Transport Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers

Volume 166 Issue TR2
Three-dimensional modelling of high speed
ballasted railway tracks
Banimahd, Woodward, Kennedy and Medero
Transport 166 April 2013 Issue TR2
Pages 113123 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/tran.9.00048
Paper 900048
Received 18/05/2009 Accepted 27/03/2012
Published online 09/11/2012
Keywords: maintenance & inspection/mathematical modelling/rail track
design
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Three-dimensional modelling
of high speed ballasted
railway tracks
j
1 Meysam Banimahd BSc, MSc, PhD j
3 Justin Kennedy, BEng, MSc
Senior Geotechnical Engineer, Technip UK (formerly of Heriot-Watt Geotechnical Engineer, Technip UK (formerly of Heriot-Watt
University) University)
j
2 Peter Woodward BEng, PhD j
4 Gabriela Medero, MEng, MSc, PhD
Professor of Railway Geotechnical Engineering, School of the Built Lecturer in Civil Engineering, School of the Built Environment,
Environment, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK

j
1 j
2 j
3 j
4

In the present paper, a three-dimensional dynamic railway finite-element model, is utilised to study the geotechnical
performance of high speed railway tracks. This model takes into account many of the railway track components such
as multi-layered ballast and subgrade, nonlinearity in resilient behaviour of the sub-soil, and tracktrain interaction.
Different features of the developed model are briefly presented. The effects of train speed, ballast and subgrade
stiffness, and nonlinearity of the soil behaviour are then investigated. The results of the numerical simulations
regarding the track response and required maintenance levels, in terms of the stress and vibration level experienced
by the ballast and subgrade are also discussed and compared to site measurements. Track design methods are also
reviewed, and a design method based on the dynamic finite-element analysis is proposed and discussed, which aims
at minimising railway track maintenance levels by protecting the subgrade from dynamic ground amplification for
speeds approaching the Rayleigh wave velocity, and also aims at minimising ballast maintenance by setting a
maximum ballast particle velocity.

Notation in rapid deterioration of the track structure, causing ground

Er resilient modulus of the soil failure in the worst cases. In 1997 the Swedish Rail Authority
k 13 material parameters (Banverket) started running X-2000 high speed trains between
patm atmospheric pressure Gotenberg and Malmo. At speeds over 184 km/h large ground
p mean stress vibrations were observed in and around the track. The train speed
q deviatoric stress was immediately reduced and track investigations revealed that
Vr Rayleigh wave velocity Rayleigh waves were developing in the track due to the soft soils
Vs shear wave velocity (Madshus and Kaynia, 1999, 2000). This is a clear example of
v volumetric strain Rayleigh wave development at conventional train speeds due to
q deviatoric strain soft subgrades. In addition to the ground wave development, the
Poissons ratio more frequent passage of trains will subject the track to
r density of the soil medium permanent settlements at a faster rate, which makes the rail lose
its track geometry and alignment. The irregularity generated on
1. Introduction the surface of the rail itself increases the dynamic train load and
High speed trains have brought a number of challenges to consequently accelerates the track deterioration even more.
traditional railway track engineering, specifically to track geo- Ground wave propagation with respect to the cut-off frequencies
technics. Experimental observations (see e.g. Madshus and has been discussed by Yang et al. (2003).
Kaynia, 2000) indicate that running high speed trains on railway
tracks constructed on soft soils induces high levels of vibration in Despite all of the geotechnical complexities associated with high
the track and the surrounding ground. These vibrations can result speed tracks, the design and maintenance of the track is often still

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 Transport
Volume 166 Issue TR2
strongly based on empirical relationships and simple models such
as beam-spring type models. Although these types of model give
some insight into the dynamic behaviour of railway tracks, they
have several drawbacks. They do not consider the continuity of
the soil medium and do not properly take into account the inertia
of the sleeper, ballast and ground layers. In addition, the three-
dimensional nature of wave propagation phenomena in the rail-
way track have not been taken into account in these types of
simple model.
A three-dimensional time domain finite-element model can
provide an appropriate tool for simulation of railway tracks in
different conditions. The finite-element method is applicable to
almost any arbitrary geometric condition, allowing the inclusion
of embedded structures and multi-layering of the ground. It is
also possible to include material nonlinearity which affects the
track response, and the wave radiation damping to infinity can be
taken into account through the implementation of a appropriate
boundary condition which absorbs the travelling wave energy
from the source. Accurate modelling of critical velocity and
ground wave propagation is therefore possible (Ekevid and
Wilberg, 2002).
Limited application of three-dimensional dynamic modelling of
railway track has been reported in the literature. Lei and Mao
(2001) studied the track structure using a three-dimensional
finite-element model. Using a beam on spring type model, the
loading spectrum on the sleepers was first derived. This load
spectrum was then inputted into the three-dimensional finite-
element model to study the dynamic response of the track. An
increase in vibration level in the ballast was observed with the
increase in train speed. Similar studies had also been conducted
by Luo et al. (1996), in which they extended the finite-element
boundaries to be far enough from the domain of interest instead
of employing any absorbing boundary. Hall (2000, 2003) con-
ducted a limited number of three-dimensional finite-element
simulations of ballasted railway tracks and simulated the displa-
cement of railway track at different track speeds. In this analysis,
the train was modelled as a sequence of loads and dashpots were
placed on the boundaries to avoid any fictitious wave reflections.
Ju and Lin (2004) developed a three-dimensional finite-element
model and studied railways on a homogeneous substructure. They
reported that the vibration level in the area surrounding the track
increases with the train speed. Furthermore, the change in
displacement pattern under the train, when the train speed
approaches the so-called critical track velocity, was simulated. Ju
(2007) also used a similar model to study vibration in a building
near a railway bridge.
In this paper, a three-dimensional time domain dynamic nonlinear
finite-element model, called Dart3D (Dynamic Analysis of Rail-
way Track 3D), is presented to simulate the dynamic response of
a typical railway track substructure for speeds approaching the
Rayleigh ground wave velocity. Using the dynamic model, the
effects on the performance of the railway track of train speed,
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Three-dimensional modelling of high
speed ballasted railway tracks
Banimahd, Woodward, Kennedy and Medero
nonlinearity and stiffness changes in sub-soils are simulated, and
the track maintenance level is related to the stress level in the
subgrade, and also the stress and vibration level in the ballast
layer. It is finally discussed how such a three-dimensional
dynamic model can be used to design railway track (and
substructure improvement) through a design methodology which,
in this paper, is aimed at protecting the subgrade from deteriora-
tion and minimising the ballast maintenance as the speed
increases.
2. Model configuration
A symmetrical finite-element representation of the railway track
is shown in Figure 1. The sleeper, ballast (and sub-ballast) and
ground are discretised using 20 noded brick elements. Three-
dimensional beam-column elements are employed to represent
the rail. The train loading is introduced either as a sequence of
constant magnitude loads or through train track models. The train
models have been coupled within the 3D track model (Dart3D) to
study the response of the train-track system in the vicinity of
structural/geometrical irregularity, for example stiffness transi-
tions near bridges and tunnels (see Banimahd, 2008; Banimahd
and Woodward et al., 2007). In this particular paper, track
geometry is assumed to be good and hence the effects of track
irregularities have not been considered (i.e. the train suspension
system). The train loading is therefore represented by a sequence
of constant magnitude moving loads as shown in Figure 1.
Loading frequencies are simulated by this constant magnitude
moving load traversing the sleepers across the finite-element
mesh via the rail.
In order to reduce stress waves from reflecting back into the
domain, a viscous boundary condition has been employed. The
dynamic equilibrium equation is solved in the time domain using
Train locomotive
26 m
77 m
26 m
Plane of symmetry
Viscous boundary
Figure 1. A schematic presentation of the railway track finite-
element model
 Transport
Volume 166 Issue TR2
a modified explicit time integration method as suggested by Zhai
(1996). Using this explicit method, no equations need to be
solved and integration may therefore be performed more effi-
ciently when compared to implicit methods. In addition, when
compared to the classical explicit method, the modified explicit
scheme could lead to higher accuracy, particularly if the time step
chosen is relatively large (Banimahd, 2008). The reader should
refer to Woodward et al. (2005), Banimahd and Woodward
(2007) and Banimahd (2008) for more details on the model and
its validation against theoretical solutions and site measurements.
In this paper the finite-element mesh is relatively coarse,
particularly in the directions perpendicular to the railway; this is
to reduce the running time. Although the current model config-
uration reflects the essential features of high speed tracks, it
should be noted that finer meshing and larger domains will be
required to study wave propagation under a very high speed
regime in more detail (particularly post critical responses). This
is the subject of future research, which will employ parallel
computing technology to study track response at very high speeds
in a more detailed and efficient way, in particular the track
vibration interaction with adjacent structures.
3. Nonlinearity in response of substructure
Under typical traffic loading, after a number of load cycles have
been applied, the plastic deformation accumulation rate decreases
and the sub-soil will start to show mostly resilient behaviour,
usually represented by the resilient modulus. The rotation of
principal stresses plays a role in this accumulation process.
Nonlinearities in the resilient behaviour of ballast and clayey
subgrade have been studied for many years and are mainly linked
to the stress-strain state in the soil medium. Uzan (1992) related
the resilient modulus of the soil to the mean and deviatoric stress
in the soil though a so-called universal model
  k2   k3
3p q
E r k 1 patm
1: patm patm
where patm is atmospheric pressure; p and q are mean and
deviatoric stresses respectively; k 1 , k 2 and k 3 are the material
parameters. Assigning a negative or positive value to k 3 can model
the softening or hardening effect of the shear stress on the resilient
modulus. In clayey subgrades, the resilient modulus depends
mainly on shear (deviatoric) stress; as shear stress increases, the
resilient modulus decreases. For granular soil such as ballast,
increases in resilient modulus with increases in mean stress are
reported. The effect of shear stress is more complicated. Despite
slight increases in resilient modulus with shear strain, at low
stress/strain levels, considerable decreases in the resilient modulus
have been observed as shear stress approaches the failure level.
Implementation of Equation 1 should be in an iterative manner to
find the stress and resilient modulus at each time step. However
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Three-dimensional modelling of high
speed ballasted railway tracks
Banimahd, Woodward, Kennedy and Medero
the displacement, and consequently the strain, are known at the
start of the time step in the explicit time integration, and
therefore if the constitutive relationship is expressed in terms of
the strain invariant, its implementation in the dynamic finite-
element code will be straightforward; the stiffness is updated
based on the strain level in the corresponding time step, and
hence no iteration is required (Banimahd, 2008). By considering
the relationships between stress and strain variables in elasticity,
the universal models can be written in terms of volumetric and
deviatoric strains as
k 
2: E r k 1 Patm v 2 qk 3
where
  k 2   k 3
1 3
k 1 k 1
1=(1 k 2  k 3 )
1  2v 2(1 v)
k2
k 2
1  k2  k3
k3
k 3
1  k2  k3
v and q are volumetric and deviatoric strains respectively. This
model was implemented in Dart3D for this work. For clayey
subgrade, the model was calibrated (k1 120.24, k2 0.0 and
k3 0.46) to the cyclic triaxial tests results on clay (Seed et
al., 1962). For the ballast, the model parameters are adjusted to
represent the reasonable change of ballast stiffness with induced
stress level (k1 1000, k2 0.40 and k3 0.65). The range of
ballast stiffness, presented by the calibrated model, compares well
with those considered by different researchers such as Shahu et
al. (1999) and Hall (2000).
4. Track response
The track responses have different characteristic features, for
example they depend on properties like the subgrade stiffness,
train speed, substratum depths and layering properties as well as
the train characteristics and track superstructure. At low speeds,
the displacement pattern is mainly symmetrical; every wheel has
its own footprint and the displacement field moves with the train
(Figure 2). When the train speed approaches and exceeds the
wave velocity in the ground, it is observed that the train moves
ahead of the displacement bowl, indicating that the train is
moving faster than the subgrade stress waves (e.g. Figure 3(a)).
This confirms that the wave velocity in the substructure plays a
very important role in the high speed track response. In this paper
(for ballasted tracks) high speed is defined by train speeds over
200 km/h and very high speed by train speeds over 300 km/h
(ultra high speed is for train speeds over 400 km/h). The current
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 Transport Three-dimensional modelling of high
Volume 166 Issue TR2 speed ballasted railway tracks
Banimahd, Woodward, Kennedy and Medero

Distance along track: m

Figure 4 shows the normalised speed (normalised to the Rayleigh
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
wave velocity of subgrade) versus the maximum normalised
displacement obtained numerically for a typical track on subgrade
05
Wheel with ES 25 MPa (ES: resilient modulus of subgrade). Experi-
Displacement: mm

mental (field) observations at different sites (Stilton Fen (UK),

15 Ledsgard (Sweden), Amesterdam-Utrecht (Netherlands)) available
in the literature (Madshus et al., 2004) have also been plotted in
Figure 4. A dramatic increase in the displacement is observed, as
25 the train speed approaches the subgrade Rayleigh wave velocity
(Vr ). The 3D numerical simulation reflects the experimental
35 trends, showing that the dynamic displacement may be more than
three times the maximum static displacement when the train
Figure 2. Typical simulated sleeper displacement under a train speed equals the subgrade Rayleigh wave velocity (Vr ).
locomotive at low to medium train speed (V 30 m/s)
The Rayleigh wave velocity itself is close to shear wave velocity
and can be estimated from Equation 3 below
0
5 5
0:87 1:12
Depth: m

10 10 Vr  Vs
3: 1
15 15
20 20
25 25 where and Vs are the Poissons ratio and the shear wave velocity
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance along track: m respectively. Vs is found from Equation 4
(a) s
0
E
Vs
5 5 4: 2r(1 )
Depth: m

10 10
15 15
20 20 where E and r are Youngs modulus and density of the soil
25 25 medium respectively.
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance along track: m
(b) An example of the calculation can be given for E 25 MPa and
a typical unit weight of 1800 kg/m3 with Poissons ratio of 0.5 for
Figure 3. At depth views of simulated track displacement the soft clay. The Rayleigh wave velocity for this clay is therefore
responses on soft soil at high speed (V 70 m/s) with different
ballast stiffness (a) Soft ballast, (b) Stiff ballast (contours in mm) 50
ES 25 MPa (simulation)
45
Max. dynamic disp./max. static disp.

Ledsgard (experiment)
Stilton Fen (experiment)
record for ballasted tracks is 574.8 km/h set by a French TGV 40
Amsterdam-Utrecht (experiment)
between Paris and Strasbourg on 3rd April 2007. 35
30
The effect of the stiffness of the ballast layer (BD 300 mm,
25
BD: ballast depth) is also studied in Figure 3. In comparison to a
railway on a stiff ballast (EB 300 MPa, EB: resilient modulus 20
of ballast) a railway system on soft ballast (EB 30 MPa,) 15
results in significantly more asymmetrical displacement patterns 10
with higher displacements at high speeds (V 70 m/s). This
05
indicates that a ductile, fatigue-resistant reinforcement technique
that fully stiffens the ballast will have a positive effect on the 0
0 02 04 06 08 10
track response at higher speeds (e.g. Woodward et al., 2007). Normalised train speed
This has been shown using in situ polyurethane reinforcement at
Newham Bog on the UK East Coast Main Line. Polyurethane Figure 4. Maximum simulated and experimental normalized
reinforcement of the ballast can significantly increase the ballast displacement versus normalized train speed
stiffness over poor ground.

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 Transport
Volume 166 Issue TR2
Vr 233 km/h. Many sites in the UK have lower values of Vr
than this, for example Newham Bog and Stilton Fen on the East
Coast Main Line. These sites have Rayleigh velocities generally
around 200 km/h (for example at Stilton Fen it was measured
around 185 km/h). The transmission of ground vibration from
these sites shows why three-dimensional analysis is necessary.
For example, in order to predict the induced vibration levels of
adjacent structures, it is necessary to be able to fully capture the
three-dimensional aspects of the Rayleigh wave development (or
any other ground vibration mechanism) and its propagation. It is
also important to be able to measure the ground natural frequency
and ballast particle velocity (under loading) and have a know-
ledge of the track layering and bedrock level.
As discussed previously, the presence of stiffer and/or deeper
upper layers (e.g. three-dimensional ballast reinforcement (Wood-
ward et al., 2007) on soft ground can reduce the displacement at
higher speeds and therefore may shift the track critical velocity
slightly higher. This can be attributed to higher bending stiffness
of the modelled ballast layer and hence a better distribution of
train loading, and a shift in the system natural frequency.
However due to the discrete tensionless nature of unreinforced
ballast, the bending stiffness of the ballast layer is low and the
ballast stiffness will be degraded excessively under a high speed
loading regime and the corresponding modification of the track
critical velocity cannot be achieved or sustained. Based on
observations, the Rayleigh wave velocity of the subgrade can
therefore be practically considered as the track critical velocity of
the railway track system for conventional unreinforced ballasted
track systems. It is also seen, from Figure 4, that the displace-
ment response is essentially static for train speeds lower than
50% of the Rayleigh wave velocity and dynamic effects start to
significantly accelerate when the train speed passes around 70%
of the Rayleigh wave velocity. Therefore 70% of the Rayleigh
wave velocity can be treated as the practical speed limit for
conventional unreinforced ballasted tracks.
Based on nonlinear simulations, the resilient modulus of the
subgrade, under the passage of a train locomotive, is depicted in
Figure 5 for two different train speeds. In both cases, the resilient
modulus degrades while the train is passing the point of interest
(where the response is presented) due to the induced shear
stresses. While degradation of subgrade stiffness is limited for
low speed cases, a significant decrease in subgrade stiffness is
observed as the train speed increases to 70 m/s (as shown in
Figure 5). The nonlinear simulation can therefore yield higher
displacements when compared to the linear simulation for these
higher speeds, implying that both the Rayleigh wave velocity and
track critical velocity are affected by nonlinearity of the subgrade
during train loading.
In embankments, nonlinearity in the track behaviour with train
speed and its effect on the near-surface Rayleigh wave velocity is
of particular importance (Madshus and Kaynia, 1999). This is
because the Rayleigh wave velocity is calculated from the soil
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Three-dimensional modelling of high
speed ballasted railway tracks
Banimahd, Woodward, Kennedy and Medero
44
Subgrade resillient modulus: MPa
40 V 30 m/s
36
32
28
V 70 m/s
24
20
0 02 04 06 08 10 12 14
Time: s
Figure 5. Resilient modulus change in subgrade under a sleeper
from nonlinear simulations (nonlinear subgrade)
stiffness which changes with the induced shear stress level
(Equations 1 and 2).
5. Track maintenance
The experience of operating high line speeds on conventional
ballasted track has clearly shown that a considerable increase in
the maintenance level is required to ensure good track geometry.
Dahlberg (2001) has presented a review of several empirical
models developed mainly on track loading levels and the number
of load cycles or train passages. The vibration level in the ballast
layer has also been considered as an important factor in the
ballast deterioration process. Substantial increases in ballast
acceleration and consequently in the attrition rate of ballast
particles have also been reported with increasing train speed (Pita
et al., 2004). Eisenmann and Rump (1997) suggested that the
ballast particle velocity should not exceed 1518 mm/s in order
to prevent excessive deterioration of the ballast and subsequently
the track geometry.
Figures 6(a) and 6(b) present the maximum vertical ballast
particle velocity and deviatoric (shear) stress in the subgrade
layer respectively, obtained from the numerical model for a
conventional track, plotted against the normalised train speed. A
continuous rise in the ballast particle velocity with train speed is
observed. According to Eisenmann and Rump (1997), criteria
based on ballast particle velocity can be considered as a guide to
track maintenance classification. As seen in Figure 6, as long as
the train speeds are lower than 50% of the Rayleigh wave
velocity, the track maintenance levels are seen to remain low
(ballast particle velocity is lower than 18 mm/s). The advantage
of using ballast particle velocity is that it is easily measured on
site.
As the train speed increases beyond the 50% Rayleigh wave
velocity value, more frequent levels of track maintenance will be
required to retain the track geometry in unreinforced ballasted
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 Transport Three-dimensional modelling of high
Volume 166 Issue TR2 speed ballasted railway tracks
Banimahd, Woodward, Kennedy and Medero

100 L.M. H.M. S.D. cause high levels of settlement in the subgrade, contributing to the
frequent loss of track geometry (severe deterioration region).
Max. particle velocity: mm/s

80 ES 25 MPa

In terms of track stabilisation, if the operational speed exceeds

60 70% of the Rayleigh wave velocity, which is mainly affected by
subgrade stiffness, ballast layer improvements (for conventional
40 ballast structures) would probably not be able to fully stop ground
vibration but could reduce it however to a level that was consid-
20 ered acceptable depending on the particular Railway Standard
being applied. To fully stop ground vibration and amplification,
0 subgrade treatment is probably necessary using, for example,
0 02 04 06 08 10 lime/cement columns. Potentially the most economical solution
Normalised train speed would be a combination of both subgrade and appropriate ballast
(a) treatments.

40
It is well understood that the closer the induced stress state is to
35 the static failure surface in the soil, the higher the permanent
ES 25 MPa deformation generated and subsequently the higher the level of
30
qmax (dyn.)/max (stat.)

track maintenance required. Since the strength of unreinforced

25 ballast depends significantly on the mean (confining) pressure
level, the stress ratio (i.e. the ratio of the deviatoric stress to the
20
mean stress) can be used to investigate the susceptibility of the
15 ballast layer to permanent settlement by comparing it to the peak
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion value (given as the stress ratio
10
for ballast). The ratio of induced stress ratio to the stress ratio at
05 plastic yielding, is hereby termed the plastic ratio.

0
0 02 04 06 08
Normalised train speed
(b)
Figure 6. (a) Maximum ballast vertical particle velocity versus
normalized train speed for a conventional ballasted track
(H.M.: High Maintenance; L.M.: Low Maintenance; S.D.: Severe
Deterioration). (b) Normalized maximum deviatoric stress applied
to subgrade versus normalized train speed for a conventional
ballasted track
tracks since the ballast particle velocity is now exceeding 18 mm/s.
When the train speed exceeds around 70% of the Rayleigh wave
velocity, high levels of vibration (Figure 6(a)) and displacement
(Figure 4) are observed, which would cause rapid deterioration of
the track geometry in unreinforced track. Therefore the track
maintenance for unreinforced ballasted tracks can be categorised
into three different classes with respect to train speed: low
maintenance (V , 0.50Vr ), high maintenance (0.50Vr , V ,
0.70Vr ), and severe deterioration (V . 0.70Vr ) regions. The general
trend between the deviatoric stress in the subgrade and normalised
train speed fits well with the concept of track maintenance (Figure
6(b)). The dynamic effect starts to appear when the train speed
exceeds 0.50Vr : A considerable rise in the stress occurs when the
train speed passes 70% of the Rayleigh wave velocity, which may
Figure 7 shows the plastic ratio distribution in the ballast layer
10
under a locomotive. As the plastic ratio approaches one, where
the stress state approaches the static failure surface, more plastic
deformation is generated and hence more frequent maintenance is
required. As can be clearly seen, the plastic ratio generally
increases with train speed. Moreover, the softer the ground is, the
higher the level of induced plasticity in the ballast. In other
words, an increase in train speed, along with traversing softer
ground, contributes significantly to the permanent settlement in
the ballast layer and thus the loss of track geometry. Therefore
not only does the issue of formation failure arise due to soft
ground, but also soft ground causes the track stiffness to reduce
which means that the cyclic ballast shear strains increase leading
to more track settlement. Principal stress rotation of the ballast
particles has a role in this settlement process. The track stiffness
is therefore a key parameter when assessing track maintenance
levels. It should be noted that simply increasing the unreinforced
ballast depth may not yield good results since track stiffness may
not significantly increase due to the tensionless nature of ballast.
In these instances what is required is the ability to form a
resilient geopavement over the soft ground (Woodward et al.,
2007).
The plastic ratio distribution from the nonlinear simulation is, to
a large degree, similar to the plastic ratio from the linear
simulation (ES 40 MPa) for train speeds of 30 m/s and 50 m/s.
However, at a train speed of 70 m/s, the plastic ratio obtained
from the nonlinear simulations (nonlinear subgrade), is generally

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 Transport Three-dimensional modelling of high
Volume 166 Issue TR2 speed ballasted railway tracks
Banimahd, Woodward, Kennedy and Medero

V 30 m/s V 50 m/s V 70 m/s

Nonlin.
BD

Lin. (ES 40 MPa)

Lin. (ES 15 MPa)
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10

Figure 7. Plastic ratio distribution in the ballast layer under the

locomotive wheels for simulations with linear and nonlinear
subgrades

higher, and the zones with high plastic ratio appear to extend 40
when compared with the linear simulation. According to this
35
observation, it is confirmed that the maintenance level in the
Deviatoric stress: kPa

ballast can be adversely affected by subgrade nonlinearity. 30

Nonlinearity of ballast behaviour will significantly affect track 25 Nonlinear ballast
response especially at higher speeds. As shown in Figure 8, a
20
subgrade under a nonlinear ballast layer could experience higher
deviatoric stresses and consequently higher permanent settle- 15
ments when compared to the subgrade under linear ballast. 10
Linear ballast
5 (EB 120 MPa)
6. Design implications
The design of railway tracks has been generally empirical/semi- 0
empirical and has followed different guidelines in different 0 02 04 06 08 10
Time: s
countries. The main objective of such design methods is to
protect the subgrade from deterioration (Burrow et al., 2007). Figure 8. Deviatoric stress on subgrade for simulations with linear
The primary modes of traffic-induced deterioration in the sub- and nonlinear ballast (V 70 m/s)
grade can be classified into five categories, namely subgrade

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 Transport
Volume 166 Issue TR2
surface attrition, mud pumping into the ballast, massive shear
failure, progressive shear failure and excessive plastic deforma-
tion. Among these, subgrade erosion and mud pumping may be
prevented by using appropriately thick granular sub-ballast layers
and ensuring track drainage. Massive shear failure also occurs at
stresses well above that causing progressive shear failure. Thus
the track foundation design methods have mainly been estab-
lished on preventing excessive plastic deformation and progres-
sive shear failure in the subgrade (Burrow et al., 2007). Based on
this concept, several design procedures have been proposed; see
Burrow et al. (2007) and Banimahd (2008) for a detailed review
and discussion of the design methods.
It is absolutely essential at critical velocity sites that any issues
with track drainage are rectified before the track becomes
operational (particularly if the track is saturated). The develop-
ment of excess pore water pressure under higher line speeds can
result in a rapid loss of track geometry. Even if sand blankets are
installed the rate of excess pore pressure developing in the sand
blanket and formation/subgrade under loading can exceed the
dissipation rate leading to cyclic softening. The sand blanket
itself can liquefy if it is fully saturated.
In conventional low-to-medium speed track, the ballast main-
tenance level is not typically high for passenger trains, as
discussed in the previous section. On this basis current track bed
design procedures concentrate mainly on reducing the stress level
and consequently plastic deformation in the subgrade. However,
according to the results presented in this paper, as the train speed
increases and approaches the Rayleigh wave velocity (in this
paper taken to be close to the track critical velocity), the level of
required maintenance increases considerably, and frequent main-
tenance of the ballast layer will be required. In this case, the
maintenance level of the ballast should be taken into account in
the design procedure or ballast reinforcement should be used
(Woodward et al., 2007). In addition, the speed effect has not
been properly addressed in most design procedures; some
empirical equations are used to estimate the dynamic load (e.g.
Li and Selig, 1998a, 1998b) or some basic recommendations on
the minimum dynamic stiffness of railway tracks based on the
expected train speed and track type (e.g. NR/SP/TRK/9039). By
employing a three-dimensional multi-layered track model, it is
possible to estimate the stress level and its change with train
speed to a reasonable degree of accuracy, taking into account the
nonlinearity of the subgrade and ballast response, and the train-
track interaction in the presence of any track irregularity such as
a transition zone (Banimahd, 2008; Banimahd and Woodward,
2007).
As far as the train speed effect is concerned, a quantitative
criterion is rarely given concerning whether the subgrade itself
needs to be treated or not. According to WJRC (2002a, 2002b), if
the bearing capacity of the subgrade is lower than 288 kPa,
ground improvement is required. Wave propagation effects
become particularly important when looking at urban environ-
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Three-dimensional modelling of high
speed ballasted railway tracks
Banimahd, Woodward, Kennedy and Medero
ments. A knowledge of the actual ground cut-off frequency is
then required; this is best obtained through site measurement.
NR/SP/TRK/9039 (Network Rail, 2005) indicates that for train
speeds higher than 60 km/h, the minimum dynamic sleeper
support stiffness (measured by a falling weight deflectometer)
needs to be 100 kN/mm per sleeper end. It also reveals that
while it may be possible to make a slight increase in critical
velocity by improving the track bed, a significant improvement
can be made only by deep ground treatment. It is another area
in which a dynamic model can be of great use. As discussed in
the previous section, 70% of Rayleigh wave velocity can be
treated as the speed limit for conventional unreinforced ballasted
tracks; if the speed needs to be increased further, then the
subgrade and/or ballast should be improved. Polyurethane rein-
forcement of the ballast has been applied at the Newham Bog
site on the UK East Coast Mainline to improve track dynamics
for Rayleigh wave problems. While ballast reinforcement will
not fully stop the ground vibration at the Rayleigh wave velocity,
it can be used to reduce its effect. Figure 9 proposes a procedure
for the design of railway tracks using three-dimensional dynamic
multi-layered models. The procedure fulfils two main objectives:
protecting the subgrade from deterioration and decreasing the
level of ballast maintenance at higher speeds (i.e. ground
vibration).
The first objective can be achieved by limiting the stress
(deviatoric) in the subgrade to a threshold which is proportional
to the failure stress, or limiting the plastic strain or deformation
as suggested by Li and Selig (1998a, 1998b).
In order to achieve the second objective, the stress level in the
ballast layer may be limited to a threshold to avoid generation of
excessive plasticity and consequently rapid loss of track geometry
at higher speeds which results in high levels of track mainte-
nance. The threshold can be based on the deviatoric stress in the
ballast or more rigorously based on a plasticity ratio as discussed
previously. An approach can also be based on limiting the
granular layer deformation or strain, both of which are calculated
using empirical relationships. A rigorous constitutive model,
incorporating the effects of mean stress, density and stress-strain
history, can also be used to estimate the plastic deformation in
the ballast (and subgrade) under repeated dynamic loading caused
by traffic (e.g. Banimahd, 2008; Woodward and Molenkamp,
1999; Woodward et al., 2005). The analysis method automatically
looks at reducing the wave propagation phenomenon (ground
wave transmission) by setting a limiting value on the ballast
particle velocity depending on the particular Railway Standard
used. The 3D dynamic finite-element approach is capable of
analysing the dynamic response of the ground and can therefore
simulate frequency transmission.
The design procedure presented in Figure 9 can be outlined
briefly as follows. The Rayleigh wave velocity is estimated for
the present configuration of the track in the first step. If
 Transport Three-dimensional modelling of high
Volume 166 Issue TR2 speed ballasted railway tracks
Banimahd, Woodward, Kennedy and Medero

Track configuration

Subgrade improvement
Ballast improvement

Dynamic model

Subgrade vibration
Ballast vibration

Subgrade stress
Ballast stress

No Yes

Train speed higher than

Acceptable when No 70% of critical velocity?
compared to allowable or
stresses and vibration? subgrade too weak?

Yes

Yes Yes
Design too conservative

No

End

Figure 9. Proposed design procedure of a new high speed

railway track based on the three-dimensional finite-element
model when polyurethane reinforcement of the ballast is not
used.

polyurethane reinforcement of the ballast is not used then the
subgrade will need to be improved if either the train speed is
higher than 70% of Rayleigh wave velocity and ground
vibration must be prevented, or if the subgrade is too weak.
The weakness of the subgrade can be judged on the basis of
stress or deformation level under the static train load (or low
speed). Once the subgrade stiffness is considered to be
sufficient, improvement of the ballast layer is designed to limit
the stress levels in the ballast and subgrade, and vibration level
(particle velocity) in the ballast, to acceptable levels. The
dynamic model can be used to perform parametric studies on
the depth of the subgrade improvement, ballast depth and
stiffness improvement (and damping) to offer an optimised
design in terms of lifelong performance and economic cost of
track construction. Improvement of the formation soil can be
achieved through techniques like lime/cement stabilisation and/
or by partial soil removal and replacement (as determined by
the finite-element model).

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 Transport
Volume 166 Issue TR2
7. Conclusion
In this paper, the response of conventional ballasted track was
studied employing a three-dimensional dynamic finite-element
model. The increase in track displacement, ballast vibration and
stress level in subgrade, and ballast with train speed were
simulated. It was seen that the track response was essentially
static when the train speed is lower than half of the track critical
speed for unreinforced ballast, being practically equal to Rayleigh
wave velocity in the subgrade for conventional unreinforced
ballast track. The track maintenance was also studied in terms of
vibration and stress level in the ballast and the stress level in the
subgrade; based on this the maintenance level was classified into
low maintenance, high maintenance and severe deterioration
zones to fully prevent ground vibration. In low to high main-
tenance zones, improvement of the ballast layer will be sufficient
whereas the subgrade may need to be improved for the severe
deterioration zone. Based on the outcome of the dynamic finite-
element analysis, a design method was finally proposed which
aims at minimising railway track maintenance levels by protect-
ing the subgrade from deterioration and decreasing the level of
ballast maintenance.
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