Introduction

Acoustics in Architecture

In todays architectural environment, good acoustical design isnt a luxury its

a necessity. Acoustics impacts everything from employee productivity in
office settings to performance quality in auditoriums to the market value of
apartments, condominiums and single-family homes.

While the science behind sound is well understood, using that science to
create desired acoustical performance within a specific building or room is
complex. Theres no single acoustical solution that can be universally
applied to building design. Each built environment offers its own unique set of
acoustical parameters. The acoustical design for a business conference room,
for instance, differs greatly from the design needed for a kindergarten
classroom.

Understanding these differences and knowing how to utilize building

materials, system design and technologies are key factors behind successful
acoustical design. This article will provide basic background on the science and measurement of sound, as well
as insights into some of the principles of wall partition and ceiling system acoustical design. 1

In order to understand the terminologies in acoustics, discussing what acoustic means and some other
information or terminologies is a must.

What is Acoustics?
Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of all
mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including topics such as vibration,
sound, ultrasound and infrasound. A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is
an acoustician while someone working in the field of acoustics technology may
be called an acoustical engineer. The application of acoustics is present in
almost all aspects of modern society with the most obvious being the audio and
noise control industries.2

Architectural Acoustics

Architectural acoustics (also known as room acoustics and building acoustics) is

the science and engineering of achieving a good sound within a building and is

1
http://www.lencore.com/Portals/5/Lencore_Docs/Article_UnderstandingAcoustics.pdf
2
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustics
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a branch of acoustical engineering.3 The first application of modern scientific methods to architectural
acoustics was carried out by Wallace Sabine in the Fogg Museum lecture room who then applied his new
found knowledge to the design of Symphony Hall, Boston.4

Architectural acoustics can be about achieving good speech intelligibility in a theatre, restaurant or railway
station, enhancing the quality of music in a concert hall or recording studio, or suppressing noise to make
offices and homes more productive and pleasant places to work and live in. 5 Architectural acoustic design is
usually done by acoustic consultants.6

Architectural Acoustics Profession

The acoustical consulting profession developed rapidly following the end of World War II, when architects and
government agencies engaged individuals and firms to research and study practical applications for various
fields related to transportation, housing, and electronics. The field has now matured but is still growing as the
population increases and people become more sensitive to and selective about sound quality. Architectural
acoustics embraces acoustical analysis, design, and control in new and existing buildings. Acoustical services
that architects may be involved with can be categorized into one or more of the following groups 7:

Product and materials testing, measurement, and reporting

Control of noise related to transportation systems
Control of noise from building systems
Environmental noise control within and near buildings
Vibration and seismic control
Electronic reinforcement and enhancement of sound (electroacoustics)

Understanding Architectural Acoustics (Brief)

The Science of Sound

Technically speaking, sound is defined as a vibration in an elastic medium. An elastic medium is any material
(air, water, physical object, etc.) that has the ability to return to its normal state after being deflected by an
outside force such as a sound vibration. The more elastic a substance, the better it is able to conduct sound
waves. Lead, for instance, is very inelastic and therefore a poor sound conductor. Steel, on the other hand, is
highly elastic and an excellent sound conductor.

3
Morfey, Christopher (2001). Dictionary of Acoustics. Academic Press. p. 32.
4
Sabine, Wallace Clement (1922). Collected papers on acoustics. Harvard University Press.
5
Templeton, Duncan (1993). Acoustics in the Built Environment: Advice for the Design Team. Architectural Press. ISBN 978-
0750605380.
6
National Careers Service. "Job profiles Acoustics consultant"
7
Excerpt from The Architects Handbook of Professional Practice, 13th edition, 2000
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Sound Movement

Architectural acoustics is the process of managing how both airborne and impact sound is transmitted and
controlled within a building design. While virtually every material within a room from furniture to floor
coverings to computer screens affects sound levels to one degree or another, wall partitions, ceiling systems
and floor/ceiling assemblies are the primary elements that designers use to control sound.

Sound moves through building spaces in a variety of ways. Most commonly, it is transmitted through air. But wall
partitions, ceilings and floor/ceiling assemblies can also transmit both airborne sound, such as human voices
and ringing telephones, and impact sound, such as footsteps on a floor. Sound waves actually travel through
many physical objects faster and with less loss of energy than they travel through air.

Isolating Sound

A primary goal of a wall partition, ceiling system and floor/ceiling assembly design is to minimize the flow of
airborne and impact sound through the use of special materials, methods of construction and designs.

The effectiveness of an assemblys ability to isolate airborne sound is quantified by Sound Transmission Class
(STC) ratings. STC is expressed as a single number and usually ranges from approximately 35 to 70. It quantifies
the transmission loss (TL) of an assembly. A wall partition or floor/ceiling assembly that reduces the overall
incoming sound levels from 80dBA to 20dBA would have an STC rating of approximately 60.

Wall Partitions and STC

Reducing sound transmission through wall partitions can be accomplished in a variety of ways, including
isolation (the separation of adjoining wall partition surfaces), mass, absorption, decoupling (inelasticity) and the
elimination of flanking paths (sound leakage). Increasing the mass of a partition forces sound waves to work
harder and expend more energy to pass through the medium. Specifically, doubling the mass of a partition
can reduce sound transmission by up to 5dB.

Ceiling Panels and NRC

Another way to control airborne sound within a room is through the use of materials that absorb sound by
converting sound waves into heat. The ability of a material to absorb sound is quantified by Noise Reduction
Coefficient (NRC) ratings. NRC represents the average amount of sound energy a material absorbs over
frequencies between 250 and 2,000 Hz.

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Common Acoustics Terminologies

Absorption - In acoustics, the changing of sound energy to heat. The sound wave impinges on a surface where
it changes to heat and thus is not reflected back.

Absorption coefficient - The fraction of sound energy that is absorbed at any surface. It has a value between 0
and 1 and varies with the frequency and angle of incidence of the sound. A perfect absorber has a
coefficient of 1.

Acoustics - The science of sound.

Acoustic treatment - Used in architectural acoustics to isolate noise or vibration and to correct acoustical faults
in spaces by addition of absorption devices, reflectors or other devices, sometimes including electronic
systems.

Acoustic Noise: any unwanted sound.

Acoustic Frequency: a measure of the pitch of a sound, expressed in Hertz (abbreviated Hz) or cycles per
second (cps).

Acoustic Pressure: rapid fluctuations in the atmospheric air pressure at a point in space, expressed in
microPascals (N/m2).

Air-borne Sound: Sound that travels from one space to another via the impact of air molecules on one another.
This includes sound transmission through walls, windows, doors, ceilings and floors, provided that the source of
the sound is in the air.

Ambient noise - Background or general noise level characteristic of a location, often used in comparison with a
specific noise source. The metric most often used in the United Kingdom to describe this is the sound pressure
level in dB(A) exceeded for 90% of the time, i.e L90, although L95, or even L99 are used as the measure of
background in some regions.

Anechoic chamber - A room designed to suppress internal sound reflections. Used for acoustical
measurements. Because there are so few reflections, any sound will come from one indirection only, it is used in
microphone directivity measurements.

Attenuate - To reduce the level of an acoustical signal.

A-weighting: A commonly used frequency weighting that closely approximates the frequency response of the
human ear. It should be noted that the human ear does not perceive sounds of equal sound pressure level as
being equally loud if the frequencies are different. The ear is less sensitive at low frequencies. For example, a
sound of 50 dB at 1000 Hz will sound twice as loud as a sound of 50 dB at 125 Hz, and four times as loud as a
sound of 50 dB at 75 Hz.

A-weighted Sound Pressure Level: the overall sound pressure level of a sound (including all frequencies) after it
has been frequency weighted with the A-weighting filter, abbreviated dBA.

A-weighted Sound Power Level: the overall sound power level of a sound after it has been frequency weighted
with the A-weighting filter, abbreviated LwA.

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Audio spectrum - The range of acoustical signal perceived by the human ear, conventionally 20Hz to 20kHz,
but many other ranges may be quoted. However, for Health and Safety work, 31,5Hz to 8kHz is usually quoted
as the spectrum or range of interest.

Bass - The lower range of audible frequencies. The term come from music.

Bel - A unit used as a descriptor of the magnitudes of powers. The number of bel expressing the relative
magnitudes of two powers is the logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio of the powers. It is named after
Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922), Scots-born scientist. Because the bel is so large the decibel (bel x 0,1) is
more commonly used.

Coincidence - This occurs when the wavelength of the incident sound wave projected onto a surface matches
the bending wavelength of that surface.

Class (of a sound level meter) - IEC 61672 divides sound level meters into 2 classes or performance categories,
where Class 1 sound level meter is often called 'precision'. They were called 'Types' in earlier standards, such as
IEC 60651 and 60804. Class 1 & 2 meters essentially have the same design goals, but a Class 2 sound level meter
has wider tolerances and is thus slightly less accurate, but for most applications, the difference is very small.

Critical frequency - Lowest frequency when coincidence occurs. Critical frequency is raised for thinner and less
stiff surfaces in the sound path.

Cycle - The sequence of changes which takes place during the period of a recurring variable quantity.

dB(A) (often just referred to as dBA, or decibels A weighted) The "metric" that a sound level meter gives when
on A-frequency-weighting network. It was originally set as simulating the human ear response at a loudness
level of 40 phons, but today, it is simply a standardised metric.

Damping - The process where by the amplitude of an oscillation of a system is diminished due to
thermodynamically or other irreversible processes. In acoustics, it is often done by absorbent material.

Decibel: a numerical scale, which is proportional to the common logarithm of the ratio of the quantity of
interest to some reference value, abbreviated dB. An increase or decrease of 10 dB represents an order of
magnitude (10X) increase or decrease in the value of the quantity of interest. An increase or decrease of 20 dB
represents two orders of magnitude (20X) increase or decrease in the value of the quantity of interest.

Diaphragm - Any surface that vibrates in response to sound or is vibrated to emit sound, especially in
microphones and loudspeakers. Some people also apply it to wall and floor surfaces vibrating in response to
sound or in transmitting sound.

Diffraction - Ability of a sound wave to pass round a screen or barrier. Lower frequency sounds can diffract
around obstacles more easily because of their longer wavelength. In effect, the edge of the barrier acts like a
new sound source

Diffusion - When reflecting surface or surfaces cause a dispersion of sound in a room, with no directionality of
sound waves.

Dose - The permitted amount of noise, in Sound Exposure, multiplied by time (Pa2hr) that a person is exposed to
and can be expressed in many ways. Dose limits are set by governments to limit the exposure of workers to
noise and there are many ways of describing this exposure. The reality is that all "dose" systems allow a
maximum Sound Exposure each day or week, but few use simple Sound Exposure as their metric. In Europe, the
new 'Exposure Limit Value' sets a legal limit of 87dB(A) over 8 hours. This is the maximum permissible noise level

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exposure to enter the operatives ear (including the use of hearnig protetion). "Per cent" dose is a number laid
down by politicians in a particular political region and is simply the ratio of the actual dose divided by the
maximum permitted, multiplied by 100. This means 100% dose is NOT the same in all countries. "% dose" is easy
to understand, but makes life difficult if the maximum exposure limit is changed, as all existing instruments have
to be re-scaled or scrapped. To get round this problem, "dosimeters" were renamed as "Personal Sound
Exposure Meters" (PSEM) and are described in IEC 61252.

Echo - Reflected sound heard as separate from the initial sound, by virtue of the longer reflected sound path.

Equal loudness contour - A contour representing a constant loudness for all audible frequencies.

Equivalent continuous sound level (common abbreviation Leq) - If noise levels are rapidly changing then the
average level can be a useful tool and it is usually called the "Equivalent Continuous Level". However, it is
properly known as time-average sound level (symbol LAT) but mainly only pedants use this, most people use the
more common LAeqT. Formally, it is defined as twenty times the logarithm to the base ten of the ratio of a root-
mean-square sound pressure during a stated time interval to the reference sound pressure, sound pressure
being obtained with a standard frequency weighting and is expressed in decibels (dB). Being an average level,
Leq can go up and down but the longer it is measured, the more stable it gets, as it measures all the noise from
the beginning of the measurement.

Flanking - Ability of acoustic energy to by-pass a sound barrier at the edges. Good air-borne sound insulation
through a floor construction, for example, may be flanked by sound transmission down the walls or ducts.

Focusing - Acoustic energy can be reflected from concave surfaces into a concentrated focus. The effect is
the same as focussing light.

Frequency - Frequency is the number of whole cycles of vibration per second. Note: Frequency may be
expressed in hertz (Hz), kilohertz (kHz) of megahertz (MHz). Originally, it was simply described as "cycles per
second" or cps.

Frequency Range: the range of acoustic frequencies of interest. In terms of audio recording studios, this is
usually limited to the range of 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz, which represents the full range of human hearing.

Hearing loss - The decrease of a person's hearing levels below the specified standard of normal hearing.

Hearing threshold level - A measured threshold of hearing, expressed in decibels relative to a specified
standard of normal hearing.

Hertz - The unit of frequency; symbol Hz. It is the same as cycles per second. Named after the German physicist
Heinrich Hertz.

Helmholtz resonator - A reactive, tuned, sound absorber. A bottle is such a resonator. Many good sound
calibrators incorporate a Helmholtz resonator, to increase their equivalent volume. Named after Hermann von
Helmholtz a German physicist.

Level - the ratio, expressed in decibels, of the magnitude of the quantity to be measured to the reference
magnitude.

Leq (Equivalent continuous sound level) - If noise levels are rapidly changing then the average level can be a
useful tool and it is usually called the "Equivalent Continuous Level". However, it is properly known as time-
average sound level (symbol LAT) but mainly only pedants use this, most people use the more commonLAeqT.
Formally, it is defined as twenty times the logarithm to the base ten of the ratio of a root-mean-square sound

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pressure during a stated time interval to the reference sound pressure, sound pressure being obtained with a
standard frequency weighting and is expressed in decibels (dB). Being an average level, Leqcan go up and
down but the longer it is measured, the more stable it gets, as it measures all the noise from the beginning of
the measurement.

Loudness - An observer's auditory impression of the strength of a sound. Note: It cannot be measured with a
sound level meter; a special Loudness meter is needed.

Loudness level - The loudness level of a sound is measured by the sound pressure level of a standard pure tone
of specified frequency that is assessed by normal observers as being equally loud.

Masking - The effect where the threshold of audibility of a sound is raised by the presence of another (masking)
sound or sounds. Masking is most effective when the masking sound is of lower frequency than the sound to be
masked. Masking using white noise is sometimes used as an aid to communication in offices.

Membrane absorber - A component assembly whereby a solid thin panel is spaced away from a solid backing
but by virtue of panel flexibility vibrates on the trapped layer of air. The frequency at which maximum
absorption occurs depends mainly on the spacing panel to backing and the superficial weight of the panel.

Mode - A room resonance. Axial modes are associated with pairs of parallel walls. Tangential modes involve
four room surfaces and oblique modes all six surfaces. Their effect is greatest at low frequencies and for small
rooms.

Natural frequency - The frequency of a free vibration.

Noise - Sound which is undesired by the recipient. Undesired electrical disturbances in a transmission channel or
device may also be termed 'noise', in which case the qualification 'electrical' should be included unless it is self-
evident.

Noise Floor - The self-generated noise of a sound level meter, usually due to the microphone or pre-amplifier.
This is therefore the level below which the meter cannot read.

Noise criteria - Standard spectrum curves by which a given measured noise may be described by a single NC
number.

Noise rating curves - An agreed set of curves relating octave-band sound pressure level to the centre
frequency of the octave bands, each of which is characterized by a 'noise rating' (NR), which is numerically
equal to the sound pressure level at the intersection with the ordinate at 1Hz. The 'noise rating' of a given noise
is found by plotting the octave-band spectrum on the same diagram and selecting the highest noise rating
curve to which the spectrum is tangent.

Octave - The interval between two frequencies having a ratio of 2:1. The term comes from music.

Peak Sound Level - (symbol Lpeak) It is expressed in decibels. This is not the same as Maximum Sound Level, but
they are often confused.

Peak Sound Level is the highest peak of the original pressure wave. This is commonly associated with C or Z
frequency weighting (originally Flat), but has itself no time weighting. If the noise being measured is impulsive
such as a hammer, then the Peak level may easily be 20dB higher than the maximum sound level, because of
the time weighting being applied to the sound level. It is formally defined as twenty times the logarithm to the
base ten of the ratio of a peak sound pressure to the reference sound pressure, peak sound pressure being
obtained with a standard frequency weighting

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Perceived noise level - The perceived noise level of a sound is measured by the sound pressure level of a
reference sound which is assessed by normal observers as being equally noisy. The reference sound consists of
a random noise between one-third and one octave wide centred on 1000Hz.

Permanent threshold shift - The component of threshold shift which shows no progressive reduction with the
passage of time when the apparent cause has been removed. In effect permanent deafness

phon - The unit of loudness level when the standard pure tone is produced by a sensibly plane sinusoidal
progressive sound wave coming from directly in front of the observer and having a frequency of 1000 Hz.

Pink noise - A noise signal whose spectrum level decreases at 3dB per octave rate. This gives the noise equal
energy per octave and is used to test many acoustic devices.

Pitch - Pitch is the frequency of a sound as perceived by human hearing. It is mainly musicians who use 'Pitch'.
Engineers use 'Frequency'.

Plenum - A cavity usually absorbent-lined through which conditioned air is routed to reduce noise.

Porous absorber - Sound absorbing finish where the sound energy falling on it is dissipated by viscous losses
within the pores of the material and converted to heat.

Pure tone - A pure tone is a sinusoidal sound of only one frequency, such as that generated by a tuning fork,
electronic signal generator or an acoustic calibrator.

Random noise - A noise signal, commonly used in measurements, which has constantly shifting amplitude,
phase and frequency and a uniform spectral distribution of energy. (White, pink and blue noise are all random
noises)

Reflection - Sound energy returned after impact on a surface, rather than being absorbed as heat energy
within the surface.

Refraction - The bending of sound waves travelling through layered media with different sound velocities. It is
especially important in considering its effect at the edges of barriers.

Resonance - The natural vibration of an area of material or an object at a particular frequency as a result of
excitation by a sound at that frequency. It is resonance that causes glasses to shatter with noise.

Reverberation - The effect whereby a sound builds up in a space or at a point in a space because of multiple
reflections from surrounding enclosing walls, floors and ceiling and continues when the exciting source is
removed.

Reverberation chamber - A room with hard surfaces used for measuring sound absorption coefficients. None of
the surfaces are parallel.

Reverberant field- A sound field resulting from the superposition of many waves due to repeated reflections at
the boundaries. This is the field produced in a reverberant chamber.

Reverberant sound - The sound in an enclosure excluding that which is received directly from the source
without reflection.

Reverberation time - The time required for the mean square sound pressure of a given frequency in an
enclosure, initially in a steady state, to decrease after the source is stopped, to one-millionth of its initial value

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(i.e. the time for 60dB decay). It is normally calculated by measuring a drop of 20dB and tripling the time (20dB
method), or by measuring a drop of 30dB and doubling this.

Richness - A property of sound in an auditorium where there are many repetitions and reflections within a short
period.

Room Background Noise: any and all noise in a room when the primary source of sound is off. This is also called
ambient noise.

Sound Pressure Level: a measure of the strength or intensity of a sound, expressed in decibels (abbreviated dB)
with a reference level of 20 microPascals (2 x 10-5 N/m2). The sound pressure level generated by a steady
source of sound will usually vary with both distance and direction from the source.

Sound Power Level: a measure of the total acoustic power output (in all directions) of a sound source,
expressed in decibels (abbreviated dB) with a reference level of 1 picowatt (10-12 watt). The sound power level
of a source is totally independent of the receiver distance and location.

Sabine - The unit of sound absorption. Named after Wallace Clement Sabine, an American physicist.

Sine wave - A single frequency periodic wave having simple harmonic motion and is described by frequency
and amplitude. Formally it is a mathematical curve that describes a smooth repetitive oscillation.

Sound - Physically it is a fluctuation in pressure, a particle displacement in an elastic medium like air around the
static pressure. This is called objective sound. Physiologically it is an auditory sensation produced in the ear and
brain by variations in the pressure of air. This is subjective sound.

Sound absorption - Damping of a sound wave on passing into a medium wholly or partially. The property
possessed by materials, objects or media of absorbing sound energy.

Sound absorption coefficient - Of a surface or material at a given frequency and under specified conditions :
the complement of the sound energy reflection coefficient under those conditions, i.e., it is equal to 1 minus the
sound energy reflection coefficient of the surface or material.

Sound calibrator - A sound source that normally gives a 1kHz tone at 94dB (1Pa) to correct any level error of
the sound level meter. It has an IEC standard IEC 60942. Because of the differing microphone characteristics, a
sound calibrator from manufacturer 'A' should NOT be used on a meter from manufacturer 'B' unless both
manufacturers can provide any needed correction. Example of a sound calibrator.

Sound Exposure - The time integral of the square of sound pressure over a stated time interval or event. The
units are pascal-squared seconds Pa2s and the symbol is EA.

Sound Exposure level - Ten times the logarithm to the base ten of the ratio of a sound exposure to the reference
sound exposure, reference sound exposure being the product of the square of the reference sound pressure
and the reference time interval of 1s. Sound exposure level is expressed in decibels (dB) and the symbol is LAE.
It is often referred to as SEL.

Sound insulation - Means taken to reduce the transmission of sound, usually by enclosure. Of a partition: the
property that opposes the transmission of sound from one side to the other.

Sound intensity - Sound intensity (I) is the sound power distributed over unit area. The unit is watts per square
meter.

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Sound level - The A-frequency-weighted value of the sound pressure level as determined by a sound level
meter.

Sound level meter - An instrument designed to measure a frequency & time-weighted value of the sound
pressure level. It consists of a microphone, amplifier and indicating instrument having a declared performance
in respect of directivity, frequency response, rectification characteristic, and ballistic response. It is fully
described and specified in IEC 61672 Part 1. There are three kinds of sound measuring instruments:

(1) a conventional sound level meter that measures exponential time weighted sound level;

(2) an integrating averaging sound level meter that measures time average sound level; and

(3) an integrating sound level meter that measures sound exposure level.

Sound power - Sound power (P) is the rate at which sound energy is produced at the sound source. The unit is
watt (W).

Sound power level (PWL) - The sound power level of a source, in decibels, is equal to 10 times the logarithm to
the base 10 of the ratio of the sound power of the source to the reference sound power. In cases of doubt, the
reference sound power should be explicitly stated. Note: In the absence of any statement to the contrary, the
reference sound power in air is taken to be 10-12W (= 1 pW).

Sound pressure - Sound pressure (p) is the average variation in atmospheric pressure caused by the sound. The
unit is pascal (Pa) Note: The term sound pressure may be qualified by the terms 'instantaneous', 'maximum',
'peak' or RMS, etc. The Root Mean Square (RMS) sound pressure is frequently understood by the unqualified
term sound pressure.

Sound pressure level (SPL) - The sound pressure level of a sound, in decibels, is equal to 20 times the logarithm to
the base 10 of the ratio of the RMS sound pressure to the reference sound pressure. In case of doubt, the
reference sound pressure should be stated. In the absence of any statement to the contrary, the reference
sound pressure in air is taken to be 2 x 10-5 N/m2, or 0,0002 Pa.

Sound propagation - The wave process whereby sound energy is transferred from one part of a medium to
another, or simply one location to another.

Sound reduction index - Difference in decibel between the amount of energy flowing towards the wall in the
source room and the total amount of energy entering the receiving room.

Sound spectrum - Sounds can be analysed to reveal their frequency content. This can be achieved by dividing
the frequencies into octave or third-octave bands or even smaller bands and the sound pressure levels
measured in those bands.

Sound transmission class - Single-figure rating used mainly in the USA for comparing partitions for general
building design purposes. Sound transmission losses in sixteen test bands from 125 to 4KHz are compared with a
reference contour.

Sound transmission coefficient - The ratio which the sound energy of a given frequency transmitted through
and beyond a surface or partition been to that incident upon it.

Sound wave - A disturbance whereby energy is transmitted in a medium by virtue of the inertial, elastic and
other dynamic properties of the medium. Usually the passage of a wave involves only temporary departure of
the state of the medium from its equilibrium state, just as the waves in the sea.

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Standing wave - A resonance condition in an enclosed space in which sound waves travelling in one direction
interact with those travelling in the opposite direction, resulting in a stable condition.

Temporary threshold shift, or TTS - The deviation, in decibel, of a measured hearing level in a person from one
previously established. After a period where the subject is not exposed to high sound levels TTS will disappear.

Velocity - Velocity is the distance moved per second in a fixed direction.

Wave - A regular variation of an electrical signal or acoustical pressure.

Wavelength - Wavelength is the distance between any two repeating points on a wave. It is related to the
frequency and velocity by v= f

Weighting - Adjustment of response in the frequency or time domains of a sound level meter to achieve a
desired measurement. The formal definitions of frequency and time weightings are:-

frequency weighting is the difference between the level of the signal indicated on the display device
and the corresponding level of a constant-amplitude steady-state sinusoidal input signal, specified as a
function of frequency

time weighting is the exponential function of time, with a specified time constant, that weights the square
of the instantaneous sound pressure. Two time weightings are defined in IEC 61672 S having a time constant of
1s and F having a ime constant of 0,125s. I time weighting (35m) is no longer in the body of the standard and its
use is not recommended

White noise - Random noise having uniform distribution of energy with frequency. It is used to test certain
devices as well as a masking noise

Noise Criteria: the highest level of background noise that is acceptable for a given space. This depends on
frequency and the intended use of the space. Recommended background noise criteria for various spaces
can be found in the 2003 ASHRAE Applications Handbook.

NRC Rating: a single number rating that describes a material's ability to absorb sound. The NRC rating considers
only the frequency range from 250 Hz to 2,000 Hz. Values typically range from 0.05 to 1.0, with higher values
representing better sound absorption.

Octave: the audible frequency range is often divided into bands of frequencies because sound transmission
through solid barriers can vary dramatically with the frequency of the sound. The broadest bandwidth
commonly used is an octave. An octave is any band where the highest included frequency is exactly two times
the lowest included frequency. For example, the frequency band that covers all frequencies between 707 Hz
and 1,414 Hz is an octave band. The band is identified by its center frequency, which is defined as the square
root of the product of the highest and lowest frequency. In the above case the center frequency is 1000 Hz.
The entire frequency range of human hearing can be covered in the following 10 standard octave bands: 31
Hz, 63 Hz, 125 Hz, 250 Hz, 500 Hz, 1000 Hz, 2000 Hz, 4000 Hz, 8000 Hz, and 16000 Hz.

One-Third Octave: A frequency band that has a width (in Hz) that is only 1/3 of the width of an octave. It takes
31 one-third octave bands to cover the entire frequency range of human hearing. One-third octaves are used
when octave band analysis does not provide adequate resolution in the frequency domain.

STC Rating: A single number rating describing a material's or an assembly's ability to prevent sound transmission
through the assembly or the material. The STC rating only considers sound transmission loss values at frequencies

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from 125 Hz to 4000 Hz, and the higher frequencies are given more weight than the lower frequencies. Higher
values represent better sound control, (i.e. less sound penetrating the material or assembly).

Structure-borne Sound: Sound that travels from the source to the receiving space primarily via solid materials.
This includes sounds generated by impacts to a structure (e.g. hammering, drilling, etc.) and sounds from
rotating mechanical equipment that are supported by the structure (e.g. pumps, motors, fans, etc.).

Subterranean Sound: Sound that travels from the source to the receiving space primarily through the ground.
This includes sounds generated by any device that causes ground vibration including, street traffic, pile driving,
core drilling, and earthquakes.

Transmission Loss: a value that is proportional to the common logarithm of the ratio of the incident to
transmitted acoustic power, expressed in dB. A sound wave will pass through a material with a transmission loss
of 0 dB without any loss in energy. A sound wave will pass through a material with a transmission loss of 10 dB
with a 90% reduction in energy. If a material has a transmission loss of 20 dB, the transmitted wave will have only
1% of the energy of the incident wave.

Successful Acoustical Design

When creating acoustical specifications, remember that every space presents a unique acoustical challenge.
An employment office, for example, may require all-confidential private offices, while a bank may warrant
varying levels of speech privacy. In office settings, conference rooms and executive offices usually require high
levels of acoustical control, but other areas may require only moderate measures. Consider the past
environment of the occupants. What are they accustomed to? Next, establish the privacy needs of the
occupants and finally, establish the privacy potential of each working space. Which areas, given the layout
preference, offer the best potential for confidential uses? And which will work better in a more open
environment?

Successful acoustical design is a detail-oriented process, both in terms of specification and construction.
Careful material and systems specifications are imperative, as are good construction practices. Acoustical
performance often depends not so much on what was done correctly, but what was done incorrectly. The key
to success is careful attention to detail during all phases of planning, design and construction.

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