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Procedia CIRP 40 (2016) 250 255

13th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing - Decoupling Growth from Resource Use

Business models for sustainability: the case of second-life electric vehicle

batteries
Na Jiaoa,*, Steve Evansa
a
Institute for Manufacturing, University of Cambridge, 17 Charles Babbage Road, Cambridge, CB3 0FS, UK

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +441223766141; fax: +44 1223464217; E-mail address: nj268@cam.ac.uk

Abstract

Repurposing retired electric vehicle (EV) batteries provides a potential way to reduce first-cost hurdle of EVs. Embedded in energy storage
systems for renewables, second-life batteries could make EV technology more sustainable in terms of cleanliness of charging source and
simultaneously alleviating environmental concerns over end-of-life battery disposal. This paper presents business models of different EV
stakeholders that facilitate battery reuse. Based on interviews with different EV sectors, industrial reports and academic literature, we analyze
how battery reuse could facilitate business model innovation for sustainability in the EV industry. Findings emphasize the importance of battery
ownership, inter-industry partnerships and policy support on battery secondary use. The results also suggest the potential of battery reuse as a
linkage between the transport and energy sector, and a catalyst for EV business model reconfiguration.
2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the International Scientific Committee of the 13th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing.
Peer-review under responsibility of the International Scientific Committee of the 13th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing
Keywords: Business models; sustainability; innovation; electric vehicles; battery secondary use; energy storage; renewables

1. Introduction stimulate the renaissance of EVs and help it gain a market

Over the last few decades, global concerns over climate
change have strengthened the need for sustainable
development. The transport sector, despite being crucial for
economic development, has been lagging behind in terms of
sustainability performance. Emissions from road
transportation were 18.5% of total EU emissions in 2012
according to the European Environment Agency. The
transition to a more sustainable transport sector is thus of great
significance in order for tackling the challenges of air
pollution and resource shortage. Technology improvements
such as more efficient internal combustion engines (ICE)
could contribute to certain environmental targets in the short
term, but in the long run, only a zero-emission transport
system should prevail [1,2].
Electric vehicle (EV) constitutes a sustainable innovation
that is more energy efficient than conventional gasoline
vehicles and emits no local pollutants. Current policies and
government subsidies in many countries are seeking to
foothold. Despite the rapid increase in EV market share
recently, this nascent industry still needs to sustain itself in
order to have a long-term commercial viability [3]. One of the
major problems that impede EV market penetration is
considered to be the high price of EVs, which is mainly due to
the expensive batteries. On the other hand, current EVs face
the skepticism as to whether it is really a sustainable
technology or just green washing [4]. The electricity used to
charge EV batteries is mainly supplied by non-renewables
such as coal and gas, which merely transfers GHGs emissions
from transportation to the energy sector. Meanwhile, issues
related to end-of-life (EOL) battery disposal will emerge with
the increasing market share of EVs. Given the current
constraints of battery technologies, recapturing the value from
EOL batteries could potentially solve the above problems in a
fresh way and propel EV as an engine for the transition to a
more sustainable transport sector.
Connected via EV charging, the grid operation and
management potential of EV batteries have attracted

2212-8271 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the International Scientific Committee of the 13th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing
doi:10.1016/j.procir.2016.01.114
 Na Jiao and Steve Evans / Procedia CIRP 40 (2016) 250 255
increasing attention, especially with the interests in efficient
grid balancing and the integration of renewable energies [5,6].
The generation and storage of renewables from intermittent
resources such as wind and solar energies are currently
challenging due to the lack of cost-effective, large-scale
energy storage systems (ESS) [7]. In this respect, reusing
spent batteries after their on-board service life provides a
promising solution at an inexpensive cost. The integration of
renewables into power generation also helps EVs reputation
as zero-emission vehicles in terms of charging source. In
addition to that, repurposing retired EV batteries for secondary
applications postpones their recycling phase that entails costs
and inevitable pollution. Extending the battery life also
contributes to reducing waste and resource exploitation.
Proper scenarios and effective business models for EV battery
reuse are crucial so as to commercialize the post-vehicle
markets of retired batteries and generate alternative revenue
streams which could also contribute to EV price reduction for
customers.
Although some new business models are emerging for EVs,
they are focused on the economic side without integrating
social and environmental dimensions into the core of the
business. Sustainability is still seen as a supplement outside
the scope of business models, which leads to various forms of
missing value opportunities [8]. This article investigates the
unsustainable issues existed in the current EV industry and
proposes that battery secondary use could provide a potential
way to promote EV market adoption and improve the
sustainability performance of EVs through business model
innovation. The author first reviews literature regarding
business model innovation for sustainability in theory, along
with practices of the EV industry with a special focus on EV
battery reuse. Thereafter, case studies with four different EV
stakeholders involving battery reuse are presented and
analysed. Findings emphasize the importance of battery
ownership, inter-industry partnerships and policy support on
battery secondary use. The results also suggest that although
battery secondary use is not expected to solve the
unsustainable issues of EVs at one stroke, it could serve as a
bridge linking the transport and energy sector, as well as a
catalyst for EV business model innovation to achieve
sustainable transportation.
Figure 1. A schematic presentation of business model definition
251
2. Business models for sustainability: secondary use of EV
batteries as a catalyst
2.1. Business models and sustainability
Each business enterprise operates under a certain business
model, explicitly or implicitly, that explains the value creation,
value delivery and value capture mechanisms of its business
[9,10]. Since the advent of the information and
communication technology (ICT), the term business model
has attracted extensive attention from academia [11].
Although a commonly accepted definition of business model
has yet to be reached, there seems to be a convergence in key
themes including value proposition, value creation and
capture, value network and economic structure.
A review of the literature reveals that the concept of
business models often appears to encompass everything
relevant to a business, from strategy to economic model and
the like [12]. To truly understand business model and improve
or even innovate business models, confusion with other
popular business terms and the inclusion of redundant aspects
should be avoided [11]. In this paper, the author defines
business model as the logic of value exchange between the
focal firm and its stakeholders. Specifically, one core
component value proposition, and three implementation
components value creation, value network and value capture,
constitute a business model. A schematic explanation of the
business model definition is presented in Figure 1. Value
proposition, as the pivotal component of a business model,
articulates the underlying logic of value exchange. It answers
the overarching question: what is the value created from an
offering (products or/and services) that a firm intends to
deliver to its stakeholders and generates profit from it? After
deciding the value proposition, value is created for targeted
customers through key activities using the firms key
resources and capabilities. The value network determines the
position of the focal firm and its partnerships within the value
chain. Finally, value is captured by the focal firm and turned
into profits through its cost and revenue models, as well as
other sources such as government support.
To keep competitive advantages, companies need to
innovate their business models intelligently, along with
252 Na Jiao and Steve Evans / Procedia CIRP 40 (2016) 250 255
technology and process innovations [13,14]. Integrating the
concept of sustainability into the core of the business could
make the business model itself more competitive. Sustainable
development contributes not only to economic sustainability,
but also to delivering social and environmental benefits
equally the triple bottom line (TBL) [15]. However, it is
already apparent that the prevailing business models may be
inappropriate or even impeditive for the market penetration of
sustainable innovations [16]. A sustainable technology
couldnt develop in an unsustainable industry; in other words,
we couldnt expect a sustainable technology to compete with
the dominant one in the extant market without changing the
business logic and system. Business model, as a holistic
innovation concept, should introduce sustainability into the
business logic and take a multi-stakeholder perspective at an
industry level. This requires reconsideration of the value
proposition, value creation, value network and the economic
model. By repurposing sustainability into the core of the
business, new sources of value could be generated from
business model innovation, which itself then becomes the
competitive advantage [17,18].
2.2. Secondary use of EV batteries: a catalyst
EV technology, which is claimed to be sustainable, holds
the promise to electrify vehicles and ultimately, achieve a
zero-emission transport system. However, several challenges
including the high costs compared with conventional cars, the
range anxiety and long charging time still impede the market
penetration of EVs [19]. Also, unsustainable practices are
common in the current EV industry from the economic, social
as well as environmental perspectives. This gives rise to the
growing skepticism as to whether EV is really a sustainable
choice or just green-washing [4]. Apart from further
advancing battery technologies to achieve cost-effective,
high-performance EV batteries, business model innovation
which repurposes sustainability at the core of the business is
critical to the diffusion of EVs under the current technological
constraints. It could also contribute to value creation from
delivering economic, social and environmental benefits for
EV stakeholders. A business model, if designed well, is able
to not only offset the difficulties accompanying immature
technologies but also create more economic value [20].
From the literature and practice review on the EV industry,
unsustainable issues of current EV system are identified in the
economic, social and environmental aspects. Details of these
issues are presented in Figure 2. From the social perspective,
the most challenging problem is the inconvenience in mobility.
The immaturity in battery technology and underdevelopment
of charging infrastructure have led to such problems as long
charging time and customers range anxiety [19]. Some novel
business models have emerged trying to tackle this problem,
such as battery swapping developed by Better Place and fast
charging promoted by Tesla, which also rely on expensive
infrastructures. Another challenge impeding the public
acceptance of EVs is their higher price compared with
gasoline cars. The commercialization of EVs hinges on much
more advanced batteries with much lower cost. Currently, EV
batteries constitute approximately 1/3 to a half of the cost of a
whole EV. Also, customers may need to pay for battery
replacement after the old battery retires, which further
increases the cost of EVs. Environmentally, current EV
system is likely to cause as much pollution as conventional
cars, given the electricity sources used to charge EVs (often
coal and gas currently) and the lack of proper EOL battery
disposal management. Considering the above problems, we
find that repurposing EV batteries after their service life in
vehicles could provide a potential way to solve or alleviate
those problems.
Typically, an EV battery reaches its end-of-life (EOL), and
replacement is recommended, when its remaining capacity is
below 80% of a new one [21]. When a battery fails to meet
the criteria for automotive service upon its retirement, there is
still sufficient energy and power capacity left to support less
demanding applications such as load levelling, renewable
energy storage and integration, back up power and
transmission support [3,21,22]. Further, battery reuse could
postpone the recycling phase which entails costs and potential
waste. Repurposing EOL batteries for second use increases
their total service life, which slows down the rate of resource
exploitation and waste disposal.
The technical and economic feasibility of EV battery
second use has been discussed by many authors [3,21,2326].
Private companies and research institutions have initiated
various pilot projects repurposing EOL EV batteries in ESS,
for example, into solar panels and wind farms, residential and
public back up power, load levelling, among other secondary
use applications. There were no major technical barriers found,
while the economic viability of reuse in practice should be
further studied [27]. Few authors to date, however, have
examined EV battery second life from the business model
perspective. Given the research gap mentioned, this paper
aims to investigate how to help EV stakeholders maximize the
value of used EV batteries from a business model perspective
and how EV battery reuse could serve as link between the
transport and energy sector, as well as a catalyst for business
model innovation for sustainability.
3. Data and methodology
Qualitative approaches are more commonly used for
inductive purposes [28]. Due to the complex and exploratory
Figure 2. Unsustainable issues identified in the EV industry
 Na Jiao and Steve Evans / Procedia CIRP 40 (2016) 250 255
nature of the research context, qualitative case study method
is adopted to provide a contextual understanding of the
research topic [29]. In this research on the emerging EV
industry, it is useful to compare multiple case studies to
develop theory inductively. Compared with single case study,
multiple cases enable comparisons that clarify whether an
emergent finding is simply idiosyncratic to a single case or
consistently replicated by several cases[30]. Different cases
often emphasize complementary aspects of a phenomenon and
allow for comparison among cases. The use of multiple cases
here is appropriate in order for more robust, replicable and
generalizable results.
The data for this research was obtained from semi-
structured interviews with various EV stakeholders as well as
secondary published sources such as industrial reports and
documentation. A semi-structured interview lasts for 1h or so.
The interviewees are mostly managers/directors of companies
or sectors. Interviews provide a rich source of information and
a comprehensive understanding of the factors that
enable/prohibit battery second use and their implications for
business model innovation. Semi-structured interviews with
open-ended questions allow for new ideas and visions to be
brought up that might provide the opportunity for identifying
new ways of seeing and understanding the topic at hand. Also,
they are good complements to the publicly available data.
The four cases in this research were selected on the basis
of their innovative business models involving battery second
use and different roles of stakeholder in the EV industry. They
are electric car manufacturer, recycling company, charging
infrastructure provider and battery second use joint venture
(Table 1). A multi-stakeholder perspective increases the
reliability of data and enriches the source of information that
might otherwise be neglected. The data of the EV
manufacturer Yinlong Energy (YLE) and the recycling
company Brunp was collected from semi-structured
interviews while the cases of the charging infrastructure start-
up FreeWire Technology and the battery reuse joint venture
4R Energy are analysed through published sources. YLE is
basically an OEM aiming to build a closed-loop industrial
chain, where it produces from battery materials to electric
buses and energy storage systems. Based on a financial
leasing business model, YLE retains the battery ownership
through maintenance service to its customers and EOL
contract. Being a state-level recycling enterprise, Brunp is
committed to the resource recycling of retired batteries and
scrapped cars, as well as high-end battery materials
production. However, Brunp is now facing challenges to reuse
EV batteries because of the lack of battery sources. 4R Energy
Table 1. Summary of selected case studies
Company/ Joint venture Role as stakeholder
Yinglong Energy (YLE) EV manufacturer
Brunp EOL vehicle recycle
FreeWire Charing infrastructure
4R Energy Battery reuse
253
is a joint venture between Nissan and Sumitomo that aims to
explore effective business models for battery reuse. Using
repurposed EOL Leaf batteries provided by 4R Energy, a
start-up FreeWire Technology launches an innovative
charging service business model that provides the first
solution to combine EV charging with grid-level energy
management by creating a network of grid-smart mobile EV
chargers.
4. Results
Case studies of the four EV stakeholders suggest that
repurposing EOL EV batteries is not expected to immediately
solve the unsustainable problems mentioned above. Rather, it
serves as a promising approach to reduce EV cost-hurdle and
improve the sustainable performance of the technology with
joint efforts from other extant or/and emerging stakeholders in
the EV industry. Battery ownership, inter-industry
partnerships and government support have been identified as
three major deciding factors for EOL battery secondary use.
Those factors, which are also reflected by various EV
business models, could potentially enable or impede the
viability of post vehicle applications. On the other hand, we
find that considering the case of EV battery reuse may also
induce business model innovation.
4.1 Deciding factors for EV battery second use
From the case studies of the four companies, we have
observed three common deciding factors for EV battery
second use: battery ownership, inter-industry partnerships and
government support. Battery ownership enables the unified
management of batteries and facilitates the secondary
applications of retired batteries on a large scale. Case studies,
especially with YLE and Brunp, indicate the control over
battery as a prerequisite for all business cases. YLE sells
electric buses to the financial institute, who then rent the EVs
to bus companies. During the 10-year tenancy, YLE provide
free maintenance for the rented EVs under the contract. Upon
expiry of the tenancy, YLE will take back the EVs from bus
companies including the traction batteries. The value
proposition for YLE is the affordable electric buses plus
reliable services. YLE has control over the whole lifecycle of
the EV batteries, from manufacturing to vehicle usage to EOL.
This greatly facilitates their strategies to reuse the retired
batteries into the other industrial chain ESS, in that they
have not only the property but also the battery use profiles
obtained during maintenance services. Brunp, in contrary,
Country Business model
China Financial leasing
China Battery recycling
USA Mobile EV charging
Japan Commercial energy storage
254 Na Jiao and Steve Evans / Procedia CIRP 40 (2016) 250 255
relies on batteries provided by their customers. With a 10-
year tradition of recycling scrapped conventional vehicles and
batteries from portable electronics, Brunp has established
sound relationships with its customers such as car companies,
battery manufactures and the public. However, Brunp is now
facing challenges in terms of reusing EV batteries. Unlike
retired batteries from digital products that are almost useless
for further applications, the high value of spent EV batteries
may make its customers reluctant to give them to Brunp. The
lack of battery ownership may put Brunp at an unfavorable
place in the battery second use market.
Important as battery ownership is, there is currently no
explicit regulation or establishment as to who owns the
battery in the value chain. Different countries and regions
may have different answers when it comes to Who is
responsible for EOL EV batteries. Though EOL products
have long been regarded as a burden for companies to evade,
second-life batteries could, in the future, become a rich stream
of profit. Thus, it makes a difference that policy makers
clarify the EOL battery ownership and liability. Further,
government could offer incentives to support second-life
demonstration efforts and encourage pilot projects in
promising second use applications. Administrative barriers
should be reduced, such as access to the grid with load
levelling tests and peak-valley electricity price spread in
favour of profitable ESS. YLE for example, has indicated that
the lack of the residential peak-valley electricity price spread
in China may inhibit the economic viability of EV battery
reuse in household ESS. In the United States, on the other
hand, FreeWire develops a mobile charger with retired
batteries from the Nissan Leaf utilizing the peak-valley
electricity price spread, which could save substantial charging
costs for customers.
Given the complex nature of second-life batteries and their
wide potential applications, a multi-stakeholder perspective is
suggested and inter-industry partnership is identified as a key
factor for the success of battery reuse. Currently, the vehicle,
charging and grid systems are managed by different agents
from different sectors [31]. The largely uncooperative
relationship between the EV industry and energy sector may
hinder potential profits from battery second use. 4R Energy, a
joint venture between Nissan and Sumitomo, is providing
retired Nissan Leaf batteries for the start-up FreeWire to
develop a smart charging network. This first step out of the
industry boundary suggests huge value opportunities for both
the EV and energy sectors, as well as a potential solution to
the strategic barriers to battery second use.
4.2 Interplay between EV battery reuse and business models
Case studies with incumbent firms YLE and Brunp have
brought insight into the impact of current business models on
battery reuse strategies. YLE aims to build a closed-loop
industrial chain (from battery manufacturing to EOL
management) and two strategic industries pure electric
vehicles (mainly electric buses) and ESS. Based on a financial
leasing business model, YLE transfers the financial burden of
purchasing expensive electric buses from the bus company to
the third financial institute. Although the transaction does not
happen between YLE and the bus company, YLE has access
to the electric buses (EV batteries) over the whole battery
lifecycle through its maintenance services and EOL contract
that indicates their responsibility over EOL batteries. This
business model does not explicitly reflect battery reuse
strategies, but it implies YLEs control over the battery (or
battery ownership). Besides, the other industrial chain ESS
provides YLE with capabilities and scenarios to reuse EOL
batteries. YLEs business model helps retain its battery
ownership through leasing contract and maintenance service
while Brunp highly relies on battery sources from the outside.
Their battery reuse plans are highly contingent on their
customer relationship built by previous recycling businesses.
Both of the companies are trying to find new value
opportunities for EOL batteries, either through internal
capability reinforcement or external partnerships, which is
also indicative of the tendency of business model
modification or innovation stimulated by battery second use.
For start-ups or joint ventures like FreeWire and 4R
Energy, repurposing EOL batteries could give rise to business
model innovation or even new businesses. 4R Energy, jointly
founded by Nissan and Sumitomo to ad hoc commercialize
the post-vehicle market of batteries, is exploring various
possible businesses for EOL Leaf batteries. For instance,
Sumitomo has established the worlds first large-scale power
storage system in Osaka utilizing exclusively EOL Nissan
Leaf batteries repurposed by 4R Energy. A prototype system
(600kW/400kWh) consists of sixteen retired EV batteries is
used to test the soothing effect on the power output from a
nearby wind farm. The partnership between Nissan and
Sumitomo and the establishment of the joint venture thereof
indicate battery second use as a catalyst for business model
innovation and even new businesses. Interestingly, the start-
up FreeWire utilizes the retired Nissan Leaf batteries
repurposed by 4R Energy. Based on a charging service
business model, FreeWire acts as a cost-effective smart buffer
between EVs and utilities, and creates great value through
grid storage, load levelling, and demand response. Taking
advantage of the low cost and remaining capacity from retried
Leaf batteries, as well as the partnership with Nissan,
FreeWires innovative business model could have the
potential to scale the flexible charging infrastructure,
providing an energy service that benefits both customers and
the grid. The cases of 4R Energy and FreeWire suggest that
battery second use could serve as not only a catalyst for
business model innovation, but also a linkage between
currently isolated transport and energy sector.
5. Discussion
This research aims to contribute to the literature on
business models and sustainability through an empirical
exploration of battery EOL strategy and the interaction with
business models in the case of EV battery reuse. Although
some initial findings are observed from the case studies
regarding the deciding factors for battery reuse and their
interplay with business models, this study has several
limitations. Firstly, due to the limited EV market share
(limited battery volume for large-scale secondary applications)
 Na Jiao and Steve Evans / Procedia CIRP 40 (2016) 250 255
and economic uncertainty of battery secondary use, the
practice of repurposing EOL batteries is still rare in the EV
industry. This is, actually, a chicken and egg situation
where a critical mass of EV batteries (vehicle users) are
needed to create value to reduce EV cost-hurdles, while the
reduction in EV price at the same time is needed in order to
attract potential customers (to get enough batteries). This
situation leads to the issue of limited data availability and
generalizability of our findings. Secondly, the study has
limitation in identifying all the key stakeholders in this
emerging industry over a relatively short time period. To
mitigate these problems, the author decides to conduct further
case studies on the extent stakeholders and identify potential
EV players. More importantly, the limitations suggest that
effective business models for both EVs and battery second use,
and their interplay could potentially help achieve mutual
promotion and spur other stakeholders across the EV industry.
In a nutshell, developments in EV business models and
battery second use, as well as their interplay is worth further
research, given the limited but ever-increasing volume of EVs
and emerging stakeholders interested in battery second use.
6. Conclusion
In summary, this paper investigates literature and current
practices regarding the unsustainable issues in the EV
industry, and identifies EV battery reuse as potential way to
alleviate those problems. Based on four qualitative case
studies, the deciding factors for EOL battery second use for
different stakeholders have been discussed. Among the factors
that influence battery reuse, the battery ownership,
government support as well as inter-industry partnership are
identified as common deciding factors for EV battery second
use feasibility. Moreover, the role of business models in the
success of EV battery reuse has been studied. Case studies
show that current business models of incumbent companies
could enable or slow down battery second use. Meanwhile,
the efforts to develop second use business cases could
facilitate the modification of current business models. As new
stakeholders in EV industry, the cases of FreeWire and 4R
Energy indicate that in the long term, battery second use could
potentially catalyze business model innovation, and link the
currently isolated transport and energy sectors.
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