Energy and Heat Engines

Problem 1
What is the kinetic energy associated with a 1,500-kg
automobile traveling at 100 km/h?
 Problem 1 - solved
What is the kinetic energy associated with a 1,500-kg
automobile traveling at 100 km/h?

Velocity converted to m/s is:

v = 100 (km/h) x 1000 (m/km)/3600 (s/h) = 27.8 m/s
Therefore, the energy E is:

E = (1/2)mv2 = 0.5 x 1500 (kg) x [27.8 (m/s)]2

= 5.8 x 105 kg m2 / s2 = 5.8 x 105 J
 Problem 2
A wheel (in the form of a solid disk) with a mass of m = 400
kg, a diameter of d = 0.85 m and a moment of inertia of I =
md 2/8 = mr 2/2 rolls without slipping. The velocity of its
center of mass is 30 m/s. (This is a rough approximation of
a wheel on a freight train). Compare the wheels
translational kinetic energy to its rotational energy.
 Problem 2 - solved
A wheel (in the form of a solid disk) with a mass of m = 400 kg, a
diameter of d = 0.85 m and a moment of inertia of I = md 2/8 = mr
2/2 rolls without slipping. The velocity of its center of mass is 30

m/s. (This is a rough approximation of a wheel on a freight train).

Compare the wheels translational kinetic energy to its rotational
energy.
Ekinetic = (1/2)mv2 = 0.5 x 400 (kg) x [30 (m/s)]2 =1.8 x 105 J
Erotational = (1/2) (mr2/2) (v/r)2 = (1/4) mv2
= 0.25 x 400 (kg) x [30 (m/s)]2 = 9 x 104 J
(Tangential velocity v = r)

Note that the rot. energy is independent of wheel diameter and is

exactly one-half of the kinetic energy.
 Problem 3
The specific heat of water is 4180 J/kgC. Calculate the
energy required to heat 500 g of water from 20C to 80C
 Problem 3 - solved
The specific heat of water is 4180 J/kgC. Calculate the
energy required to heat 500 g of water from 20C to 80C

Since = ; =

Using m = 0.5 kg; C = 4180 J/kgC and = 60C,

Q = 0.5 (kg) x [4180 (J/kgC)] x 60C = 1.25 x 105 J

 Problem 4
Estimate the number of wavelengths of yellow light that
span the distance between a computer monitor and a user.
 Problem 4 - solved
Estimate the number of wavelengths of yellow light that
span the distance between a computer monitor and a user.

Wavelength of yellow light is about 600 nm, or 6.0 x 10-7 m

(see figure).
If a typical user sits 0.5 m from a computer monitor, then
the number of wavelengths of yellow light that fit into that
distance is:
0.5
= = 8.3 x 105 wavelengths
6.0 107
 Text Problem #1-2
A simple way of looking at the energy associated with the
combustion of methane [as shown in equation (1.15)] is to
view the oxidation of the carbon by equation (1.13) and the
oxidation of hydrogen by equation (1.19). Based on the
energies involved in these processes, discuss the validity
of this approach.
 Text Problem #1-2, solved
A simple way of looking at the energy associated with the
combustion of methane [as shown in equation (1.15)] is to
view the oxidation of the carbon by equation (1.13) and the
oxidation of hydrogen by equation (1.19). Based on the
energies involved in these processes, discuss the validity
of this approach
From Eq. (1.13)

+ 2 = 2 + 32.8 0.012

From Eq. (1.19)

22 + 2 = 22 + 142 22 0.004

Total: 0.016 kg/mol
 Text Problem #1-2, solved
We need to convert these to energy per mole in order to
make a comparison. Molecular masses are:
So that the combustion yield per mole is:

32.8 x 0.012 = 0.394 22 142 x 0.004 = 0.568

Adding the heat of combustion of C with the heat of combustion of 2H2:

0.394 + 0.568 = 0.962


Converting to energy per kg gives: (0.962 / 0.016 )


60 which is close to 55.5 for methane

Equation 1.15 : 4 + 22 = 2 + 22 + 55.5

Heat Engines and the Laws of
Thermodynamics
HEAT SOURCE

Working Qin
Substance
Engine
W
Qout
Pump HEAT SINK
Energy Transformation in a Power Plant

Coal

Steam Electric
Boiler Turbine
generator

Energy
The boiler transforms the chemical energy in the coal to heat,
which converts water to steam.
The turbine converts the steam to mechanical power;
the generator converts the mechanical energy to electrical energy.

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 Energy conversion
Laws of Thermodynamics provide performance
limits
for heat to work/power conversion, e.g. Carnot
Losses always occur to degrade the efficiency of
energy conversion and reduce work/power
producing potential

15
 Pressure, Volume and Temperature
Pressure force per unit area
Units are lbs per in2 or N per m2
Volume
Units are m3, in3, liters, quarts
Temperature
Unit must be on an absolute scale (Kelvin)
To find the relationship between Celsius and Kelvin
scales, see plot on the next slide (a sealed volume of an
ideal gas is immersed in boiling water and then ice
water).
The pressure (PB) at boiling temperature is 1 standard
atmosphere (atm).
The pressure (PF) at freezing temperature is lower.
The two points are then extrapolated down.
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 Absolute Zero!
PB
PB Pressure at which water boils

PF PF Pressure at which water freezes

The temperature at zero pressure is

Pressure

found to be -273K

Absolute zero is unattainable because

all gases above -273K condense to
liquids. Convenient for
thermodynamic calculations, though!)
0
-273C Celsius 0C 100C

0K Kelvin 273K 373K

-460F Fahrenheit 32F 212F

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 Laws of Thermodynamics
0. Two systems that are both in thermodynamic
equilibrium with a third system are in equilibrium
with each other.

1. Energy is conserved within any closed system

2. A closed system will move toward equilibrium

3. It is impossible to attain absolute zero temperature

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 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
This law implies that the thermodynamic state of
system can be defined by a single parameter -
the temperature

For a gas the temperature is defined in terms of

the ideal gas law

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 First Law of Thermodynamics
Principle of Conservation of Energy:
energy can neither be created nor destroyed; only
transformed
energy may be transformed from one form to another,
but the total energy of any body or system of bodies is
a quantity that can be neither increased nor
diminished.

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 First Law of Thermodynamics
Consider an experiment where heat is applied to a
cylinder containing gas that is sealed with
moveable piston

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 First Law of Thermodynamics
If the piston is allowed to move as the gas is
heated then the conservation of energy implies
that the heat added to the system is given by the
sum of the work done on the piston and the
change in the internal energy of the gas

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Second law of thermodynamics
The implications of the second law are that heat will naturally flow
from a hot place to a cold place.

It is the transfer of heat from hot to cold that allows thermal

energy to do useful work.

This is analogous to gravitational potential energy - an object in a

gravitational field can only do work if it moves from a point of
higher gravitational potential to a point of lower gravitational
potential.

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 Heat engines

If heat Qh is removed from a hot reservoir and a portion

of this heat Qc is added to a cold reservoir then the
difference can be used to do work W.

Conservation of energy requires that

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Schematic diagram of a heat engine

25
 Carnot efficiency
The efficiency of a heat engine (in %) is

Carnot showed that

where temperatures are measured on an absolute

temperature scale.

The ideal Carnot efficiency can be expressed in terms of

the reservoir temperatures as

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 Heat pump
A heat pump uses mechanical energy (work) to transport
heat from a cold reservoir to a hot reservoir

Conservation of energy requires

and the coefficient of performance gives the ratio of heat

transported to work input

or

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Schematic diagram of a heat pump

28
Applications of heat engines and heat pumps

The concept of a heat engine describes the basic principles

of steam turbines or internal combustion engines which
convert thermal energy into mechanical energy.

The concept of a heat pump describes the operation of a

refrigerator which transports heat from a place we want to
keep cold to a warm reservoir (room temperature)

or

A heat pump can be used for heating purposes by

transporting heat from the cold outside to the inside of a
building.
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 Electricity generation

Breakdown of world electricity production

30
Major energy sources and percent share
of total U.S. electricity generation in 2014
Coal = 39%
Natural gas = 27%
Nuclear = 19%
Hydropower = 6%
Other renewables = 7%
o Biomass = 1.7%
o Geothermal = 0.4%
o Solar = 0.4%
o Wind = 4.4%
Petroleum = 1%
Other gases < 1%

In 2014, the United States generated about 4,093 billion kWh of

electricity. About 67% of the electricity generated was from fossil fuels
(coal, natural gas, and petroleum).
http://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.cfm?id=427&t=3
Fossil fuel generating plants

Fossil fuels may be used in

thermal generating stations

combustion turbines

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 Thermal generating stations

Thermal generating stations use the combustion of fossil

fuels (commonly coal, but also oil or natural gas) to boil
water to make steam which then runs a turbine to turn a
generator to produce electricity.

33
Schematic of a thermal generating station

34
Rotor assembly of a steam turbine

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 Heat transfer to the environment

We need to remove heat from the cold reservoir in order to

improve the Carnot efficiency

Two common ways of doing this are

Once through water cooling using the ocean, river, lake,

etc.

Atmospheric cooling towers

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Cooling towers to transfer heat to the
atmosphere

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 Combustion turbine

Similar to a jet engine

Uses liquid or gaseous fuels (e.g. gasoline or natural

gas)

More expensive to operate than a coal fired thermal

station but can be brought on-line quickly during times
of high demand

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Combustion turbines

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 Second Law of Thermodynamics
Overall: No thermodynamic cycle can have a
thermal efficiency of 100% (i.e., cannot convert
all heat into work)
Quick review:
1st Law: Conservation/transformation of energy
2nd Law: Limits the direction of processes & extent of
heat-to-work conversions

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 Carnot Cycle
Second Law states that no thermo system can
be 100% efficient, and no real thermal process is
completely reversible
A French engineer, Carnot, set out to determine
what the max efficiency of a cycle would be if
that cycle were ideal and completely reversible

41
 Carnot Cycle
Carnot Principle: the max thermal efficiency
depends only on the difference between the
source and sink temps
Does not depend on property of fluid, type of
engine, friction, or fuel

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 Heat Engine Thermodynamic Diagram

Heat Source
Thot
A heat engine is a device Th
Qh
that exploits a temperature
difference to perform work. Work output
Heat engine Wnet = Qh Qc
Examples: IC engine,
steam plant, geothermal
plant, ocean-thermal plant, Qc
ICBM, etc.
Tc
Heat Sink
Tcold

Second Law of Thermodynamics

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Heat Pump (Refrigerator) Diagram
Sink
Thot
Th
Qh

External Work
Heat pump Wnet

Qc

Tc
Source
Tcold

44
 Heat Engine Expressions

Work done
Efficiency =
Energy put into the system
Qh Qc
Efficiency =
Qh
Qc
or, = 1 - x 100% (1)
Qh

45
 Heat Engine Expressions
For an ideal engine, the ratio of Qc to Qh must be the
same as the ratio of the temperatures of the reservoirs
between which the engine is operating (Carnot).

An ideal engine is one which has perfect insulation, no

losses or friction, etc. (This is of course, unattainable!)

The concept does lead to an expression for the maximum

efficiency of a heat engine. This is the Carnot efficiency

Qc Tcold Tc
According to Carnot, = = (2)
Qh Thot Th
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 Carnot Efficiency
Tc
Thus, c = 1 - x 100% (3)
Th

Which is the maximum efficiency of a heat engine.

Consider for example, a typical steam turbine generating

system powered by a coal-burning boiler, Thot = Th (the
boiler temperature) would be about 825K, and Tcold = Tc
(the cooling tower temperature) would be about 300K,
leading to:
300
c = 1 - x 100% = 64% (4)
825

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 Carnot Efficiency
Thus, a maximum of 64% of the energy in the fuel can
go to turning the dynamo
No less than 36% of the fuels energy must be rejected
as waste heat by the system).

The waste heat may still be used for other purposes

(e.g., heating)
But it cannot be used for producing mechanical work
unless there is available another reservoir at a
temperature lower than 300K.

In practice, the limits are imposed by the materials

from which the boiler is constructed, and the
availability of large heat reservoirs in nature.
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 Example
A thermal system has an initial stored internal energy of 50
kJ. Net work is done on the system of energy value 100 kJ,
after which the final stored internal energy is found to be 75
kJ. Calculate the net heat transfer to the system.

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 Example - solution
For a lossless system, Q - W = final stored energy - initial
stored energy
Q - W = 75 - 50 = 25 kJ
The term W represents work done by the system. In the
present case work is done on the system (i.e. W is an
energy input) and therefore
W = - 100 kJ
Q - (-100) = 25 kJ
Q = 25 - 100 = - 75 kJ
In order to achieve a new energy balance, according to the
Principle of Conservation of Energy, the heat transfer is
negative (i.e. heat energy must have been removed from
the system).
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 Summary
The zeroth law of thermodynamics allows for the
definition of a temperature scale
The first law of thermodynamics describes the
conservation of energy.
The second law of thermodynamics describes the
operation of heat engines and heat pumps.
Heat engines use the flow of heat to produce mech.
energy
Heat pumps use mech. energy to transport heat from a
cold place to a hot place.

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