METU
by
Prof. Dr. Osman SEVAOLU
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 1
AC Power
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Voltage Waveform
V(t) 25,0
Consider the following AC circuit driven by a
source with voltage waveform; 20,0
10,0
Phasor representation of this voltage 5,0
waveform will then be
0,0
Vmax 0 o 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (msec)
-5,0
-10,0
-15,0
I(t)
+ -20,0
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 2
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Vmax - v 10,0
5,0
0,0 14 16 18 20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (msec)
I(t) -5,0
+ -10,0
-15,0
V(t) = Vmax cos ( wt - v )
-20,0
Load = R + j X
=Z
Z = R2 + X2 , = Tan-1 (X / R)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 3
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Current Waveform
Relation Between Voltage Load = R + j X
and Current Phasors +
I(t) = Imax cos ( wt - I )
=Z
Vmax v V(t)
= Imax -I
v / w = t1 Z Z = R2 + X2 , = Tan-1 (X / R)
t1 = 3 msec
V(t)
= v - I = Tan-1 ( X / R )
I/ w
25,0 I(t) 25,0
20,0 20,0
15,0 Imax 15,0
10,0 10,0
Vmax 5,0
5,0
0,0 0,0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-5,0 Time (msec) -5,0
Time (msec)
-10,0 -10,0
-15,0 -15,0
-20,0 -20,0
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 4
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Current Waveform
I/w
Phasor representation of this current will I(t) 25,0
then be
20,0
Imax -I Imax 15,0
10,0
Waveform representation of this current 5,0
will then be 0,0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
I(t) = Imax cos ( wt - I ) -5,0 Time (msec)
-10,0
I(t) = Imax cos ( wt - I ) -15,0
+ -20,0
V(t)
Load = R + j X
=Z Z = R2 + X2 , I = Tan-1 ( X / R )
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 5
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V(t) 5,0
I(t) Load
0,0 0 +
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-5,0 Time (msec)
V(t)
-10,0
-15,0
-20,0
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 6
AC Power
METU
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 7
AC Power
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100
500
200
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (msec)
-200
-400
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 9
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T 100 +
S (t)avg = (1 / T ) S(t) dt 0
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-100
- Time (msec)
S(t)avg = (1/T) P(t) dt -200
S(t) V(t) * I(t)
= (1/T) Vrms Irms [ cos ( 2wt + ) + cos ] dt -300
Constant (DC) Term
400
= (1/T) Vrms Irms cos ( 2wt + ) dt + (1/T) Vrms Irms cos dt
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (msec)
-200
zero Constant (DC) Term
-400
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 10
AC Power
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300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (msec)
-100
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 11
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Example
500
Question S(t)avg
400 S(t)
Example
500
Solution S(t)avg
400 S(t)
0
Irms = Imax / 2 = 28.8 / 2 = 20 Amp
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time (msec)
-100
I(t)
+ -200
V(t) = Vmax cos wt
= 2 Vrmscos wt Load V(t) Vmax*coswt
= 100 2 cos wt -300
I(t) Imax*cos(wt+theta)
= 144.4 cos wt Zload = 5 53.13o S(t) V(t) * I(t)
-400
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 13
AC Power
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Example
500
Solution 400 S(t)
S(t)avg
300
S(t)avg = Vrms Irms cos V(t) I(t)*
= 100 x 20 cos 53.13 = 1200 Watt 200
100
S(t) = V(t) I(t)
0
= 2 x100 cos wt x 2 x 20 cos (wt + 53.13o) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
= 4000 cos wt x cos (wt + 53.13o) -100 Time (msec)
-200
V(t) Vmax*coswt
I(t) -300
I(t) Imax*cos(wt+theta)
+ S(t) V(t) * I(t)
V(t) = Vmax cos wt -400
= 2 Vrmscos wt Please note that;
= 100 2 cos wt - sign here has been changed to + due to the
Load conjugate operation in the definition of power:
= 144.4 cos wt
Zload = 5 53.13o S = V x I*
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 14
AC Power
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Example
500
Solution S(t)avg
400 S(t)
-400
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 15
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Complex Power
500
S(t)avg
400 S(t)
cos ( a + b ) = cosa cos b - sin a sin b
300
V(t) I(t)*
and recombining the cosine terms; 200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-100
Time (msec)
-200
V(t) Vmax*coswt
P(t) = Active power Q(t) = Reactive power -300 I(t) Imax*cos(wt+theta)
S(t) V(t) * I(t)
-400
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 16
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Complex Power
S(t) = Vrms Irms [ cos ( 1 + cos2wt ) - sin2wt sin ] Period = 2.5 msec P(t)avg
500
= Vrms Irms cos ( 1 + cos2wt ) - Vrms Irms sin sin2wt
400
= Vrms Irms cos ( 1 + cos2wt ) - Qmax sin2wt S(t)
300
P(t)
100
Qmax = Vrms Irms sin
0
Q(t) = Reactive power 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Q(t) Time (msec)
-100
S(t) V(t) * I(t)
P(t) Vrms Irms*cos(Theta)*(1+cos(2*wt))
Q(t) -Vrms Irms*SIN(Theta)*SIN(2*wt)
-200
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 17
AC Power
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S(t) = Vrms Irms cos ( 1 + cos2wt ) - Vrms Irms sin sin2wt Period = 2.5 msec P(t)avg
350
250
P(t)
Reactive power Q(t) = - Qmax sin 2wt 200
150
Marmara, Unimar Power Plant 470 MW
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-50
Time (msec)
Q(t)
-100
-150
P(t) Vrms Irms*cos(Theta)*(1+cos(2*wt))
Q(t) -Vrms Irms*SIN(Theta)*SIN(2*wt)
-200
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 18
AC Power
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AC Power
Active and Reactive Power Waveforms
Period = 2.5 msec P(t)avg
Power (P, Q)
350
300
+
250
V(t) Load P(t)
200
150
100
50
Full period = 10 msec P(t) = Active power
period = 2.5 msec 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
period = 360o / 4 = 90o Q(t) =Reactive power -50
Time (msec)
-100 Q(t)
-150
P(t) Vrms Irms*cos(Theta)*(1+cos(2*wt))
Q(t) -Vrms Irms*SIN(Theta)*SIN(2*wt)
-200
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 19
AC Power
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AC Power
Active and Reactive Power Waveforms
Period = 2.5 msec P(t)avg
One revolution = 10 msec
350
Hence,
2.5 msec = 360o / 4 = 90o 300
250
Please note that Q leads P by 90o P(t)
200
150
Q 100
AC Power
Active Power Waveform
300
200
Active Power (P)
150
+ 100
V(t)
50
Load
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (msec)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 21
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AC Power
Reactive Power Waveform
Q(t), Reactive Power (VAR) Period = 2.5 msec
Q(t) = Vrms Irms sin x sin2wt 200
= Qmax sin 2wt
150
Q(t)
100
-150
Load
Q(t) -Vrms Irms*SIN(Theta)*SIN(2*wt)
-200
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 22
AC Power
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AC Power
Reactive Power Waveform
(During the first 5 mseconds)
Q(t), Reactive Power (VAR)
Reactive Power (Q) 200,0
150,0
Load
+ 100,0
V(t)
50,0
0,0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (msec)
-50,0
Q max
-100,0
-150,0
Period = 2.5 msec
-200,0
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 23
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AC Power
Reactive Power Waveform
(During the next 5 mseconds)
Q(t), Reactive Power (VAR)
150,0
Load
+ 100,0
V(t)
50,0
0,0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (msec)
-50,0
-150,0
-200,0
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 24
AC Power
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 25
AC Power
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Voltage and Current Angle = 90o, Time for revolution = 20/4 =5 msec
Angular speed: w = 2 f
= 2 x 3.14 x 50 = 314 rad/sec
Time for one revolution = 1/f = 1/ 50 = 0.020 sec
= 20 msec
Hence,
Angle for revolution = 360o / 4 = 90o
Time for revolution = 20 msec / 4 = 5 msec
+ Load
V(t)
50 I
0 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (msec)
-50
V
-100
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 27
AC Power
METU
P = S cos
V(t) + Load
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 28
AC Power
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 29
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Basic Conversions
Polar Rectangular
P = S cos , Q = S sin Representation
Representation
S = P2 + Q2 , = Tan-1 (Q / P)
S P+jQ
S
Please note that this angle Q
depends only on the
resistance R and reactance X ^
of the load Q =S sin S
= 53.13 o
= Tan-1 X/R
= Tan-1 Q / P P
P =S cos
X/R=Q/P
i.e. if X = 0 Q = 0
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 30
AC Power
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AC Power
Active Reactive Powers
(in the first 5 mseconds)
P Active Power
Wagon (kW)
Railway
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 31
AC Power
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AC Power
Active Reactive Powers
(in the next 5 mseconds)
Railway
P Active Power
Wagon (kW)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 32
AC Power
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AC Power
Active Reactive Powers
P Active Power
P(t) average > 0 (kW)
Reactive Power Total Power
(kVAR) (kVA)
100
120
140
160
180
200
20
40
60
80
Q S
0
Q Reactive Power
0
(kVAR)
2
Wagon P
Active Power
4
(kW)
Railway
200
6
150
8
100
10
50
Time (msec)
Wagon
12
0,0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
14
-50
-100
16
Time (msec)
-150
18
-200
20
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 33
AC Power
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Active-Reactive Powers
Polar Rectangular
Representation P = S cos , Q = S sin Representation
S = P2 + Q2 , = Tan-1 (Q / P)
S P+jQ
Q, Reactive Power
(kVAR)
S, Total Power
Reactive Power Total Power
(kVA)
(kVAR) (kVA)
Q S
P
Wagon
Active Power
(kW)
P, Active Power
Railway (kW)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 34
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Active-Reactive Powers
Total power |S | = Vrms Irms
Q, Reactive Power S, Total (Complex) Power
(kVAR) (kVA)
|S | = P2 + Q2
Q
S
S,
Total Power
Wagon P
(kVA)
Active Power
(kW)
Railway
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 35
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Power Meters
Analog Digital Power Analyzer
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 36
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Definition
new
P, Active Power P, Active Power
(kW) (kW)
Qcomp., Reactive Power
Compensation (kVAR)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 37
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Power Factor
Q, Reactive Power
Definition (kVAR) S, Total Power
(kVA)
Cosine of the angle between S and P is
called Power Factor of the load
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 38
AC Power
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 39
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Q, Reactive Power
If (kVAR) S, Total Power
(kVA)
Q / P > 1/3
Then, reactive power is charged
If
Q / P < 1/3 P, Active Power
Then, reactive power is free (kW)
0,95
P + j Qnew P + j Q
0,90
j Qcomp
0,85 P = 3000 kW
+
0,80 _ p.f. = 0.65
0,75 = 49.46o (lag)
0,70
Q = 3507 kVAR
0,65
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 Qcomp = Q = Q Qnew
Qcomp (MVAR)
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 41
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 43
AC Power
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Reduction of Equipment
Loading S
Q
Hence, the power rating S (kVA) of a
cable is merely determined by the
^
cross section, which must be Q = S sin S
minimized in order to reduce the
investment to be made for the cable = 53.13 o
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 44
AC Power
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 45
AC Power
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Example
Question
The factory shown on the RHS draws a load at 6300 V
nominal voltage
P + j Q = 120 kW + j 140 kVAR
Calculate the amount of reactive power needed in
order to raise the power factor of the factory to 0.95
(Lagging)
j Qcomp
+
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 46
AC Power
METU
Example
S Total Power
Answer Q =140 kVAR
(kVA)
Compensated Case
cos new = 0.95, Qnew = 39.43 (kVAR)
Snew, Total Power
new = cos -1 0.95 = 18.19o (kVA)
Tan new = Tan 18.19o = 0.3286
Tan new = Qnew / P Qnew = 0.3286 x P new
= 39.43 kVAR P = 120 kW
Qcomp = Q = Q Qnew = 140 39.43 = 100.57 kVAR
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 47
AC Power
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Example
Question
Now, for the previous problem, calculate
the reduction in line losses as a result of
this compensation by assuming that line
impedance is
R + j X = 10 + j 20 Ohms
j Qcomp
+
Example
S = V I* I = S / V = 1402 + 1202 / 6300
= 184.39 x 1000 / 6300 = 29.268 Amp
j Qcomp
P + j Q = 120 kW + j 140 kVAR
+
_
Qcomp = Q = Q Qnew
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 49
AC Power
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Example
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 50
AC Power
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Example
Question
Now, for the previous problem, Cross Current
determine the minimum cross section Section Capacity
of the line for the alternative cases, ( mm2 ) ( Amp )
when line is compansated and The cheaper alternative 1.0 12,0
uncompensated 1.5 16,0
2.5 21,0
Inew = 20.495 Amp 4.0 27,0
6.0 35,0
Iinitial = 29.268 Amp 10.0 48,0
16.0 65,0
TEDA 6300 V
Mains 3 km O/H line 25.0 88,0
R + jX = 10 + j20 Ohms P + j Qnew P+jQ 35.0 110,0
50.0 140,0
j Qcomp
+
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 51
AC Power
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Question
Question
Now, for the previous problem, calculate the shunt
capacitance in Farads needed for the amount of
compensation found above
Qcomp = Q = Q Qnew
_
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 52
AC Power
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 53
AC Power
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Installation of MV Capacitor
Banks
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 54
AC Power
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 55
AC Power
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Another Example
Early in the history or electricity, Thomas
Edison's General Electric company was
distributing DC electricity at 110 volts in the
United States.
Then Nikola Tesla the devised a system of
three-phase AC electricity at 240 volts. Three-
phase meant that three alternating currents
slightly out of phase were combined in order to
even out the great variations in voltage
occurring in AC electricity. He had calculated
that 60 cycles per second or 60Hz was the most
effective frequency. Tesla later compromised to
reduce the voltage to 110 volts for safety
reasons.
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 56
AC Power
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Another Example
Europe goes to 50 Hz:
With the backing of the Westinghouse Company,
Tesla's AC system became the standard in the
United States. Meanwhile, the German company
AEG started generating electricity and became a
virtual monopoly in Europe. They decided to use 50
Hz instead of 60 Hz to better fit their metric
standards, but they kept the voltage at 110 V.
Unfortunately,
50 Hz AC has greater losses and is not as efficient
as 60 HZ.
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 57
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Another Example
Due to the slower speed, 50Hz electrical generators are 20
% less effective than 60Hz generators. Electrical
transmission at 50 Hz is about 10-15 % less efficient. 50Hz
transformers require larger windings and 50 Hz electric
motors are less efficient than those meant to run at 60Hz.
They are more costly to make to handle the electrical
losses and the extra heat generated at the lower frequency.
Europe goes to 220 V
Europe stayed at 110 V AC until the 1950s, just after World
War II. They then switched over to 220 V for better
efficiency in electrical transmission. Great Britain not only
switched to 220 V, but they also changed from 60Hz to 50
Hz to follow the European lead. Since many people did not
yet have electrical appliances in Europe after the war, the
change-over was not that expensive for them.
U.S. stays at 110 V, 60Hz
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 58
AC Power
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Another Example
EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 59
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EE 209 Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Prof. Dr. O. SEVAOLU, Page 60