4.1. What are the assumptions for Darcys law to be valid? Discuss each of them.

Solution 4.1
The key assumptions are
1. Steady flow. The flow is constant over time.
2. Laminar. Only applied to non-turbulent flow with Reynolds number less than about 1.
3. Inviscid. The viscosity remains constant so temperature and pressure are constant.
4. Incompressible. No change in volume so temperature and pressure have to be constant.

1
4.2. It is customary to define a single void ratio for a soil. How does this definition affect the two-dimensional flow
of water through the soil?
Solution 4.2
The void ratio is calculated for a soil volume. However, the voids, especially the connected voids, are not the same
in all directions. Because of the way most soils are deposited, the hydraulic conductivity in the lateral direction is
usually greater than in the vertical direction.

2
4.3. The dry unit weights of a sand and a clay are the same. Would you expect them to have the same hydraulic
conductivity? Explain your answer.
Solution 4.3
No, because the hydraulic conductivity depends on soil type, the connecting voids, pore size, particle size,
homogeneity, layering and fissuring

3
4.4. Name two conditions that a flow net must satisfy (approximately) with respect to flow lines and equipotential
lines.
Solution 4.4
1. Flow lines and equipotential lines are perpendicular to each other.
2. Flow cannot occur across flow lines.

4
4.5. What is quick sand? What causes it?

Solution 4.5

A condition in which the soil becomes like a viscous fluid. It is caused by a certain value of hydraulic gradient that
brings the soil mass (essentially, coarse-grained soils) to static liquefaction.

5
4.6. Does the critical hydraulic gradient in a soil depend on the hydraulic conductivity? Justify your answer.

Solution 4.6
No. The critical hydraulic gradient is
G 1
icr s
1 e
which is independent of the hydraulic conductivity.

6
4.7. What parameter is the gradient of the hydrostatic pressure? Justify your answer.

Solution 4.7

The unit weight of water. The hydrostatic pressure, p, is

p w hp
where hp is the pressure head, so w is the slope of the pressure line.

7
4.8 A porewater pressure transducer at a depth of 10 feet registered a porewater pressure of 312 psf. If a
piezometer were to be installed at the same depth, how high would the water in a piezometer rise?
Solution 4.8

312
= = = 5
62.4

8
4.9 At an elevation of 5 ft, the porewater pressure measured is 312 psf. Determine the total head.
Solution 4.9
Elevation head = 5 ft
Porewater pressure head = 312/62.4 = 5 ft
Total head = elevation head + porewater pressure head = 5 + 5 = 10 ft

9
4.10 Two porewater pressure transducers, A and B, are located at the same elevation but 10 ft along a flow path.
The pressures at A are B are 124.8 psf and 110.4 psf, respectively. (a) Determine the hydraulic gradient, and (b)
Calculate the velocity if the hydraulic conductivity is 15 x 10-6 ft/s.
Solution 4.10

(124.8 110.4)/62.4
(a) = = = 0.023
10
(b) v = ki = 15 x 10 x 0.023 =0.345 x 10-6 ft/s
-6

10
4.11 The groundwater level in a soil layer 10 ft thick is located at 3 ft below the surface. (a) Plot the distribution of
hydrostatic pressure with depth. (b) If the groundwater were to rise to the surface, plot on the same graph as (a),
using a different line type, the distribution of hydrostatic pressure with depth. (c) Repeat (b), but the
groundwater is now 2 ft above the ground surface (flood condition). (d) Interpret and discuss these plots with
respect to the effects of fluctuating groundwater levels. Neglect capillary action.
Solution 4.11

Depth (ft) Pressure (psf)

(a) (b) ( c)
-2 0
0 0 0 124.8
3 0 187.2 312
10 436.8 624 748.8
-2
Pressure (psf)
0 200 400 600 800
0

2
Groundwater at 3 ft
Depth
below surface
4 Groundwater at
surface
6 Groundwater at 2 ft
above surface

10

(c) (d) Hydrostatic pressure increases linearly with rise in groundwater level. Above the groundwater level,
the hydrostatic pressure is zero.

11
4.12 In a constant-head permeability test, a sample of soil 6 in long and 2 in diameter discharged 0.6 in 3 of water in
10 minutes. The head difference in two piezometers, A and B, located at 0.2 in and 5.2 in respectively, from the
bottom of the sample is 1 in. The average temperature was 20 oC. (a) Determine the hydraulic conductivity of
the soil. (b) What type of soil type was tested?
Solution 4.12

Q = flow 0.6 in3

t = time 600 sec
D =Diameter 2 in
Area = 3.14 in2
h = head difference 1 in
l = length over which head loss occurred = 5.2 - 0.2 = 5 in
I = h/l 0.2
k = (Q/t)/(Ai) = 0.00159 in/s
= 0.000133 ft/s
(b)

Most likely a clean sand or a clean sand and gravel mixture (SW, SP)

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4.13 A constant-head test was conducted on a sample of soil 6 in long and 3.14 in2 in cross-sectional area. The
quantity of water collected was 0.3 in3 in 20 seconds under a head difference of 9.4 in. The average temperature
was 24oC. (a) Calculate the hydraulic conductivity. (b) If the porosity of the sand is 55%, calculate the average
velocity and the seepage velocity when the test was conducted.
Solution 4.13

(a)
Q = flow 0.3 in3
t = time 20 sec
Area = 3.14 in2
h = head difference 9.4 in
l = length over which head loss occurred 6 in
i = h/l 1.57
k = (Q/t)/(Ai) = 0.00304 in/s
RT 2.42 0.475 ln(T ) 2.42 0.475 ln(24) = 0.91
k20C kT C RT 0.00304 0.91 0.0028 in/s
= 0.00023 ft/s
(b)
n= 0.55
average velocity, v = ki = 0.00023x 1.57 0.00036 ft/s
seepage velocity, v/n = 0.00065 ft/s

13
4.14 A falling-head permeability test was carried out on a clay soil of diameter 4 in and length 6 in. In 1 hour the
head in the standpipe of diameter in dropped from 28.2 in to 20.8 in. Calculate the hydraulic conductivity of
this clay. Assume a temperature of 20oC.
Solution 4.14

t = time 3600 sec

Diameter = D 4 in
Area =A 12.568 in2
L= sample length 6 in
d = diameter of standpipe 0.25 in
a= area of standpipe 0.04909375 in2
h1= initial height 28.2 in
h2= final height 20.8

= 1.982E-06 in/s
= 1.65E-07 ft/s
No temperature correction is needed since the temperature at which the test was conducted was 20oC.

14
4.15 A sieve analysis of a sand shows D10 = 2 mm. Estimate the hydraulic conductivity using Hazens empirical
equation with C = 0.8 and C = 1.4. Which value will you use and why?
Solution 4.15

D10 = 2 mm
C= 0.8 1.4

= 3.2 5.6 cm/s

= 0.105 0.184 ft/s
It is best to investigate the effects of each value of the estimated permeability rather than using a single, absolute
value. In this way, you will get a range of possible effects. Hazens equation gives an approximate value of kz. It
does not consider, for example, the connectivity of the voids or the distribution of the voids.

15
4.16 A soil profile consists of three horizontal layers of sand, each 4 ft thick. The hydraulic conductivities of the
top, middle and bottom layers from constant head permeability tests are 8 x 10 -2 ft/s, 4 x 10-4 ft/s and 5 x 10-6
ft/s. Assuming that the ratios of the lateral to the vertical hydraulic conductivities of the top, middle and bottom
layers are 2, 3 and 4 respectively, calculate the equivalent hydraulic conductivity of the sand.
Solution 4.16

1 1
k x ( eq ) ( z1k x1 z2 k x 2 . . . + zn k xn ) 4 (16 102 0.12 102 0.002 10 2 ) 5.37 10 2 ft / s
Ho 12
Ho 12
k z ( eq ) 1.48 105 ft / s
z1 z z 4 4 4
2 . . . n
k z1 k z 2 k zn 8 102 .04 102 0.0005 102

keq kx ( eq ) kz (eq ) 5.37 102 0.00148 102 8.9 104 ft / s

16
4.17. The flownet at a site of a reservoir is shown in Figure P4.17. (a) How many flow channels are present? (b)
How many equipotential drops are present? (c) What is the total head loss? (d) Calculate the head loss between
each equipotential line (e) Calculate the average flow rate if keq 4 107 ft/s. (f) Calculate the porewater
pressures at A and B located on opposite sides of the sheet pile retaining wall. (g) What would happen to the
wall if the critical hydraulic gradient at the bottom of it (C) is exceeded?

FIGURE P4.17

Solution 4.17

(a) Number of flow channels = 5

(b) Number of equipotential drops = 11

(c) Total head loss = 13 ft

(d) = = .

(e) = = 4 107 1.18 5 = 23.6 107 ft3/s
(f) Total pressure head = 13 + 5 = 18 ft

Number of equipotential drops to A = 1.5

= ( . . ). = .

(g) Total pressure head = 13 + 5 = 18 ft

Number of equipotential drops to B = 9.5

= ( . . ). = . .

(g) Boiling will occur and the wall will fail.

17
4.18. A sketch of a flownet under a dam is shown in Figure P4.18. (a) Determine the flow rate under the dam, if
keq 2 108 ft/s. (b) Determine the porewater pressures at A and B.

FIGURE P4.18

Solution 4.18

(a) Number of flow channels = 3

Number of equipotential drops = 10

Total head loss = 4 1.5 = 2.5 ft

.
= = .

= = 2 108 0.25 3 = 1.5 108 ft3/s

(b)

Number of equipotential drops to A = 2

= ( . ). = .

Number of equipotential drops to B = 7

= ( . ). = . .

18
4.19 A trapezoidal excavation is required to construct a foundation, 10 ft x 10 ft, for an electric transformer station
as shown in Figure P4.19. Calculate the minimum flow rate of a pump to prevent a buildup of water in the
excavation.

Figure P4.19

Solution 4.19
H o 5 3 2 10 ft
1 1
k x ( eq ) ( z1k x1 z2 k x 2 . . . + zn k xn ) (5 2 104 3 0.4 104 2 0.00002 10 4 ) 1.12 10 4 ft/s
Ho 10
i=1
q for one face of the excavation Ak x ( eq ) i 10 10 1.12 104 1 1.12 102 ft 3 / s
q 4q for one face of the excavation 4.48 102 ft 3 / s

Minimum pump flow rate = 4.48 102 ft 3 / s

19