bearings of the connecting-rod at both the crankpin and the piston end. As soon as this
pounding appears, apply more lubricating oil to the piston, and let it run for a few
minutes in this manner, without any load. Then stop the engine, take out the piston,
and wipe it dry. The portions of the piston that bear hard against the cylinder will be
indicated by glossy spots, which should be carefully filed with a smooth, flat file,
removing only a little at a time. To facilitate filing, remove all traces of lubricating oil by
means of kerosene. After filing the piston surface in this way, clean the piston, put it
back in the engine, and start up again. It will be noticed that it is now possible to run the
engine for a longer period without any pounding in the cylinder and perhaps to be able
to put on a light lend for a short time. Do not keep the engine running with any load for
any length of time, so long as there is any pounding noticeable. This operation may have
to be repeated from four to six times, depending on the skill of the operator, before the
engine can Turn steadily with the usual maximum load.

These instructions apply also to cylinders that have been rebored and fitted with new
pistons, as the conditions in this case are the same as in a new cylinder.

160. The piston rings also require fitting in a similar manner, and in this connection
the following points must be observed: Before placing the rings in the grooves, each ring
should be tried, to ascertain that it fits in the groove for which it is intended. If the ring
is found too thick, place it on a straight board, and hold it in place by fastening three or
four nails within the ring, driving them down until the heads are slightly below the top
of the ring. Having thus secured the ring on the board, file it carefully and reduce its
thickness so as to get an easy sliding and uniform fit in its groove.

The rings can now be put in place by opening them and slipping them over the piston
from the closed end. In doing so, the rings should be expanded and twisted as little as
possible. The first ring must be placed in the groove farthest away from the closed end
of the piston, the others following in order. If, after running the engine with new rings
for a short time, the rings show that they bear hard and unevenly, the hard-bearing
portions must be touched up with a fine file. Should it become necessary at any time to
replace a broken ring located between other rings, the use of small pieces of thin sheet
tin will be found of advantage. They are slipped in between the inside of the ring and
the outside of the piston, at a convenient point of the circumference, so as to keep the
ring evenly expanded and enable it to be moved laterally over other rings already in
 place to the groove for which it is intended. Having reached its groove, the pieces of tin
are withdrawn, and the ring is allowed to enter the groove.

A ring that, from undue expansion or twisting, has lost its original diameter will not bear
evenly and will wear out the cylinder in a short time, causing leakage and loss of power.

REPAIRING CRACKED WATER-JACKET

161. Neglect in draining the cylinder jacket when stopping the engine after the day's
run may result in cracking the outer shell in cold weather, owing to the freezing of the
water. It is very seldom that the inner cylinder is damaged in such a case, but if it should
happen to be injured, the casting is generally rendered useless and must be replaced
with a new one. The outer shell, being much lighter than the cylinder itself, provides a
safeguard against damage to the latter, and in most cases, if the cylinder and jacket are,
cast in one piece, it will be possible and economical to repair the cracked shell.

The following directions are intended to cover repairs for various kinds of cracks, and
apply to cracks in cylinder jackets proper, as well as to cracks in the outer shell of
cylinder heads or valve casings of larger sizes. In large castings it will pay to repair the
part, rather than replace it with a new one; but with small castings it may be found to be
more convenient and cheaper to replace the heads or casings with new ones.

Fig. 4 (a) and (b) shows a cylinder, the outer shell of which has been burst by frost. The
crack a b extends only a portion of the entire length. After the ice has been thawed and
the jacket emptied, the first thing to do is to drill two holes a and b, about 1/4 inch in
diameter, at the ends of the crack. The purpose of these holes is to prevent the crack
from extending any farther on account of the chipping necessary in the next operation.
Then take a chisel about 3/16 inch to 1/4 inch wide and cut a groove along the line of
the crack, dove tailed as shown at c in the sectional view of the cylinder and jacket, Fig.
4 (b), the groove being widest at the bottom.
 Next secure a piece of 1/4 inch round copper wire, well annealed, and hammer it tightly
into the groove. By careful calking, a crack of this nature can be made perfectly tight.

162. Fig. 4 (a) also shows a crack d e extending from one of the water ports to the
outer end of the cylinder. In such a case, it will be necessary to shrink a steel band f on
the end of the cylinder, before the crack is chipped out and calked in the manner just
referred to. Use a flat steel band about 1/2 inch by 3/8 inch, and be sure that the
finished end of the cylinder projects about 1/8 inch beyond the band when in place.

If the crack extends over the entire length of the jacket, as shown at g h, it will require
additional bands i and j as shown. If the cylinder has finished collars at the ends, as is
frequently the case, it will not be possible to slip the ring j over the end of the cylinder
into its proper place, unless an auxiliary band k, open to the extent of about 1/4 inch as
shown at l, is first placed on the cylinder. This band k must, of course, be thick enough
to make up the difference in diameter of the cylinder body and the finished collar. In
shrinking rings on a cylinder, they should be heated to a dull red beat and must be
handled dexterously, as the cooling takes place rapidly and the ring may shrink so as to
stick before it reaches its position if not applied quickly. After the bands have been put
in place and have been found to be tight, the cracks should be grooved and calked as
directed.

If a crack should develop in the surface of a joint between the cylinder and one of the
valve casings attached to it, and if this crack crosses the port through which the entering
charge or the exhaust gases pass, as shown at m n, Fig. 4 (a), it will be practically
impossible to repair the casting in such a manner that a packing can be made to stand,
and the only remedy is to replace the damaged part with a new one.

163. Another method of repairing a short crack in the surface of the jacket wall
consists in applying a piece of steel boiler plate, about 1/8 inch thick. Before putting on
the plate, two 1/4 inch holes should be drilled at the ends of the crack, to prevent it
from going farther, and a V-shaped groove cut along the crack from end to end. The
plate must be bent so as to conform to the shape of the cylinder jacket. A packing of
thin asbestos wick soaked in white-lead paste is now put in the V-shaped groove, after
which a packing of sheet asbestos the size of the plate and dipped in water is placed
over the surface to be covered by the plate. Now apply the plate, which is held in place
by a number of 1/4 inch to 3/8 inch screws, the size of the screws depending on the
thickness of the water-jacket. The screws should be about 1 inch apart, 1 inch on each
side of the crack; and, if possible, the tapped holes in the jacket, in order to prevent
water from leaking past the screws, should not be drilled all the way through.

If the jacket is so thin as to make it necessary to drill the holes all the way through, each
screw head must be packed with hemp or asbestos soaked in white lead.
REGRINDING VALVES

164. It is not often that inlet valves must be reground, because they remain
comparatively cool under the influence of the incoming charge, and, moreover, the
seats are not exposed to the erosion of burning gases. Exhaust valves, on the other
hand, require regrinding at intervals, depending somewhat on the temperatures in the
cylinder, and to a large extent on the material of which the exhaust valves are made.
Ordinary mild-steel valves must be reground quite frequently. A much better material is
an alloy of nickel and steel containing a high percentage of the former metal, usually
about 25 per cent. Such an alloy as this has a very small coefficient of expansion, and is
less subject to erosion due to the heated gases. Moreover, it is not liable to warp out of
shape.

For large engines, and occasionally for small ones also, cast iron has been found to be a
very good material for the exhaust valves. If cast iron is used, the stems and heads are
made separate; the stems are made of steel, and the heads are riveted on the stems.
The only drawback to cast iron for this purpose is that it has not the strength of steel,
and the valve head must be of unusual thickness, which, of course, adds to the weight
and inertia of the valve.

165. Inlet and exhaust valves are reground with emery. If an exhaust valve, the spring
is first slipped off to make sure that there is no sidewise pressure on the stem to
prevent a true bearing of the valve on its seat. The emery is mixed with oil until it forms
a paste, and is applied freely to the surface of the valve and its seat. Extreme care must
be taken to prevent any of the emery from getting into the interior of the cylinder,
where it would quickly ruin the piston and the cylinder walls. In some cases, a plug of
waste can be thrust into the valve chamber between the valve and the piston; but, if the
chamber is not long enough for this, the work will have to be watched carefully, using an
electric light, if necessary, to see that none of the paste works away from the valve
toward the piston.

166. If the valve seat is badly out of true, the operation of grinding may be begun with
emery of medium coarseness; but this is seldom necessary, for the reason that, before
the valve had reached such a condition, the cylinder in question would have lost almost
all of its power. In any case, the work is finished with fine flour of emery. The emery
being applied, the valve is set into its place in the valve seat, and a screwdriver is used in
the slot in the valve head to rotate the valve, which should be worked by quarter-turns
back and forth with moderate pressure, and should be lifted at frequent intervals to
allow the paste to work in between the valve and its seat. In order to grind the valve
evenly all around, it should occasionally be advanced a quarter-turn, and the grinding-in
process continued. When the grinding is almost finished, the pressure should be
comparatively light.
 If the valve has been pitted, it will not be necessary to grind it until the pits have entirely
disappeared, so long as there is a good bearing around them.

When the work is finished, the ground portion of the valve should have a smooth, dull
appearance, and neither the valve nor its seat should at any point be bright, as this
would indicate that metal had been rubbing on metal without emery between.

167. After the valve has been reground several times, it is likely to have settled so
much lower in its seat as to cause the valve stem to remain in contact with the push rod
when the valve is supposed to be seated. When the valve is closed, the clearance
between the valve and the push rod should be fully equal to the thickness of an ordinary
visiting card. If the distance is less than this, any slight irregularity in the cam, or some
slight springing of the metal parts when the engine is running, might bring the valve
stem and the push rod together and cause the valve to be opened slightly.

168. In an old engine, it may be found that the bushing or sleeve in which the valve
stem runs is worn to such an extent as to permit considerable sidewise movement of
the stem. A valve in this condition will still operate if it has been carefully ground, but it
is likely to need grinding much oftener than if it were truly guided by its bearing. It
should never be ground with the spring washer merely blocked up; the spring should in
each case be wholly removed.
Boiler Construction

Basic Boiler Construction

Introduction

A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The heated or vaporized fluid
exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating application.

Components

Steam drum
In the early designs the drums were riveted or solid forged from a single ingot, but for modern
boilers the drum is generally fabricated from steel plate of differing thicknesses and welded.
The materials used are governed by classification society rules. Test pieces must be provided.
The cylindrical drum is normally constructed from four plates. Two dished End plates, a thick
wall tube plate (thicker to accommodate the holes drilled in it without increased stress) and
completed with a thinner wrapper plate. Construction takes the form of rigidly clamping the
descaled, bent wrapper and tube plates together. In addition, test pieces cut from the original
material are attached to the construction in such away that the longitudinal weld extends
either sided of the join. These pieces are later removed and shaped test shapes cut out from
specified areas including across the weld. The longitudinal weld is critical (taking twice the
circumferential stress) and is normally carried out by specialised automatic machinery using
submerged arc techniques. The dished end pieces are accurately aligned and welded. On
completion the construction is cleaned and non-destructive testing- such as x-ray photography,
carried out. Final machining is carried out and any stub pieces and doublers attached. The now
complete drum is heat treated at 600 to 650'C. The final process is hydraulic testing to
classification requirements. Natural circulation within a boiler is due to the differing specific
gravities of the water at the differing temperatures, the steam drum provides a reservoir of
cool water to give the gravitational head necessary for natural circulation. Cool water entering
the steam drum via the feed lines provides the motive effect for the circulation distributing it to
the down comers. Also the space within the drum provides for the separation of the steam and
water emulsions formed in the water walls and the generating tubes. Water droplets entrained
with the separated steam are removed by separating components fitted in the drum as well as
the perforated baffle plates fitted at the water line. The space above the water line provides for
a reserve steam space needed to maintain plant stability during manoeuvring conditions. Also
fitted are the chemical injection distributing pipe and the scuming plate. The smaller the drum
is made, the less thickness of material that is required. However, the limitation to how small is
that sufficient space must be allowed for the separation of water from the steam before
passing out to the super-heater space otherwise dryers must be used. Also, due to the smaller
reserve of water, larger fluctuations in water level occur during manoeuvring.
Water drum
Distributes feed water from the down comers to the headers and generating tubes. Provides a
space for accumulating precipitates and allows them to be blown down. Water drum size is
limited to that required to receive the generating tubes, for modern radiant heat boilers with
only a single bank of screen tubes and no generating tubes between the drums, the water drum
has been replaced by a header and the down comers fed straight to the water wall headers.
With system blow down is done at the steam drum. Too small a water drum can cause
problems of maintaining ideal water level and little steam reserve.

Headers
These have a similar purpose to the water drum but are smaller in size. Due to their reduced
size they may have a square cross section without resorting to exceptional thickness.

Generating tubes
Consists of a large number of small diameter tubes in the gas flow, more commonly found in
boilers of an older design for roof fired boilers the generating bank may consist of one or two
rows of close pitched tubes. For a modern radiant heat boiler, the generating bank has been
omitted to allow the replacement of the water drum by a distribution header, a bare tube
economiser is fitted generating 5% of the steam capacity. The generation bank is normally
heated by convection rather than radiant heat. For a set water circulation, the tube diameter is
limited to a minimum as the ratio of steam to water can increase to a point where the
possibility of overheating could occur due to the lower heat capacity of the steam. The number
of tubes is limited to prevent undercooling of the gas flow leading to dew point corrosion.

Screen tubes
These are larger bore tubes receiving the radiant heat of the flame and the convective heat of
the hot gasses. The large diameter keeps the steam/water ratio down hence preventing
overheating. There main duty is to protect the super-heater from the direct radiant heat. On a
modern marine radiant heat boiler, the screen wall is formed out of a membrane wall.

Water wall tubes

Contains the heat of the heat of the furnace so reducing the refractory and insulation
requirements. Comes in three designs;

4. Water cooled with refractory covered studded tubes

5. Close pitched exposed tubes
6. Membrane Wall

Down comers
These are large diameter unheated i.e. external to the furnace, their purpose is to feed water
from the steam drum to the water drum and bottom headers.

Riser/Return tubes
These return steam from the top water wall headers to the steam drum.

Super-heater tubes
These are small diameter tubes in the gas flow after the screen tubes. Due to the low specific
heat capacity of the saturated steam they require protection from overheating in low steam
flow conditions, say when flashing.

Super-heater support tubes

These are large diameter tubes designed to support part of the weight of the super-heater bank
of tubes.

Water-tube Boilers
The construction of water-tube boilers, which use small-diameter tubes and have a small drum,
enable the generation or production of steam at high temperatures and pressures. The weight
of the boiler is much less than an equivalent fire tube boiler and the steam raising process is
much quicker. Design arrangements are flexible, efficiency is high and the feed water has a
good natural circulation. These are some of the many reasons why the water-tube boiler has
replaced the fire tube boiler as the major steam producer.

Modern D-type boilers have generating, superheating, feed and air heating surfaces in
percentage areas and position in the boilers to suit the required operating conditions.
In the middle sixties practically all new vessels were propelled by diesel machinery. Reliable
slow speed diesel engines were available which, burning heavy fuel, were economical, and
being less complicated than a corresponding steam plant, were more easily automated.

The closure of the Suez Canal, however, caused tanker owners to consider the economies of
transporting crude oil in greater bulk and this resulted in the design of 200,000 dwt tankers
requiring 20,000 k W for propulsion. Such powers were higher than normally available from the
oil engines of that period, and presented a great opportunity for the revival of steam
propulsion. Boiler and turbine designers took advantage of the situation with the result that
steam was once more adopted for the higher powers.

In the constant quest for lower overall costs, including initial and operating costs, turbine
machinery installations have been designed with a single boiler for propulsion purposes. This
generally being supplemented by some form of auxiliary power as a get you home device, in
the event of complete boiler failure.

The single boilers of such installation have, of necessity, to be as reliable as possible, and at the
same time, must be capable of operating for long periods between shut downs for cleaning
operations, etc.
The single boilers of such installation have, of necessity, to be as reliable as possible, and at the
same time, must be capable of operating for long periods between shut downs for cleaning
operations, etc.

Features embodied in boilers for this service include:

(a) Large furnaces with conservative heat release rates and ample flame clearances.
(b) Furnaces completely water-walled either with membrane-type walls or closely pitched tubes
to cut down brickwork maintenance.
(c) Roof firing to give a more uniform heat release and improved gas flow through the boiler.
(d) Super heaters in lower temperature gas zones shielded from the furnace.
(e) Improved forms and materials for super heater supports.
(f) Improved methods of superheat control.
(g) Improved soot blowing arrangements.

An early development in water-tube boilers was bent tube design. This boiler has two drums,
an integral furnace and is often referred to as the D type because of its shape. The furnace is
at the side of the two drums and is surrounded on all sides by walls of tubes. These water wall
tubes are connected either to upper and lower headers or a lower header and the steam drum.
Upper headers are connected by return tubes to the steam drum. Between the steam drum
and the smaller water drum below, large numbers of smaller-diameter generating tubes are
fitted.
These provided the main heat transfer surfaces for steam generation. Large-bore pips or down
comers are fitted between the steam and water drum to ensure good natural circulation of the
water. In the arrangement shown, the super heater is located between the drums, protected
from the very hot furnace gases by several rows of screen tubes. Refractory material or
brickwork is used on the furnace floor, the burner wall and also behind the water walls. The
doubling casing of the boiler provides a passage for the combustion air to the air control or
register surrounding the burner.

The early version of the D-type boiler were an important advance in their time but changes in
refining methods and crude from various sources produced residual type fuel oils which began
to reveal their shortcomings. The furnaces, being small and employing large amounts of
refractory, operated at very high temperature. Flame impingement was not unknown and
conditions generally for the refractories were severe and resulted in high maintenance.
Refractories broke down requiring replacement. They were frequently covered in glass-like
deposits, and on the furnace floor thick vitreous accumulation often required the use of road
drill for removal.

In the super heater zone the products of combustion were still at high temperature and
deposits from impurities in the fuel condensed out on the tubes, reducing heat transfer and
steam temperature. Eventually, gas passages between the tubes would become so badly
blocked that the forced draught fans would be unable to supply sufficient air to the burners,
combustion became impaired and the fouling conditions accelerated. Sodium and vanadium
compounds present in the deposits proved very corrosive to super heater tubes causing
frequent repeated failure. Due to the fouled condition there was a loss of efficiency and
expensive time-consuming cleaning routines were required.

The need for a wider range of superheated steam temperature control led to other boiler
arrangements being used. The original External Super heater D (ESD) type of boiler used a
primary and secondary super heater located after the main generating tube bank. An
attemperator located in the combustion air path was used to control the steam temperature.

The later ESD II type boiler was similar in construction to the ESD I but used a control unit (an
additional economiser) between the primary and secondary super heaters. Linked dampers
directed the hot gases over the control unit or the super heater depending upon the superheat
temperature required. The control unit provided a bypass path for the gases when less
superheating was required.

In the ESD II boiler the burners are located in the furnace roof, which provides a long flame path
and even heat transfer throughout the furnace. In the boiler shown above, the furnace is fully
water-cooled and of monowall construction, it is produced from finned tubes welded together
to form a gastight casing. With monowall construction no refractory material is necessary in the
furnace.

The furnace side, floor and roof tubes are welded into the steam and water drums. The front
and rear walls are connected at either end to upper and lower water-wall headers. The lower
water-wall headers are connected by external down comers from the steam drum and the
upper water-wall headers are connected to the steam drum by riser tubes

The gases leaving the furnace pass through screen tubes which are arranged to permit flow
between them. The large number of tubes results in considerable heat transfer before the
gases reach the secondary super heater. The gases then flow over the primary super heater and
the economiser before passing to exhaust. The dry pipe is located in the steam drum to obtain
reasonably dry saturated steam from the boiler. This is then passed to the primary super heater
and then to the secondary super heater. Steam temperature control is achieved by the use of
an attemperator. Located in the steam drum, operating between the primary and secondary
super heaters.

Radiant-type boilers are a more recent development, in which the radiant heat of combustion is
required to raise steam being transmitted by infra-red radiation. This usually required roof
firing and a considerable height in order to function efficiently. The ESD IV boiler, shown above,
is of the radiant type. Both the furnace and the outer chamber are fully water-cooled. There is
no conventional bank of generating tubes. The hot gases leave the furnace through an opening
at the lower end of the screen wall and pass to the outer chamber. The outer chamber contains
the convection heating surfaces which include the primary and secondary super heaters.
Superheat temperature control is by means of an attemperator in the steam drum. The hot
gases, after leaving the primary super heater, pass over a steaming economiser. This is a heat
exchanger in which the steam-water mixture is flowing parallel to the gas. The furnace gases
finally pass over a conventional economiser on their way to the funnel.

Reheat boilers are used with reheat arranged turbine systems. Steam after expansion in the
high-pressure turbine is returned to a reheater in the boiler. Here the steam energy content is
raised before it is supplied to the low-pressure turbine. Reheat boilers are based on boiler
designs such as the D type or the radiant type.
Fire tube Boilers

The fire tube boilers is usually chosen for low-pressure steam production on vessels requiring
steam for auxiliary purposes and in these cases water tube boilers can improve uneconomic.
Operation is simple and feed water of medium quality may be employed. The name tank
boiler is sometimes used for fire tube boilers because of their large water capacity. The terms
smoke tube and donkey boiler are also in use.

Of the variety proprietary designs of fire tube or tank type boiler, many are composite,
including sections for diesel exhaust gas heat recovery as well as for direct firing. In the Cochran
boiler (above), the products of combustion and exhaust gases pass through separate sets of
tubes immersed in the boiler water. These tubes are expanded into tube plates which form part
of the boiler pressure shells. With the Aalborg AQ5 the gas streams pass horizontally over the
outside of vertical tubes expanded into tube plates forming part of the boiler pressure vessel, in
such a way that boiler water flows upwards throughout the tubes. Large down comer tubes
complete the circulation system.
A G Weser produced a boiler unit where the products of combustion pass through tubes
surrounded by boiler water whilst diesel exhaust passes over tubes through which boiler water
passes. A design similar in principle came from Howaldtswerke.

The Sun rod oil fired boiler combines a fire tube and a water-tube by arranging the latter inside
the former. The water-tube surface is extended by having steel pins electric resistance welded
on its outer surface. The furnace is arranged either as a water cooled shell with a refractory
floor or as a completely water cooled shell. In the largest sizes the furnace walls are of water-
tube construction. In each case a number of fire tubes of large diameter extend upwards from
the furnace top to a tube plate forming the top pressure shell. Inside each of these is arranged
a water-tube with extended surface. The top and bottom of each is connected through the wall
of its fire tube into the water space of the boiler.
Boiler Mountings
Definition
Various valves and fittings are required for the safe and proper working of a boiler. Those
attached directly to the pressure parts of the boiler are referred to as the boiler mountings.
Minimum requirements for boiler mountings

Two safety valve's

One steam stop valve
Two independent feed check
Two water gauge or equivalent
One pressure gauge
One salinometer valve or cock
One blowdown/scum valve
One low level fuel shut off device and alarm

Functions

SAFETY VALVE
Protect the boiler from over pressurization. DTI require at least two safety valve's but normally
three are fitted, two to the drum and one to the super-heater. The super-heater must be set to
lift first to ensure a flow of steam through the super-heater. These must be set to a maximum
of 3% above approved boiler working pressure.

MAIN STEAM STOP

Mounted on super-heater outlet header to enable boiler to be isolated from the steam line if
more than one boiler is connected. Valve must be screw down non return type to prevent back
flow of steam from other boiler into one of the boilers which has sustained damage (burst tube
etc.) valve may be fitted with an emergency closing device.

AUXILLIARY STOP VALVE

Similar to main stops but connected to the auxiliary steam line

FEED CHECK VALVE'S

a SDNR valve so that if feed pump stops the boiler water will be prevented from blowing out
the boiler. The main check is often fitted to the inlet flange of the economiser if no economiser
fitted then directly connected to the boiler. The Auxiliary feed check is generally fitted directly
to an inlet flange to the drum with crossovers to the main feed line. Usually fitted with
extended spindles to allow remote operation which must have an indicator fitted.

WATER GAUGES
Usual practice is to fit two direct reading and at least one remote for convenient reading.
PRESSURE GAUGES
Fitted as required to steam drum and super-heater header

SALINOMETER COCKS OR VALVE'S

Fitted to the water drum to allow samples to be taken. Cooling coil fitted for high pressure
boilers.

BLOWDOWN COCK
Used to purge the boiler of contaminants. Usually two valve's fitted to ensure tightness. These
valve's lead to an overboard valve.

SCUM VALVE
These are fitted where possibility of oil contamination exists. They are designed to remove
water and/or contaminants at or close to normal working level.
BOILER WATER TREATMENT

Of the many uses for energy in the World todayin industry, in transportation, in
homes and commercial buildingsthe largest portion of total use is directed toward producing
steam through the combustion of fossil fuels. Utilities account for the greatest share of this, but
industrial plants also produce enormous quantities of steam for process uses, often generating
electric power through turbines as a by-product (Cogeneration).
The treatment of water for steam generation is one of the most sophisticated branches
of water chemistry. An understanding of the fundamentals of boiler water chemistry is essential
to the power engineer who continually strives to increase the efficiency of the boilers and
steam-using equipment.
The pressure and design of a boiler determine the quality of water it requires for steam
generation. Municipal or plant water of good quality for domestic use is seldom good enough
for boiler feed water. These sources of makeup are nearly always treated to reduce
contaminants to acceptable levels; in addition, corrective chemicals are added to the treated
water to counteract any adverse effects of the remaining trace contaminants. The sequence of
treatment depends on the type and concentration of contaminants found in the water supply
and the desired quality of the finished water to avoid the three major boiler system problems
deposits, corrosion, and carryover.

DEPOSITS
Deposits, particularly scale, can form on any water-washed equipment surface
especially on boiler tubesas the equilibrium conditions in the water contacting these surfaces
are upset by an external force, such as heat. Each contaminant has an established solubility in
water and will precipitate when it has been exceeded. If the water is in contact with a hot
surface and the solubility of the contaminant is lower at higher temperatures, the precipitate
will form on the surface, causing scale. The most common components of boiler deposits are
calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate (in low-pressure boilers), magnesium hydroxide,
magnesium silicate, various forms of iron oxide, silica adsorbed on the previously mentioned
precipitates, and alumina (see Table 39.1). If phosphate salts are used to treat the boiler water,
calcium will preferentially precipitate as the phosphate before precipitating as the carbonate,
and calcium phosphate becomes the most prominent feature of the deposit.
At the high temperatures found in a boiler, deposits are a serious problem, causing poor
heat transfer and a potential for boiler tube failure. In low-pressure boilers with low heat
transfer rates, deposits may build up to a point where they completely occlude the boiler tube.
 In modern intermediate and higher pressure boilers with heat transfer rates in excess of
200,000 Btu/ft2/n (5000 cal/m2/hr), the presence of even extremely thin deposits will cause a
serious elevation in the temperature of tube metal. The deposit coating retards the flow of heat
from the furnace gases into the boiler water. This heat resistance results in a rapid rise in metal
temperature to the point at which failure can occur. The action that takes place in the blistering
of a tube by deposit buildup is illustrated by Figure 39.1. For simplification, no temperature
drops through gas or water films have been shown. Section A shows a cross section of the tube
metal with a completely deposit-free heating surface. There is a temperature drop across the
tube metal from the outside metal (T2) to the metal in contact with boiler water (T1). Section B
illustrates this same tube after the development of a heat-insulating deposit layer. In addition
to the temperature drop from T2 to T1, there would be an additional temperature drop
through the deposit layer from T1 to T0. This condition would, of course, result in a lower boiler
water temperature T0. However, boiler water temperature is fixed by the operating pressure,
and operating conditions require that the same boiler water temperature be maintained as
before the development of the deposit layer. Section C illustrates the condition that actually
develops. Starting at the base boiler water temperature of T0, the increase through the scale
layer is represented by the line from T0 to T3. The further temperature increase through the
tube wall is represented by the line from T3 to T4. The outside metal temperature T4 is now
considerably higher than the temperature T2, which was the outside metal temperature prior
to the formation of deposit on the tube surfaces. If continued deposition takes place, increasing
the thickness of the heat-insulating deposits, further increases will take place in the tube metal
temperature until the safe maximum temperature of the tube metal is exceeded. Usually this
maximum temperature is 900 to 100O0F (480 to 54O0C). At higher heat transfer rates, and in
high-pressure boilers, the problem is more severe: at temperatures in the 900 to 135O0F (482
to 7320C) range, carbon steel begins to deteriorate. Figure 39.2 shows the normal structure of
carbon steel boiler tubes, and Figure 39.3 illustrates the spheroidization of carbon and
successive changes in structure, which begin to take place above 80O0F (4270C), weakening the
metal. Temperatures within the boiler furnace are considerably above this critical temperature
range. Water circulating through the tubes normally conducts heat away from the metal,
preventing the tube from reaching this range. Deposits insulate the tube, reducing the rate at
which this heat can be removed (Figure 39.4); this leads to overheating and eventual tube
failure (Figure 39.5). If the deposit is not thick enough to cause such a failure, it can still cause a
substantial loss in efficiency and disruption of the heat transfer load in other sections of the
boiler.
 Deposits may be scale, precipitated in situ on a heated surface, or previously
precipitated chemicals, often in the form of sludge. These drop out of water in low-velocity
areas, compacting to form a dense agglomerate similar to scale, but retaining the features of
the original precipitates. In the operation of most industrial boilers, it is seldom possible to
avoid formation of some type of precipitate at some time. There are almost always some
particulates in the circulating boiler water which can deposit in low-velocity sections, such as
the mud drum. The exception would be high-purity systems, such as utility boilers, which
remain relatively free of particulates except under conditions where the system may become
temporarily upset.

CORROSION

The second major water-related boiler problem is corrosion, the most common example
being the attack of steel by oxygen. This occurs in water supply systems, pre-boiler systems,
boilers, condensate return lines, and in virtually any portion of the steam cycle where oxygen is
present. Oxygen attack is accelerated by high temperature and by low pH. A less prevalent type
of corrosion is alkali attack, which may occur in high-pressure boilers where caustic can
concentrate in a local area of steam bubble formation because of the presence of porous
deposits.
Some feed water treatment chemicals, such as chelants, if not properly applied, can
corrode feed water piping, control valves, and even the boiler internals. While the elimination
of oxygen from boiler feed water is the major step in controlling boiler corrosion, corrosion can
still occur.
An example is the direct attack by steam of the boiler steel surface at elevated
temperatures, according to the following reaction:
4H2O + 3Fe Fe3O4 + 4H2t (1)

This attack can occur at steam-blanketed boiler surfaces where restricted boiler water
flow causes overheating. It may also occur in superheater tubes subjected to overheating. Since
this corrosion reaction produces hydrogen, a device for analyzing hydrogen in steam, Figure
39.6, is useful as a corrosion monitor.
The third major problem related to boiler operations is carryover from the boiler into
the steam system. This may be a mechanical effect, such as boiler water spraying around a
broken baffle; it may be caused by the volatility of certain boiler water salts, such as silica and
sodium compounds; or it may be caused by foaming. Carryover is most often a mechanical
problem, and the chemicals found in the steam are those originally present in the boiler water,
plus the volatile components that distill from the boiler even in the absence of spray.
There are three basic means for keeping these major problems under control.
1. External treatment: Treatment of watermakeup, condensate, or both, before it
enters the boiler, to reduce or eliminate chemicals (such as hardness or silica), gases or solids.
 2. Internal treatment: Treatment of the boiler feed water, boiler water, steam, or
condensate with corrective chemicals.
3. Slowdown: Control of the concentration of chemicals in the boiler water by bleeding
off a portion of the water from the boiler.
EXTERNAL TREATMENT
Most of the unit operations of water treatment (Table 39.2) can be used alone or in
combination with others to adapt any water supply to any boiler system. The suitability of the
processes available is judged by the results they produce and the costs involved.
The boiler treatment program aims at control of seven broad classifications of
impurities: suspended solids, hardness, alkalinity, silica, total dissolved solids (TDS), organic
matter, and gases. The extent to which each of the unit processes applicable to boiler makeup
treatment, as described in earlier chapters, reduces or removes these impurities is summarized
by Table 39.2.

Suspended Solids
The removal of suspended solids is accomplished by coagulation/flocculation, filtration,
or precipitation. Other unit processes, except direct reaction, usually require prior removal of
solids. For example, water to be processed by ion exchange should contain less than 10 mg/L
suspended solids to avoid fouling of the exchanger and operating problems.

Hardness
A number of unit operations remove calcium and magnesium from water, as
summarized by Table 39.2. Sodium exchange removes hardness and does nothing else; other
processes provide additional benefits. Figure 39.7 compares these softening processes, showing
the additional reduction of other impurities that may occur. Differences between softening
processes are summarized in Table 39.3.

Alkalinity
It is desirable to have some alkalinity in boiler water, so complete removal of alkalinity
from boiler makeup is seldom practiced except in demineralization. Some alkalinity is also
needed to provide optimum pH in the feed water to prevent corrosion of piping and
equipment.
The makeup alkalinity may be present as HCO3", CO32", or OH". If the makeup is city
water that has been zeolite softened, alkalinity is usually in the bicarbonate (HCO3") form; if
lime softened, it is mostly carbonate (CO32"), but the water may also contain some hydroxide
(OH"). When bicarbonates and carbonates are exposed to boiler temperatures, they break
down to release CO2:
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 (2)
The sodium carbonate then breaks down further to caustic:
Na2CO3 + H2O 2NaOH + CO2
(3)
The carbon dioxide gas redissolves when the steam condenses, producing corrosive
carbonic acid:
CO2 -f H2O H2CO3 H+H- HCO3
(4)
The amount OfCO2 generated is proportional to the alkalinity. For a given alkalinity twice as
much CO2 is formed from HCO3" as from CO32- because the bicarbonate breakdown is the sum
of both reactions (2) and (3) above. The carbonic acid is usually neutralized by chemical
treatment of the steameither directly or indirectly through the boilerto produce a
condensate pH in the range of 8.5 to 9.0. Reduction of feed water alkalinity is desirable, then,
to minimize CO2 formation and reduce chemical treatment costs.
The hydroxide produced by the breakdown of HCO3" and CO32" is beneficial for
precipitation of magnesium, to provide a good environment for sludge conditioning, and to
minimize SiO2 carryover. However, too high an excess of caustic can be corrosive, particularly if
localized concentration can occur. The breakdown ofHCO3~ is complete, but not all the CO32"
converts to caustic. The conversion varies from one boiler to another and increases with
temperature. As a general rule, at 600 lb/in2 65 to 85% of boiler water alkalinity is NaOH, the
remainder Na2CO3. (This is based on the equilibrium in the cooled sample of boiler water.)
 The degree of alkalinity reduction is therefore dictated by boiler water control limits and
steam quality goals. The best unit process for alkalinity reduction may be chosen for the other
benefits it provides as well as its efficiency in alkalinity reduction. Figure 39.8 compares
alkalinity reduction processes and their supplemental benefits. The major differences between
these processes are summarized in Table 39.4.
Silica
The permissible concentrations of silica in boiler water at various operating pressures
are given in Table 39.5. Silica reduction is not always necessary, especially in the absence of a
condensing turbine. Low concentrations of silica can sometimes produce sticky sludge in low-
pressure boilers treated with phosphate. A makeup treatment process may be selected to
provide just the proper degree of silica reduction required by the steam system. Figure 39.9
shows the treatment results achieved by the various silica removal processes; the influence of
each of these processes on other feed water contaminants is summarized in Table 39.6.
Total Dissolved Solids
Some treatment processes increase dissolved solids by adding soluble by-products to
water; sodium zeolite softening increases solids by adding an ion (sodium) having a higher
equivalent weight (23) than the calcium (20) or magnesium (12.2) removed from the raw water.
Processes to reduce dissolved solids achieve various degrees of success. Usually, reduction of
dissolved solids is accomplished by a reduction of several individual contaminants. Table 39.7
summarizes the analyses of effluents produced by processes which reduce dissolved solids.

Organic Matter
Organic matter as a general classification is only a qualitative term. It includes a wide
variety of compounds that are seldom analyzed as specific materials. Problems in boiler
systems attributed to organic matter have often been traced to organic materials from plant
processes in returned condensate, rather than makeup water contaminants. However, in high-
pressure utility systems, organic matter is the major impurity in makeup and can result in
formation of organic acids.

Dissolved Gases
Degasifiers are commonly used to remove gas mechanically rather than chemically.
Blower types are used for CO2 removal at ambient temperatures following acid or hydrogen-
exchange units. Vacuum degasifiers provide the same extent of CO2 removal, but also reduce
O2 to less than 0.5 to 1.0 mg/L, offering corrosion protection, especially if the vacuum
degasifier is part of a demineralizing system. Steam-scrubbing degasifiers, called deaerating
heaters, usually produce an effluent free of CO2 with O2 concentrations in the range of 0.005
to 0.01 mg/L. Direct reaction of this low residual with catalyzed sulfite, hydrazine, or hydrazine
substitutes (all-volatile oxygen-reducing compounds) eliminates O2 completely to prevent
preboiler corrosion.

CONDENSATE RETURNS

In addition to makeup treatment, acceptable feed water quality may require cleanup of
condensate to protect the boiler system, particularly if there is process condensate containing
oil. Boilers requiring high-quality demineralized water also demand high-quality condensate.
Some plants operate both high- and low-pressure boilers; high-quality feed water for the high-
pressure boilers may be provided entirely by a demineralizer, with lower quality condensate
segregated for return to the low-pressure boilers.
Septum filters are usually selected for oily condensate treatment. A cellulosetype filter
aid (processed wood pulp) is applied both as a precoat and a body feed. The temperature
should be less than 20O0F (930C) to avoid degradation of the filter aid. Anthracite filters
precoated with a floe produced from alum and sodium aluminate are also effective. However,
the pH of the condensate must be controlled in the range of 7 to 8 to avoid solubilizing the
alumina floe. Condensate contaminated with corrosion products and inleakage of hard water is
cleaned up through specially designed, high flow rate sodium exchangers (Figure 39.10). They
have been used to process condensate at temperatures up to 30O0F (1490C). One serious
limitation of the simple sodium exchanger is its ability to pick up neutralizing amines such as
morpholine (present in the condensate as morpholine bicarbonate) and exchange this for
sodium. This causes excessive use of amines, but a more serious problem arises if the
condensate is returned to a high-pressure boiler where the presence of sodium may be
objectionable in deterioration of steam quality. Special regeneration procedures would then be
needed.

Heavily contaminated process condensates, such as those produced in kraft pulp mills
and petroleum refineries, present special problems in use as boiler feed water. Their
composition is usually variable and may include complex organic compounds and unusual ions
such as cyanide, thiocyanate, and sulfide. The treatment program cannot be selected simply on
the basis of the condensate analysis; research on the bench and by pilot plant operation may be
required, but the recovery of condensate pays good dividends in both heat saving and reduced
cost of makeup and treatment chemicals.

INTERNAL TREATMENT

Scale formation within a boiler is controlled by one of four chemical programs:

coagulation (carbonate), phosphate residual, chelation, or coordinated phosphate.

Coagulation Program
In this process, sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, or both are added to the boiler
water to supplement the alkalinity supplied by the makeup, which is not softened. The
carbonate causes deliberate precipitation of calcium carbonate under favorable, controlled
conditions, preventing deposition at some subsequent point as scale. Under alkaline conditions,
magnesium and silica are also precipitated as magnesium hydroxide and magnesium silicate.
There is usually a fairly high concentration of suspended solids in the boiler water, and the
precipitation occurs on these solids. This method of treatment is used only with boilers (usually
firetube design) using high-hardness feed water and operating below 250 lb/in2 (17 bars). This
type of treatment must be supplemented by some form of sludge conditioner. Even with a
supplemental sludge conditioner, heat transfer is hindered by deposit formation, and
blowdown rates are excessive because of high suspended solids. Coagulation programs are
becoming obsolete as pretreatment systems become more common and competitive with the
high internal treatment cost.
Phosphate Program

Where the boiler pressure is above 250 lb/in2, high concentrations of sludge are
undesirable. In these boilers, feed water hardness should be limited to 60 mg/L, and phosphate
programs are preferred. Phosphate is also a common treatment below 250 lb/in2 with soft
makeup. A sodium phosphate compound is fed either to the boiler feed water or to the boiler
drum, depending on water analysis and the preboiler auxiliaries, to form an insoluble
precipitate, principally hydroxyapatite, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2. Magnesium and silica are
precipitated as magnesium hydroxide, magnesium silicate (often combined as 3MgO-2SiO2-
2H2O), or calcium silicate. The alkalinity of the makeup is usually adequate to produce the OH~
for the magnesium precipitation. Phosphate residual programs which produce high suspended
solids require the addition of a sludge conditioner/dispersant. Because these programs restrict
heat transfer, owing to the deposition of calcium and magnesium salts, precipitation programs
of this type are often replaced with solubilizing treatments such as chelants and
polymer/dispersants.

Chelant Programs
A chelate is a molecule similar to an ion exchanger; it is low in molecular weight and
soluble in water. The sodium salts of ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) and
nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) are the chelating agents most commonly used for internal boiler
treatment. These chelate (form complex ions with) calcium and magnesium. Because the
resulting complex is soluble, this treatment is advantageous in minimizing blowdown. The
higher cost compared to phosphate usually limits the use of chelates to feed waters having low
hardness. There is the risk that breakdown of the organic molecule at higher temperatures
could create a potential problem of control that could result in corrosion, so chelate programs
are usually limited to boilers operating below 1500 lb/in2 (100 bars). The addition of polymers
as scale control agents increases the effectiveness of chelate programs.
It also reduces the corrosion potential by reducing the chelant dosage below theoretical
requirements, so that there is no chelant residual in the boiler water.
Chelates can react with oxygen under boiler water conditions, which can increase the
cost of a chelate program substantially. Overfeed of chelates and concentration mechanisms in
the boiler can lead to severe localized corrosion and subsequent unit failure.

Coordinated Phosphate Program

In high-pressure, high heat transfer rate boilers, the internal treatment program must
contribute little or no solids. The potential for caustic attack of boiler metal increases with
increasing pressure, so free caustic alkalinity must be minimized. The coordinated phosphate
program is chosen for these conditions. This differs from the standard program in that the
phosphate is added to provide a controlled pH range in the boiler water as well as to react with
calcium if hardness should enter the boiler. Trisodium phosphate hydrolyzes to produce
hydroxide ions:
Na3PO4 + H2O 3Na+ + OH~ + HPO4
(5)
This cannot occur with the ionization of disodium and monosodium phosphate:
 Na2HPO4 2Na+ + HPO4 (6)
NaH2PO4 Na+ + H+ + HPO4
(7)
The program is controlled by feeding combinations of disodium phosphate with
trisodium or monosodium phosphate to produce an optimum pH without the presence of free
OH ~. To successfully control a coordinated phosphate program, the feed water must be
extremely pure and of consistent quality. Coordinated phosphate programs do not reduce
precipitation; they simply cause precipitation of less adherent calcium phosphate in the
absence of caustic. A dispersant must be added to condition deposits that would otherwise
reduce the heat transfer rate. The coordinated phosphate program was first developed for
high-pressure utility boilers, and most experience with this program has been gained in this
field. More details on control of the program can be found in Chapter 34, "Utilities."

COMPLEXATION/DISPERSION

The newest addition to internal treatment technology is the use of synthetic organic
polymers for complexation and dispersion. This type of program can be used to 1500 lb/in2
(100 bars) and is economical in all low-hardness feed water systems typical of those produced
by ion exchange. Heat transfer rates are maximized because these polymers produce the
cleanest tube surfaces of any of the available internal treatment programs. This treatment
solubilizes calcium, magnesium, and aluminum, and maintains silica in solution while avoiding
corrosion potential side effects as determined by hydrogen levels in the steam. Iron particulates
returned from the condensate system are likewise dispersed for removal via blowdown. A
simple measure of ion transport is used to demonstrate on-line performance of this program.

PROGRAM SUPPLEMENTS

In addition to controlling scale and deposits, internal treatment must also control
carryover, defined as entrainment of boiler water into the steam. Boiler salts carried as a mist
may subsequently deposit in the superheater, causing tube failures, or deposit on the blades of
a turbine. They may also contaminate a process in which the steam is used. Since a high
percentage of carryover is caused by foaming, this problem is usually solved by the addition of
antifoam to the boiler feed water.
 Sludge in boiler water may settle to form deposits, which are as serious a problem as
scale. Chemicals are used to condition boiler water particulates so that they do not form large
crystalline precipitates; smaller particles will remain dispersed at the velocities encountered in
the boiler circuit. At lower pressures both the coagulation and phosphate residual programs
incorporate sludge conditioning agents for this purpose. A variety of natural organic materials
are used, including starches, tannins, and lignins. Figure 39.11 shows the effect of tannin in
stunting the growth OfCaCO3 crystals; Figure 39.12 illustrates the effectiveness of tannin in
preventing CaCO3 scale in 250 lb/in2 (17 bars) experimental boilers by this ability to control
crystal growth and disperse the precipitated CaCO3.

At intermediate pressures, chemically reacted lignins have been widely used, though
synthetic polymers are replacing them. Figure 39.13 shows the approximate molecular
configuration of a lignin processed for high-temperature stability. Its effectiveness in controlling
calcium phosphate scale and magnetic iron oxide deposits at 1500 lb/in2 (100 bars) is shown in
Figures 39.14 and 39.15.
 At pressures up to 1800 lb/in2 (120 bars), heat-stable polymers such as anionic
carboxylates and their derivatives are used as effective dispersants. An alkaline environment
generally increases their effectiveness. Lignin-type dispersants and other natural organic
derivatives are being replaced by these more effective synthetic organic polymers. These
dispersants have been designed for specific dispersion problems, with tailored molecules for
magnesium silicate, calcium phosphate, and iron particulates being available.
Somewhat related to carryover, in that steam quality is affected, is the discharge of
contaminants that volatilize under boiler operating conditions. The major volatiles are CO2,
created by the breakdown of carbonate and bicarbonate mentioned earlier, and SiO2. Although
the CO2 can be neutralized, it is prudent to reduce feed water alkalinity to minimize its
formation. For all practical purposes, external treatment for silica reduction and blowdown are
the only means to avoid excessive SiO2 discharges for protection of turbine blading. Hydroxyl
alkalinity helps reduce silica volatility.

Oxygen is the chief culprit in boiler systems corrosion. Deaeration reduces this to a low
concentration in the preboiler system, but does not completely eliminate it. Application of
sulfite, hydrazine, or hydrazine-like (all-volatile) compounds after deaeration scavenges the
remaining O2 and maintains a reducing condition in the boiler water. An advantage of
hydrazine is that it is discharged into the steam to become available in the condensate as
protection against oxygen corrosion in the return system. If oxygen is present, ammonia can
attack copper alloys in condensers and stage heaters. The removal OfNH3 by external
treatment may be necessary. The corrosive aspects of CO2 have already been mentioned in
relation to condensate systems. The beneficial and detrimental aspects of NaOH in the boiler
circuit in relation to corrosion control have also been discussed earlier.

BLOWDOWN

Boiler feed water, regardless of the type of treatment used to process the makeup, still
contains measurable concentrations of impurities. In some plants, contaminated condensate
contributes to feed water impurities. Internal boiler water treatment chemicals also add to the
level of solids in the boiler water.
When steam is generated, essentially pure H2O vapor is discharged from the boiler,
leaving the solids introduced in the feed water to remain in the boiler circuits. The net result of
impurities being continuously added and pure water vapor being withdrawn is a steady
increase in the level of dissolved solids in the boiler water. There is a limit to the concentration
of each component of the boiler water. To prevent exceeding these concentration limits, boiler
water is withdrawn as blowdown and discharged to waste. Figure 39.16 illustrates a material
balance for a boiler, showing that the blowdown must be adjusted so that solids leaving the
boiler equal those entering and the concentration is maintained at the predetermined limits.
Of course it is apparent that the substantial heat energy in the blowdown represents a
major factor detracting from the thermal efficiency of the boiler, so minimizing blowdown is a
goal in every steam plant. There are ways to reclaim this heat that will be examined later in the
chapter.
 One way of looking at boiler blowdown is to consider it a process of diluting boiler water
solids by withdrawing boiler water from the system at a rate that induces a flow of feed water
into the boiler in excess of steam demand.
There are two separate blowdown points in every boiler system. One accommodates
the blowdown flow that is controlled to regulate the dissolved solids or other factors in the
boiler water. The other is an intermittent or mass blowdown, usually from the mud drum or
water wall headers, which is operated intermittently at reduced boiler load to rid the boiler of
accumulated settled solids in relatively stagnant areas. The following discussion of blowdown
will be confined only to that used for adjusting boiler water dissolved solids concentrations.
Blowdown may be either intermittent or continuous. If intermittent, the boiler is
allowed to concentrate to a level acceptable for the particular boiler design and pressure.
When this concentration level is reached, the blowdown valve is opened for a short period of
time to reduce the concentration of impurities, and the boiler is then allowed to reconcentrate
until the control limits are again reached. In continuous blowdown, on the other hand, the
blowdown valve is kept open at a fixed setting to remove water at a steady rate, maintaining a
relatively constant boiler water concentration. Since the average concentration level in a boiler
blown down intermittently is substantially less than that maintained by continuous blowdown,
intermittent blowdown is less efficientmore costlythan continuous blowdown.
 Figure 39.17 is a schematic diagram of a typical industrial boiler plant that discharges
steam to a turbine, with part of the steam being condensed in the condenser and the
remainder extracted for a process use where the steam may be lost or the condensate become
so contaminated that it must be wasted. With reference to this diagram, the following
relationships apply in determining blowdown losses:

It is common to express blowdown as a percentage of feed water. However, this may

give the utilities engineer a false sense of security. If the plant has 80% condensate return and
20% makeup, a 5% blowdown would appear satisfactory, but it indicates that the makeup is
being concentrated only 4 timesof the four units of makeup entering the boiler, one unit is
being thrown away. Perhaps that is as much usage as can be made of that particular quality
makeup, but the operator should be aware of it.
 Since the main purpose of blowdown control is to reach the maximum permissible
concentrations for best boiler efficiency without exceeding concentrations that would harm the
system, the first step in developing a blowdown control program is to establish allowable limits.
The conventional limits recommended to provide boiler cleanliness and adequate steam quality
are shown in Tables 39.8 and 39.9. These limits cover most situations encountered in industrial
boiler operations, but not the coagulation treatment used in low-pressure boilers. With the
coagulation treatment, total dissolved solids are usually limited to 3500 mg/ L, and adequate
alkalinity is maintained to provide the carbonate for calcium precipitation and the hydroxide for
magnesium precipitation. These levels can be established only after the nature of the makeup
treatment system has been considered.
As shown by Tables 39.8 and 39.9, the limits on such things as total dissolved solids,
silica, and alkalinity are basically related to the amounts of these materials entering with the
makeup water; these concentrations can be adjusted by blowdown, but also by some
adjustment in the makeup treatment system if that flexibility is provided. On the other hand,
such constituents as phosphate, organics, and sulfite are introduced as internal treatment
chemicals, and their concentration can be adjusted both by blowdown and by rate of
application.

For purposes of illustrating the calculation of boiler blowdown related to the

concentrations, a 900-lb/in2 (40 bars) boiler system in a paper mill is used as an example. The
steam goes both to a condensing turbine and a back pressure turbine, with 50% condensate
return. The makeup is treated by hot lime-zeolite softening, and, after treatment, has a total
dissolved solids concentration of 150 mg/ L, silica of 3 mg/L, and total alkalinity of 20 mg/L.
Table 39.10 summarizes the conditions established in this example.
 With a silica concentration of 1.5 mg/L in the feed water and an allowable limit of only
10 mg/L in the boiler water, silica is the controlling factor and sets the concentration ratio
(based on feed water) at 6.7. Since the water could be concentrated to a factor of 10 based on
total dissolved solids, there is incentive for additional silica reduction in the hot process unit. If
the addition of dolomitic lime would permit a reduction from 3 mg/L shown to less than 2 mg/L
in the makeup, the blowdown rate could be reduced from 15 to 10%.
A second example explores the use of a simple sodium zeolite softener to treat city
water as makeup for a 300-lb/in2 boiler. The water analyses in Figure 39.18 show the results of
treating the city water through a zeolite softener, and the allowable concentrations in a 300-
lb/in2 (20 bars) boiler. The concentration ratio is calculated for each of the constituents to be
controlled; the lowest CR determines the blowdown rate. In this example, the lowest ratio is
2.5, applying to alkalinity. So the blowdown rate, controlled by alkalinity, would be:

This is a high blowdown loss, expressed as a percentage of makeup. However, in a small

plant that generates less than 50,000 Ib/h (22,700 kg/h) of steam with less than 10 to 20%
makeup, this process might be acceptable just for its simplicity and low cost. Larger plants
would find this high blowdown loss unacceptable because of the high energy loss and the cost
of preparing and treating makeup that is concentrated to such a limited degree.
 Two processes are explored to modify the sodium zeolite system to reduce alkalinity,
Figure 39.19 shows these two modifications, sodium zeolite plus acid and split-stream
treatment. Both of these significantly reduce alkalinity and blowdown. The first process
increases the critical CR to 12.5, so blowdown would be controlled by alkalinity at a level close
to the optimum TDS. Further reduction in blowdown is achieved by using split-stream
treatment, since TDS is reduced as well as alkalinity. At these low levels, silica becomes a
controlling factor at a blowdown of 6% of makeup. Capital cost and operating cost figures are
needed to decide whether the reduction in blowdown from 8% achieved with the first process
to 6%, which can be reached with the split-stream treatment, is justified. The split-stream
process is more costly and it creates a secondary problemdisposal of spent regenerant acid.
These examples show that concentration ratios are determined by chemical analyses.
Since blowdown rate is never measured, but most plants meter both makeup and feed water as
well as steam, the chemical determination of concentration ratio is the most accurate means of
determining blowdown loss. It is apparent that careful sampling of both the feed water and
makeup is required to properly control blowdown and be able to determine blowdown rate.
The boiler water must be cool before it can be analyzed, and leakage in the cooler could affect
the composition of the boiler water. The boiler water sample is usually taken from the
blowdown collection pipe in the boiler drum, and if this is not properly designed, the blowdown
sample may be nonrepresentative. An example is the accumulation of steam bubbles within the
blowdown line which is then condensed through the sample cooler and dilutes the boiler water.
Although one of several boiler water constituents may determine the required
blowdown ratefor example, silicait is general practice to determine all of the critical
concentrations in the boiler on a regular basis. Each of these can then be related to the total
dissolved solids as measured by a conductivity instrument, and the actual control of blowdown
can then be related to conductivity for simplicity of control. The chloride test is another simple
test to use for controlling blowdown.
 The continuous blowdown withdrawal pipe should be located in the boiler drum in the
area where the risers return to release steam behind baffles (Figure 39.20). It should never be
located where it can remove feed water and fresh chemicals that have not reacted. The holes in
the collecting pipe should face upward so that the pipe cannot become steam-bound,
restricting the rate of blowdown withdrawal and interfering with testing.
The valve controlling boiler blowdown is usually calibrated so that the operator can
make a simple adjustment if tests indicate that a change in blowdown rate is required. Because
the boiler operates at constant pressure and the blowdown discharges to constant pressure,
this is a very reliable and reproducible method of control. The control valve can be designed for
automatic actuation by a conductivity recorder.
Most plants have installed systems to recover valuable heat from boiler drum
blowdown. In smaller plants, the blowdown may go directly through a heat exchanger, where
the heat of the blOwdqwn water is transferred to makeup ahead of the deaerating heater. In
larger plants, blowdown is directed to a flash tank equalized to a process steam line, for
example, operating at 15 lb/in2 gage (1 bar). In rare cases, a high-pressure boiler may be blown
down into a low-pressure boiler to obtain additional concentrations and steam, or it may be
blown down to an evaporator in a utility station. In some plants, more than one flash tank is
used, depending on the heat balance and the optimum recovery achievable in that plant.
 Many industrial plants produce an excess of low-pressure exhaust steam because
of a variety of processes that operate at temperatures below 250 to 30O0F (118 to 1490C) and
have a fluctuating demand for this exhaust steam (so-called because it is steam exhausted from
a bleed point, or extraction point, of a turbine or from a pressure reading station). The excess
low-pressure steam may be a regular operating situation or may be intermittent. Since the flash
steam from the blowdown flash tank usually goes to this low-pressure steam line which, in turn,
supplies steam to the deaerator, this type of blowdown system does not recover energy in
plants having excess low-pressure steam; the heat recovered at the heat exchanger simply
means that less steam is condensed in the deaerator and more exhaust steam is vented to the
atmosphere. However, some type of blowdown system may still be required to cool water
going to the sewer or to condense the exhaust steam as a high-purity source of makeup.
The amount of steam produced by blowdown to a flash tank can be calculated by
using the chart illustrated in Figure 39.21. Several typical blowdown arrangements are shown in
Figures 39.22 and 39.23. Where the heat is recovered through a heat exchanger, the exchanger
is normally designed to reduce the blowdown temperature to within 10 to 2O0F (6 to 110C) of
the cooling water, which is usually makeup water.

BOILER TYPES

A boiler is a vessel in which water is continuously vaporized into steam by the

application of heat. A primary objective in designing a boiler is to provide for the greatest
possible efficiency in absorption of heat. Other objectives are production of pure steam and
safe, reliable operation.
 Variations in the design of steam generators are almost without limit. This is partly
because each new development in improving the quality of boiler makeup has influenced the
boiler designer to make the steam generator more compact and efficient.
Design variations occur because of the numerous factors involved in selection and
operation of a steam generator: these include capacity, types of fuel available, burner design,
pressure and temperature conditions, feed water quality, load variations anticipated, and space
available for the installation.
Each of these factors affects the way steam bubbles form and the mechanism of
boiler water concentration at the metal surface. Figure 39.24 shows how scale initially forms as
a ring at the point of bubble formation and how this ring completely fills with scale if the
chemical environment is not properly controlled.
Boilers are of two general designs, firetube and watertube. In firetube boilers the
flame and hot gases are confined within tubes arranged in a bundle within a water drum. Water
circulates on the outside of these tubes (Figure 39.25). As the water changes to steam, it rises
to the top of the boiler drum and exits through a steam header. Firetube boilers are efficient
steam generators for steam requirements below 150,000 Ib/h (68,000 kg/h) and 150 lb/in2 (10
bars). Higher pressure and greater capacity require thicker plates and tube walls in this design,
so watertube boilers are more economical for conditions above these limits.
The watertube boiler differs from the firetube in that the flame and hot
combustion gases flow across the outside of the tubes and water is circulated within the tubes.
Combustion of the fuel occurs in a furnace and some of the water tubes usually form the
furnace walls.
In a simple watertube circuit (Figure 39.26) steam bubbles form on the heated side of the
tubes. The resulting steam-water mixture has a density below that of the cooler water on the
unheated side and rises, creating a circulation through the system. The steam bubbles rise until
they reach the steam drum where steam is released from the water into the vapor space.
Natural circulation boilerswhere circulation is induced by density differences
usually have many parallel circuits. Those sections of tubes in which heated water rises to the
steam drum are called risers and those through which the cooler water descends are
downcomers. Circulation usually occurs between several drums. The steam drum at the top
separates steam from water; the mud drum at the bottom separates suspended solids and
sludge from water. A schematic of such a boiler design showing risers, downcomers, and the
location of the steam, and mud drums is given in Figure 39.27. These basic items are found in all
natural circulation boilers regardless of the details of boiler design.
 In forced circulation boilers, a pump provides the water circulation (Figure 39.28).
This is a more positive control of the circulation pattern than that created simply by density
difference. This is important if the boiler may operate over a wide capacity range. If space
requirements limit the height of a boiler installation, the density differences available to create
natural circulation become small and forced circulation becomes advantageous. It is also
advantageous at high pressures as the difference in density between steam and water
diminishes. Once through boilers are special designs for utility operation.
Increased boiler efficiency can be obtained by bringing water into close contact
with the source of heat. Tubes are built into the boiler furnace to absorb the greatest amount
of heat possible. Usually the entire firebox, called the radiant section, is surrounded by water
wall tubes, through which water circulates (Figure 39.29). Connections between various tube
sections of the boiler are accomplished by headers, named for their location, such as water wall
headers or drum headers.
Steam quality is of paramount importance in most operations if high turbine
performance and long equipment life are to be achieved. Boiler water is separated from steam
by cyclone separators and steam scrubbers located in the steam drum (Figure 39.30). Steam
entering the steam drum is directed first toward the cyclone separator by baffles. The cyclones
force the steam into spiral motion on its path toward the exit at the top of the separator, and
centrifugal force separates the water from the steam. The purified steam exits at the top of the
separator, while the heavier water drains out the bottom and reenters the boiler drum.
After passing through the cyclone separators, final removal of entrained water
from the steam is accomplished by secondary steam scrubbers. They consist of baffles that
change the direction of the steam so that water impinging on them drains back to the steam
drum. The final steam should have less than 0.1 to 0.5% entrained water, depending on the
design and effectiveness of the separators. High-pressure boilers perform much better than this
because of their sophisticated designs required by low-steam sodium specifications.
 The presence of entrained moisture determines steam quality. A steam quality of
95% means the steam contains 5% moisture. This may be measured thermodynamically by a
device called a throttling calorimeter, but can be determined much more accurately by
detecting the solids in the entrained moisture. Since the bulk of the boiler solids are sodium
salts, an ion electrode specifically measuring sodium is used. This measures the sodium content
of a sample of condensed steam.
Figure 39.31 shows a plot of sodium content in steam leaving a 250 lb/in2 (17
bars) boiler, and how the sodium level, which reflects entrained boiler water, is influenced by
boiler operating conditions. A plot of steam demand shows the sudden surges which produced
gross carryover. Assuming the boiler water contains 500 mg/L Na, a sodium content of 50 jug/L
Na in the steam indicates the following moisture content of the steam:
 The average efficiency of a watertube boiler producing saturated steam is about
85%. Most of the heat loss is via hot stack gases and radiation. Improved efficiency can be
achieved by adding heat recovery devices.
ency can be achieved by adding heat recovery devices. Table 39.11 shows a typical
survey of energy losses in a simple industrial boiler plant. This is a 250 lb/in2 oil-fired boiler
delivering saturated steam for a process having no heat recovery devices. In this example, the
plant has already achieved its optimum water conditions with a blowdown of only 3.5%, and
increased efficiency with the existing design is achievable only by a change in firing conditions.
However, appreciable energy could be recovered if the plant were retrofitted with heat
recovery auxiliaries.
References:
Steam-boiler Construction: A Practical Handbook for Engineers, Boiler-makers & Steam Users
By Walter S. Hutton
Combustion Engineering
By Gary L. Borman, Kenneth W. Ragland