parameters like cruise velocity, cruise altitude, wing loading etc. And
selection has been made with extreme care after a several comparison
with a few same types of aircrafts. . The adequate details have been
precision. The details have been collected from various sources which
Even though there are huge bomber aircrafts exist there such as
HJT-16, B-2 Spirit, Xian H-6 and Sukhoi Su-24M which having a
Page | 1 ADL
SYMBOLS AND ABBBREVIATIONS
A : area
AR : aspect ratio
AW : wetted area
ac : aerodynamic centre
B :breadth, width
b :span
CR : CB root chord
CD : drag coefficient
CL : lift coefficient
Page | 2 ADL
CL : lift curve slope
D : Drag
E : Endurance
e : Oswald efficiency
JA, JT : Symbols
KA , KT : Symbols
L : Lift
L
: Lift-to-drag ratio at loiter
D loiter
L
: Lift-to-drag ratio at cruise
D cruise
R : Range
Re : Reynolds Number
S :Wing Area
Sa : Approach distance
Sf : Flare distance
Sg : Ground Roll
T : Thrust
P : Power
P
: Thrust-to-weight ratio at loiter
W
loiter
P
: Thrust-to-weight ratio at cruise
W
cruise
P
: Thrust-to-weight ratio at take-off
W
takeoff
Page | 4 ADL
Wcrew : Crew weight
: Density of air
: Dynamic viscosity
: Tapered ratio
: Turning angle
: Gliding angle
Page | 5 ADL
INTRODUCTION
Need for airplane design
An airplane is designed to meet the functional, operational and safety
requirements set by or acceptable to the ultimate user. The actual process of design is a
complex and long drawn out engineering task involving:
Over the year of this century, aircraft have evolved in many directions and
the design of any modern plane is a joint project for a large body of competent engineers and
technicians, headed by a chief designer. Different groups in the project specialize in the
design of different components of the airplane, such as the wing, fuselage etc.
Airplane design procedure is basically a method of trial and error for the design
of component units and their harmonization into a complete aircraft system. Thus each trial
aims at a closer approach to the final goal and is based on a more profound study of the
various problems involved. The three phases of aircraft design are
Conceptual design
Preliminary design
Detailed design
Page | 6 ADL
Phase of aircraft design
FIG: 1
FIG: 2
Page | 7 ADL
Conceptual design
Aircraft design can be broken into three major phases, as depicted in figure. Conceptual
design is the primary focus of this book. It is in conceptual design that the basic questions of
configuration arrangement, size and weight, and performance are answered.
The first question is can an affordable aircraft be built that meets the requirements? if not,
the customer may wish to relax the requirements.
Conceptual design is a very fluid process. New ideas and problems emerge as a design is investigated
in increasing detail. Each time the latest design is analyzed and sized, it must be redrawn to reflect the
new gross weight, fuel weight, wing size, and other changes. Early wind tunnel test often revel
problems requiring some changes to the configuration.
Preliminary design
Preliminary design can be said to begin when the major changes are over. The big
questions such as whether to use a canard or an aft tail have been resolved. The configuration
arrangement can be expected to remain about as shown on current drawing, although minor
revisions may occur. At some point late in preliminary design, even minor changes are
stopped when a decision is made to freeze the configuration.
During preliminary design the specialists in area such as structure landing gear and
control systems will design and analyze their portion of the aircraft. Testing is initiated in
areas such as aerodynamics, propulsion, structures, and control. A mockup may be
constructed at this point.
The ultimate objective during preliminary design is to ready the company for the detail
design stage, also called full-scale development. Thus, the end of preliminary design usually
involves a full scale development proposal. In todays environment, this can result in a
situation jokingly referred to as you-bet-your-company. The possible loss on an overrun
contrast o from lack of sales can exceed the net worth of the company! Preliminary design
must establish confidence that the airplane can be built in time and at the estimated cost.
Detailed design
Assuming a favorable decision for entering full scale development, the detail design phase
begins in which the actual pieces to be fabricated are designed. For example, during
conceptual and preliminary design the wing box will be designed and analyzed as a whole.
Page | 8 ADL
During detail design, that whole will be broken down in to individual ribs, spars and skins,
each of which must be separately designed and analyzed.
It is interesting to note that in the Soviet Union, the production design is done by a
completely different design bureau than the conceptual and preliminary design, resulting in
superior reducibility at some expense in performance and weight.
During detail design, the testing effort intensifies. Actual structure of the aircraft is
fabricated and tested. Control laws for the flight control system arte tested on an iron-bird
simulator, a detailed working model of the actuator and flight control surfaces. Flight
simulator are developed and flown by both company and customer test pilot.
Detail design ends with fabrication of the aircraft. Frequently the fabrication Begins on
part of the aircraft before the entire detail-design effort is completed. Hopefully, changes to
already- fabricated pieces can be avoided. The further along a design progresses, the more
people are involved. In fact, most of the engineers who go to work for a major aerospace
company will work in preliminary on detail design.
Page | 9 ADL
Classification by power plants:
Types of engines used for power plant:
Classification by configuration:
Airplanes are also classified in accordance with their shape and structural
layout, which in turn contribute to their aerodynamic, tactical and operational characteristics.
Classification by configuration is made according to:
Page | 10 ADL
Swept wing monoplane (HF-24, MIG-21, Lighting)
Delta monoplane with small aspect ratio (Avro-707, B-58 Hustler,
AvroVulcan)
Type of fuselage
THE DESIGN
Design is a process of usage of creativity with the knowledge of science
where we try to get the most of the best things available and to overcome the pitfalls the
previous design has. It is an iterative process to idealism toward with everyone is marching
still.
Page | 11 ADL
FIG: 3
Page | 12 ADL
COMPARATIVE DATA SHEET
In the designers perspective it is necessary to compare the existing
airplanes that are of same type as that of our desired airplane. Their important parameters,
positive aspects to be considered and pitfalls to be overcome are taken into consideration.
Page | 13 ADL
Manufacturer AIRBUS BOEING BOEING McDON.
Type A340- 747- 777- /DOUG.
Model 600 400 300 MD-12LR
Weight Ratios:
Ops empty/Max. T/O 0.485 0.457 0.521 0.436
Max. Payload/Max. 0.173 0.154 0.229
T/O
Max. Fuel/Max. T/O 0.423 0.407 0.452
Max. Landing/Max. 0.696 0.720 0.794 0.677
T/O
Fuel (litres):
Standard 195620 204350 171170
Optional 216850
Fuselage:
Length (m) 69.57 68.63 72.88 58.82
Height (m) 5.64 8.10 6.20 8.51
Width (m) 5.64 6.50 6.20 7.47
Finess Ratio 12.34 10.56 11.75 7.87
Wing:
Area (m) 437.30 525.00 427.80 543.00
Span (m) 61.20 62.30 60.90 64.92
MAC (m) 8.35 9.68 8.75 9.80
Aspect Ratio 8.56 7.39 8.67 7.76
Taper Ratio 0.220 0.275 0.149 0.215
Average (t/c) % 9.40
1/4 Chord Sweep () 31.10 37.50 31.60 35.00
High Lift Devices:
Trailing Edge Flaps S2 S3 S2/S1 S2
Type
Flap Span/Wing Span 0.625 0.639 2.758
2
Area (m ) 78.7
Leading Edge Flaps Slats kruger Slats slats
Type
Area (m) 48.1
Vertical Tail:
Area (m) 47.65 77.10 53.23 96.10
Height (m) 9.44 10.16 9.24 12.90
Aspect Ratio 1.87 1.34 1.60 1.73
Taper Ratio 0.350 0.330 0.290 0.345
1/4 Chord Sweep () 45.00 45.00 46.00 40.00
Tail Arm (m) 27.50 30.00 31.65 24.50
Page | 14 ADL
Sv/S 0.109 0.147 0.124 0.177
SvLv/Sb 0.049 0.071 0.065 0.067
Horizontal Tail:
Area (m) 93.00 136.60 101.26 113.80
Span (m) 21.50 22.08 21.35 22.55
Aspect Ratio 4.97 3.57 4.50 4.47
Taper Ratio 0.360 0.265 0.300 0.326
1/4 Chord Sweep () 30.00 32.00 35.00 35.00
Tail Arm (m) 28.60 32.50 32.95 24.67
Sh/S 0.213 0.260 0.237 0.210
ShLh/Sc 0.729 0.874 0.891 0.528
Undercarriage:
Track (m) 10.70 11.00 11.00 11.59
Wheelbase (m) 32.50 25.60 25.80 26.84
Turning radius (m) 42.80 41.00
No. of wheels 2;12 2;16 2;12 2;16
(nose;main)
Main Wheel diameter 1.250 1.118
(m)
Main Wheel width 0.457
(m)
Nacelle:
Length (m) 6.10 5.64 7.30 7.27
Max. width (m) 3.05 2.90 3.20 3.10
Spanwise location 0.296/0.625 0.376/0.667 0.326 0.370/0.630
Page | 15 ADL
V2 185
Vapp 144 153
Vno/Mmo 330/M0.86 365/M0.92 330/M0.87 /M0.85
Vne/Mme 365/M0.93 445/M0.97
CLmax (T/O) 1.92
CLmax (L/D @ MLM) 2.87 2.38
Max. cruise :
Speed (kt) 507
Altitude (ft) 35000
Fuel consumption 11370
(kg/h)
Long range cruise:
Speed (kt) 490
Altitude (ft) 35000
Fuel consumption 9950
(kg/h)
Page | 16 ADL
DESIGNING OF BOMBER AIRCRAFT
REQUIRMENTS:
Passengers: 4
Range: 10,000 km
Pay load: 1,00,000 Kg
Cruise Mach: 0.895
Altitude: 35000ft
CALCULATION OF CRUISE VELOSITY
Temperature at 35000ft: 216k
=0.895*297.88
=266.667
=267m/s
MISSION PROFILE
Page | 17 ADL
FIG: 4
0-1 Take-off
1-2 Climbing
2-3 Cruising
3-4 Descending
4-5 Loitering
5-6 Descending
6-7 Landing
SEGMENT DETAILS
MISSION
DESCRIPTI ALTITUD DISTANC TIME
SEGMEN ON E E
T
Page | 18 ADL
0-1 GROUN 0 2Km 5min
DRUN
13 Km
3-4 LOITER 5km 20min
TABLE: 2
ESTIMATION OF WEIGHT
The weight of the aircraft (W) is the key factor in almost aircraft performance problems. The
gross weight is distributed in the following manner:
Wstructureconsists of the wing, fuselage, under-carriage & the empennage and accounts for
about 32% of the gross weight, i.e., 0.32W.
Page | 19 ADL
Wfixed equipmentincludes the passenger seats, food, baggage racks, lavatories, air-
conditioning, avionics and other passenger amenities. This adds to the weight by about
0.05W.
Wpowerplantis the weight of the engine and its systems. The initial assumption of engine
weight is assumed to be 0.055W which may be modified later to suit thrust requirements.
Wfuel is the weight contribution of the fuel to the total weight. It depends on the range also
includes the Reserve fuel that is used in case of an emergency. It adds to the gross weight by
a factor of 0.3W.
Wcrew + Wpassengersaccounts for the remaining weight. i.e., 0.275W. Taking passenger &
baggage weight into consideration, a maximum of 1800N per passenger is permissible. As for
a crew member, 1000N would suffice.
W0 =Takeoff weight
CLIMB:
W2/W1-0.985
CRUISE:
W3/W2= ( )
=10000/1.5
=6666.667
Page | 20 ADL
Vcru = 266m/s
Vcr = 910.8km/hr.
Time=4.539 hr.
= 54km/hr.
=245.106km
= 10000+245.106
=10245.106km
(L/D)cru =0.895*(L/D)max
TO FIND (L/D)max
Page | 21 ADL
Chart: 1 Wetted area ratios
= 7.5/6
=1.25
(L/D)max = 17
For cruise,
(L/D) = 0.895*(L/D)max
=0.895*17
= 15.215
Page | 22 ADL
Chart 2
W3/W2= ( )
= 0.69
W3/W2 =0.69
Page | 23 ADL
LOITER:
W3/W4
E = (1/ct)*(L/D) max*ln(W3/W4)
E = 30 min = 0.5 hr.
0.5 = (1/0.4)*17*ln(W3/W4)
0.5 = 42.5*ln(W3/W4)
Ln (W3/W4) = 0.0117647
0.0117647 = 1.011834
W4/W3 = 1/1.011834
= 0.978
W4/W3 = 0.978
LAND:
W5/W4= 0.959
HALTING:
Wf/Wg = 1.06(1-Wh/Wg)
Wh/Wg =W5/W4*W4/W3*W3/W2*W2/W1*W1/W0
= 0.959*0.978*0.69*0.985*0.97
= 0.618
Wf/Wg = 1.06(1-0.618)
= 0.4046
Wf/Wg = 0.4046
Page | 24 ADL
WEIGHT RATIOS FOR DIFFERENT (L/D) cru VALUES
TABLE: 3
EMPTY WEIGHT
Page | 25 ADL
We = Empty weight of the aircraft.
We/Wg = AWgC
A=1.02
C= -0.06
TABLE: 4
Wg= Wpay + Wf + We
Page | 26 ADL
1=Wpay/Wg + Wf/Wg + We/Wg
We/Wg = 1.02(Wg)^(-0.06)
Wg = Wpay/ {1-Wf/Wg-[1.02(Wg)^(-0.06)]}
FOR
Wf/Wg = 0.3921
= 0.4601
= (73800+10100) / (1-0.3921-0.4601)
=569199.46 kg
Wg = 569199.46
= 0.4601
Wpay/Wg = 83900/569199.46
Page | 27 ADL
= 0.1474
0.1474+0.461+0.3921 = 1.0005
1.0005 ~ 1
Page | 28 ADL
Wf/Wg (L/D)maxvs Wf/Wg Wf/Wg
0.6
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0 (L/D)max
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
GRAPH: 1
(L/D)max Wf/Wg
11 0.5277
12 0.4985
13 0.4727
14 0.4497
15 0.4289
16 0.41025
17 0.39205
17.43 0.38518
TABLE: 5
Page | 29 ADL
(L/D)maxVsWg
572500
570000
567500
565000
562500
Wg
560000
557500 Wg
555000
552500
550000
547500
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
(L/D)max
GRAPH: 2
(L/D)max Wg
11 550000
12 551000
13 555000
14 557000
15 560000
16 565000
17 569000
17.43 571000
TABLE: 6
Page | 30 ADL
SELECTION OF WING LOADING BASED
ON LANDING SPEED/LANDING DISTANCE
Approach Velocity:
Va ~ 1.3(Vs) land
VTD ~ 1.15(Vs) land
Sland (feet) = 0.3{ Va (in knots)} 2
Vs = {2Wland/(S*CLmax*0*)} 0.5
= (2Pland/CLmax*0) 0.5
CLmax =3
Approach Velocity.
Va = (Sland /.3).5=149.7299knots.
1 Knot=1.853km/hr.
=0.5148m/s
Va=77.08m/s
Stalling Velocity.
Vstall=Va/1.3
=59.2923m/s
Pland=(3*1.225*1*59.232)/2.
=6446.30N/m3.
Page | 31 ADL
Pland = 6446.30
W/S = Pland*(WTO/Wland).
Pland =(3*1.225*1*59.82)/2
=6570.97N/m2
S =Wg/Pland
= (569000*9.81)/6570.97
=849.476m2.
S = 849.476m2
Page | 32 ADL
W/S vs Vs
110
100
90
80
70
60
Vs
50
Vs
40
30
20
10
0
0 2500 5000 7500 10000 12500 15000 17500 20000
W/S
GRAPH: 3
W/S Vs
4593.75 50
6615 60
9003.75 70
11760 80
14883.75 90
18375 100
TABLE : 7
Page | 33 ADL
SELECTION OF WING LOADING BASED
ON MAXIMUM SPEED
For a High Subsonic Aircraft
Mmax = Mcric+0.04
=0.9+0.04
=0.94
t`=Tvmax/W
t`=(.5**Vmax2*s*Cd)/W
0.5Vmax2=qmax; W/S=P
t`=(Cdqmax)/P
CD0=Cfe*Swet/S
Log10Swet =C+d*log10WTO
WTO in lbs.& Swet in ft.2
Cfe= 0.0030
C=0.0199
d=0.778
=3.0625
Page | 34 ADL
Swet= 56780.57ft2
=5223.813m2
Cd0 = Cfe*(Swet/S)
=0.003*(6)
=0.018~0.015
Determination Of Drag:-
Drag is the resolved component of the complete aerodynamic force which is parallel to the
flight direction (or relative oncoming airflow). It must always act to oppose the direction of
motion.
It is the undesirable component of the aerodynamic force while lift is the desirable
component.
There are only two sources of aerodynamic force on a body moving through a fluid- the
pressure distribution and the shear stress distribution acting over the body surface.
Pressure Drag: due to a net imbalance of surface pressure acting in the drag direction.
Friction Drag: due to the net effect of the shear stress acting in the drag direction.
Amount of drag generated depends on the Planform area (S), air density (), flight speed (V),
drag coefficient (CD) CD is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency and mainly depends upon
the Section shape, Planform geometry, angle of attack (), compressibility effects (Mach
number), and viscous effects (Reynolds number).
Cd=Cd0+KCl2.
Cd0 Parasite Drag Coefficient.
D0= D0wing+D0Fus+DoNac+D0HT+D0VT+D0ETC
K = 1/ (*A*)
e = 0.85
A = 7.5
Page | 35 ADL
K = 1/(*0.85*7.5)
K = 0.04993
Cd= Cd0+KCL2
= 0.4671
Configuration Cd0
Clean - 0.8 to 0.85
Take off flaps 0.01 to 0.02 0.75 to 0.8
Landing flaps 0.05 to 0.075 0.7 to 0.75
Landing gear 0.015 to 0.025 No effect
TABLE : 8
1. Clean configuration
CD clean = KCL2
= 0.04993*32
= 0.4494
CD = CD0 + KCL2
e (1) = 0.8
Cd = 0.5225
CD = CD0 + KCL2
e (2) = 0.8
Page | 36 ADL
CD0 (2) = 0.07
Cd = 0.5475
e(3) = 0.75
Cd = 0.6043
e(4) = 0.75
Cd = 0.6093
CD = F1 + F2 (w/s) + F3 (w/s) 2
( Sstabilizer/S) = 0.26
F1 = 0.003*3*(1+0.26)
F1 = 0.02275
F2 = (CD-F1)/ (w/s)
Page | 37 ADL
= 0.4671-0.02275/6446.30
F2 =6.893*10-5
F3 = (*7.5*0.85*(0.5*0.266*278.182)2)-1
F3 = 4.9337*10-10
qmax*(-F1/P2+0+F3) = 0
Pvmax =
Pvmax= 6791.0220
Page | 38 ADL
W/S vs Vmax
400
350
300
250
Vmax
200
Vmax
150
100
50
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
W/S
GRAPH : 4
W/S Vmax
877.5039 100
1974.38 150
3510.016 200
5484.399 250
7897.535 300
10749.42 350
TABLE : 9
Page | 39 ADL
SELECTION OF WING LOADING BASED
ON ABSOLUTE CELING
t `Hmax =Dmin/W
= 1/ (W/D) max
CL/ (L/D) max = (CD0/k) 0.5
(CD)(L/D) max = 2CDo
t `Hmax = 1/(L/D)max
q Hmax = 0.5*Hmax*Vmax2
t `H = Treq/W
= qHmax*( )
P= * +
P =
P = 6179.579
For different values, we get the results as shown in the below table.
Page | 40 ADL
W/S vs VHmax
400
350
300
250
VHmax
200
VHmax
150
100
50
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
W/S
GRAPH : 5
W/S VHmax
789.55 100
1796.738 150
3194.22 200
4990.938 250
6179.508 278.18
7186.95 300
9782.238 350
TABLE: 10
Page | 41 ADL
SELECTION OF WING LOADING BASED
ON RATE OF CLIMB
Vc = V (T D)/W
Vc = V
CD = F1+F2P+F3P2
Dt`R/C/dP = 0
PR/C = (F1/F3)0.5
= q (F1A) 0.5
(t `R/C)r = (Vc/V) + q[ ]
W/S =
V(R/C) max = [ ]
( )
= 11.58W/S
Page | 42 ADL
W/S vs V(R/C)max
350
300
250
200
V(R/C)max
150 V(R/C)max
100
50
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
W/S
GRAPH: 6
W/S V(R/C)max
5397.236 250
5837.651 260
6295.337 270
6770.294 280
7262.522 290
7772.02 300
8298.79 310
8842.83 320
TABLE: 11
Page | 43 ADL
COMPARATIVE GRAPH
W/S vs V(R/C)max
400
350
300
250
V(R/C)max
Vs
200
Vmax
VHmax
150
V(R/C)max
100
50
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000
W/S
GRAPH: 7
Page | 44 ADL
COMPARATIVE TABLE
W/S Vs W/S Vmax W/S VHmax W/S V(R/C)max
TABLE: 12&13
3. Height 24.45 m
4. Length 72.73 m
8. Range 10300 km
Page | 45 ADL
FUSELAGE DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
The fuselage (from French fusel "spindle-shaped") is an aircraft's main body
section that holds crew and passengers or cargo. In single-engine aircraft it will
usually contain an engine, although in some amphibious aircraft the single
engine is mounted on a pylon attached to the fuselage which in turn is used as a
floating hull. The fuselage also serves to position control and stabilization
surfaces in specific relationships to lifting surfaces, required for aircraft stability
and maneuverability.
Functions of fuselage:
Provision of volume for payload.
Provide overall structural integrity.
Possible mounting of landing gear and power plant.
Once fundamental configuration is established, fuselage layout proceeds almost
independently of other design aspects.
PRIMARY CONSIDERATIONS
Most of the fuselage volume is occupied by the payload, except for:
Payload includes:
Passengers and associated baggage.
Page | 46 ADL
Freight.
Internal weapons (guns, free-fall bombs, bay-housed guided weapons).
Crew (significant for anti-sub and early-warning aircraft).
Avionics equipment.
Flight test instrumentation (experimental aircraft).
Fuel (often interchangeable with other payload items on a mass basis).
Pressurisation:
If required, has a major impact upon overall shape.
Overall effect depends on level of pressurisation required.
Page | 47 ADL
Fuselage Aerodynamics:
Aim is to achieve reasonably streamlined form together with
minimum surface area to meet required internal volume.
Both drag and mass heavily influenced by surface area.
Require absence of steps and minimum number of excrescences.
Fundamental differences between subsonic and supersonic
applications.
Concerned with: cross-section shape, nose shape & length, tail
shape/length, overall length.
Nose Shape
Should not be unduly bluff.
Local changes in cross-section needed to accommodate windscreen
panels.
Windscreen angle involves compromise between aerodynamics, bird-
strike, reflection and visibility requirements.
Windscreen panel sizes should be less than 0.5 m2 each.
Starting point for front fuselage layout is often satisfactory position for
pilots eye.
Reasonable nose length is about:
o 1.1 to 2.0 x fuselage diameter (subsonic).
o 4 x fuselage diameter (supersonic).
Tail Shape
Smooth change in section required, from maximum section area to ideally
zero.
Minimisation of base area especially important for transonic/supersonic
aircraft.
Page | 48 ADL
Important parameter for determining tail upsweep angle is ground
clearance required for take-off and landing rotation.
Typically 12o to 15o.
FIG: 5
From the above given locations of wings, the one chosen is the Low wing
configuration which gives improved landing gear stowage & more usable flap
area.
Empennage Layout
Vertical Surface
Single, central fin most common arrangement, positioned as far aft as
possible.
Page | 49 ADL
Horizontal Surface
Efficiency affected by wing downwash, thus vertical location relative to
wing important.
Usually mounted higher than wing except on high wing design or with
small moment arm low tail can give ground clearance problems.
FIG: 6
FIG: 7
Page | 50 ADL
Fuselage sizing:
Length of the fuselage(lf)=aw0c
a 0.1 to1.8,c 0.5 to 0.25
Assuming a =0.2335
c =0.25
=0.2335*1254430.189*0.25
= 72753.56
=72.75 m
2D VIEW OF FUSELAGE
FIG: 9
Page | 51 ADL
SELECTION OF AIRFOIL
The aircraft which is to be designed having a High Subsonic cruise speed say
Mach 0.85 which belongs to transonic speed, so that to avoid profile drag
SUPERCRITICAL AIRFOILS are chosen.
From the aerofoil data book various airfoils of required t/care taken and are
tabulated for maximum lift coefficient andminimum drag.
TABLE: 14
Page | 52 ADL
TESTING OF AIRFOIL
Airfoils For Wing:
Airfoil at wing root is a NASA SC(2)0610 and at wing tip the airfoil is NASA SC(2)0606.
FIG: 10 The airfoil NASA SC(2)0610 created using JAVAFOIL software by entering the co-ordinates.
FIG: 11 The airfoil NASA SC(2)0610 imported to XFLR5 An Airfoil Testing software.
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FIG: 12 Plots of Cl vs CD and Cl vs from XFLR5.(NASA SC(2)0610)
FIG: 13 The airfoil NASA SC(2)0606 created using JAVAFOIL software by entering the co-ordinates.
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FIG: 14 The airfoil NASA SC(2)0606 imported to XFLR5 An Airfoil Testing software.
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COMBINED PLOT FOR ROOT AND TIP
AIRFOILS.
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Airfoil used in Horizontal Tail Plane is NASA SC(2)0710.
FIG: 17The airfoil NASA SC(2)0710 created using JAVAFOIL software by entering the co-ordinates.
FIG: 18 The airfoil NASA SC(2)0710 imported to XFLR5 An Airfoil Testing software.
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FIG: 19Plots of Cl vs CD and Cl vs from XFLR5.(NASA SC(2)0710)
FIG: 20The airfoil NASA SC(2)0010 created using JAVAFOIL software by entering the co-ordinates.
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FIG: 21 The airfoil NASA SC(2)0010 imported to XFLR5 An Airfoil Testing software.
VERTICAL TAIL
VERTICAL TAIL = 30.5*(t/c) wing
ASPECT RATIO =1.39
TAPER RATIO = 0.424
t/c = 8
VERTICAL TAIL =1.73*8
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= 13.66 m
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arrangement increased the performance of aircraft by reducing the
drag.
FIG: 24
RUDDER STEERING
DIRECT STEERING
TILLER STEERING
Maximum Takeoff Weight of the aircraft (from Weight Estimation) =
272.655t = 2672kN
TYRE SIZING
During landing and takeoff, the undercarriage supports the total
weight of the airplane. Undercarriage is of three types
Bicycle type
Tricycle type
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Tricycle tail wheel type
FIG: 25
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2D VIEW DIAGRAM OF AIRCRAFT
FIG: 26
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ISOMETRIC VIEW DIAGRAM OF AIRCRAFT
Conclusion
The aircraft is designed and the parameters like cruise velocity, wing loading,
span etc... have been selected for our aircraft. The weight estimation had been
done to estimate the weight of our aircraft. The wings, airfoil, landing gear have
been selected for our aircraft. The performance calculations were also made to
estimate the performance. The aircraft parameters are in the optimum range and
design characteristics have been found to be satisfactory
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REFERENCES
1. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach 2ND Edition
Daniel P.Raymer
Darrol Stinton
9. Wikipedia
www.wikipedia.org
www.worldofkrauss.com
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