03 - Nozzle Thermodynamics and Isentropic Relations v1 PDF

ME 239: Rocket Propulsion
Nozzle Thermodynamics and

Isentropic Flow Relations
J. M. Meyers, PhD
1
Assumptions for this Analysis
1. Steady, one-dimensional flow

No motor start/stopping issues to be concerned with
No radial flow components (quasi-1D)
2. Adiabatic
No shocks in nozzle
3. Frictionless
No thermal boundary layer
No heat loss through nozzle walls
4. Chemical Equilibrium Established in Combustion Chamber

Frozen flow usually assumed as flow characteristic time << chemical reaction
characteristic time
Local Chemical Equilibrium could be possible
5. Ideal Gas
Thermally Perfect Gas
Calorically Perfect Gas
6. Axial Exhaust Velocity
University of Vermont ME 239: Rocket Propulsion -Nozzle Thermodynamics and Isentropic Flow Relations
2
Mechanical Engineering J. M. Meyers, Ph.D.
Rough Outline of Slides
(1) Energy Equation
(2) Isentropic Flow Relations
(3) Nozzle Mass Flow Rate
(4) Nozzle Discharge Coefficient
(5) Area Ratio Function
(6) Thrust
(7) Specific Impulse
(8) Thrust Coefficient
3
(1) Energy Equation
Subscripts
0 total or stagnation
1 combustion or thrust chamber
2 nozzle exit plane
1 2
Total enthalpy:
= constant =+ = constant
2
= + = +
2 2
Rearranging and solving for nozzle exit velocity, :
= 2 +
Normally its safe to assume stagnated conditions in the combustion chamber: =0
0
= + = = 2
2
4
(1) Energy Equation
Subscripts
2 nozzle exit plane
1 2
For a perfect gas with constant specific heats (not functions of ):
= Equation of state for TPG
= Internal Energy for CPG
Including into the velocity relation:
= 2 = 2 1
5
(1) Energy Equation
Subscripts
2 nozzle exit plane
1 2
For a perfect gas
= Specific heat at constant pressure

1
= Specific heat ratio. Frequently denoted as in other texts

&
Here:
universal gas constant = 8314.3 [J/kgmolK]
= =
molecular mass = 1544 [ftlbf/lbmmolR]
6
(1) Energy Equation
Subscripts
2 nozzle exit plane
1 2
From general isentropic (no shocks!) flow relations (see any compressible flow texts for derivation)
67 67
6 6
= -or- =
67
6 Eq. 3-16
= 2 1 = 2 1 in text
1
Exit velocity for an isentropic nozzle
7
(1) Energy Equation
Subscripts
2 nozzle exit plane
1 2
What would be the maximum theoretical exit jet velocity?
This occurs at an infinite expansion where: =0
Thus:
89: = 2
1
8
(1) Energy Equation
Exhaust velocity ( ) and specific impulse Eq. 3-16

( ;< ) are influenced by the ration of
chamber temperature to the molecular
mass of propellant species ( /)
This ratio plays an important role in
optimizing mixture ratios in chemical
rockets
-or- ;< -and-
Increase in Rich hydrogen

Energy content can
Release drive this down
9
Subscripts
2 nozzle exit plane
1 2
Revisiting the energy equation: =+ Assuming CPG ( = ): = +

2 2
= +
2
=1+ Recall that the sound speed and ? =

=1+ 2( )
2 Mach number definitions are: @ = /?
1
1 1 Eq. 3-12
=1+ =1+ @ in text
2 ? 2
10
Subscripts
2 nozzle exit plane
1 2
1 Eq. 3-12 Stagnation (aka total) temperature remains constant

=1+ @ for adiabatic process
2 in text
6 6
67 Eq. 3-13 Stagnation (aka total) pressure
67 1
= = 1+ @ in text remains constant for isentropic
2 process
67 1 67
Not
= = 1+ @
2 in text
11
Subsonic, Sonic and Supersonic Nozzles
Table 3.1 : Nozzle types
6/(67 )
A 1
= 1 + ( 1)@ Eq. 3-13
A 2
For air ( = 1.4) and @ = 1, 0/ = 1.89

University of Vermont ME 239: Rocket Propulsion Nozzle Theory
12
Subscripts
C throat plane
1 nozzle entrance plane
2 nozzle exit plane
1 D 2
Here we will discuss relations describing the mass flow through an isentropic nozzle
through analysis of a De Laval nozzle which is a choked supersonic CD nozzle
We will also introduce a useful parameter based on mass flow known as the mass flow parameter
(MFP)
Assumptions (again):
Steady Quasi-1D flow
Isentropic Flow
Perfect Gas
13
Subscripts
C throat plane
2 nozzle exit plane
1 D 2
We know that, owing to mass conservation, that the mass flow rate through the nozzle
is constant: EF = G
=
EF = @ G
? =
@ = /?
Multiplying through by / and / and placing term under the radical:
EF = @ G EF = @ G
14
Subscripts
C throat plane
2 nozzle exit plane
1 D 2
6
1 1 67
Recall from isentropic relations: =1+ @ -and- = 1+ @
2 2
76
1 67 1
EF = 1 +
2
@ @ 1+
2
@ G
Evaluated at the throat (@ = 1 and G = GC):
6J As the mass flow through the nozzle is constant, this

1 2 67 Eq. 3-24
simplified relation shows how the mass flow rate
EF = GI in text
+1 can be determined from throat geometry and
chamber conditions alone
15
Subscripts
C throat plane
2 nozzle exit plane
1 D 2
Going back to our Mach number based mass flow equation:
76
1 67 1
EF = 1 + @ @ 1+ @ G
2 2
Rearranging:
7(6J )
This is known as the mass
EF 1 (67 ) flow parameter:
=@ 1+ @
G 2 EF
MFP =
G
Evaluated at the sonic throat yields:
7(6J )
EF +1 (67 )
=
G 2
16
7(6J ) 7(6J )
EF 1 (67 ) EF +1 (67 )
MFP = =@ 1+ @ MFP89: = =
G 2 G 2
0.045
0.04
MFP89: occurs
at @ = 1 0.035 = 1.4
= 287 J/kg-K
0.03
MFP [K1/2/ms 2]
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
= 1.2
= 378 J/kg-K
0.005
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Mach Number [-]
17
(3) Nozzle Discharge Coefficient
Not yet covered in class
18
Subscripts
C throat plane
EF, , 1 nozzle entrance plane
2 nozzle exit plane
1 D 2
Consider the De Laval nozzle above with fixed EF, , and (isentropic, mass-conserved system)
Lets analyze the mass flow parameter at locations 1 and 2:
7(6J )
7(6J )
-and- EF 1 (67 )
EF 1 (67 )
=@ 1+ @
=@ 1+ @ G 2
G 2
And then take their ratio: (6J )

EF 1 (67 )
G @ 1+ @
2 Note that the minus sign is
= removed from the exponent
EF (6J )
G 1 (67 )
@ 1+ @
2
19
Subscripts
C throat plane
EF, , 1 nozzle entrance plane
2 nozzle exit plane
1 D 2
Rearranging this relation and maintaining the assumpation that EF, , and are constant:
(6J )
1 (67 )
G @ 1+ @
= 2
G @ 1
1+ @
2
Lets define all terms as any point in the nozzle and as a sonic throat point (@1 = 1 and
G1 = G )
At times we may use the term P which
(6J ) represents the nozzle expansion ratio:
G 1 2 1 (67 ) G G
= 1+ @ P =
G @ +1 2 G GI
Recall that GI = G if nozzle is choked
20
(6J )
G G 1 2 1 (67 )
= = 1+ @
G GI @ +1 2
For Q = R. S
Linear Scale 3
Log Scale
1000 10
900
800
700 2
10
600
A/A* [-]
A/A* [-]
500
400
1
10
300
200
100
0
10 -1 0 1
2 4 6 8 10 10 10 10
Mach Number [-] Mach Number [-]
21
(6J )
G G 1 2 1 (67 )
= = 1+ @
G GI @ +1 2
3
10
To solve for M within the A/A* relation one can
use a numerical approach to the roots of the
function for M
2
10
Values of M for various A/A* are also readily
A/A* [-]
available and tabulated
1 For air (k=1.4):

10
NACA-1135 Equations and Charts for
Compressible Flow, 1953
Modern Compressible Flow, Anderson
0
10 -1 0 1
10 10 10
Mach Number [-]
A given area ratio will have two solutions, one for the
subsonic converging section and one for the supersonic
diverging section
22
1
= 1 + ( 1)@ Eq. 3-12
2
6/(67 )
A 1 Eq. 3-13
= 1 + ( 1)@
A 2
Pressure ratio depends little on

throughout
Temperature ratio is influenced much more
by variations in
Fig 3-1: Relationship of area ratio, pressure ratio, and temperature

ratio as a function of Mach number through a De Laval nozzle
23
6J /(67 )
1
G 1 1+ @
= 2
GI @ +1
2
Eq. 3-14 for M1 = 1
Contraction ratio is quite small

In convergent region there is very little
influence from
In supersonic section area ratio becomes
large very quickly
Divergent section significantly influenced by
Fig 3-1: Relationship of area ratio, pressure ratio, and temperature

ratio as a function of Mach number through a De Laval nozzle
24
Eq. 3-25 and Eq. 3-26
/(67 ) /6 (67 )/6 (67 )/6
GI +1 AT +1 AT I +1 AT
= 1 = 1
GT 2 A 1 A T 1 A

25
Solving for area ratio and velocity ratio for a given pressure ratio is straightforward
Acquiring pressure ratio from either area ratio or velocity ratio requires numerical solutions as no
closed-form solution exists
One could also use these charts (helpful in homework problems!)

26
Example Problem

27
(5) Thrust
How do these nozzle flow relations relate to thrust (which is what were really interested in)?
Recall:
Thrust Equation U = EF +G V
67
2 6
Exit Velocity Equation = 1
1
Mass Flow Equation (from our MFP relation at the sonic throat):
(6J ) (6J )
EF (67 ) (67 )
2 G 2
= EF =
G +1 State 1 is stagnated +1
so 0 = 1

28
(5) Thrust
Combining these three relations:
(6J ) 67
(67 ) 6
G 2 2
U= 1 +G V
+1 1
Bring out the G term:
(6J ) 67

2 2 2 (67 ) 6
V G
U=G 1 +
1 +1 G
Ideal Thrust Equation (Eq. 3-29 in text)
This equation applies to ideal rockets of constant k throughout the expansion process
This shows that thrust is proportional to the throat area and the chamber pressure (nozzle inlet
pressure)
We also now have a relation for thrust that is independent of chamber temperature and molecular
weight of the propellant species

29
(6) Specific Impulse

30
The thrust coefficient is defined as the chamber pressure, throat area normalized thrust:
U
W = By definition
GI
Introducing our expression for thrust:
U = EF +G V
EF G V EF G V EF V
W = + W = + W = +P
GI GI GI GI GI
Recalling an earlier expression for exit velocity derived from the nozzle energy equation:
67
= 2 1 = 2 1 6
= 2 1
And an expression for the mass flow parameter evaluated at the nozzle throat:
7(6J )
EF +1 (67 )
=
GI 2

31
Combining the three highlighted expressions:
7(6J ) 67
+1 (67 ) 6
V
W = 2 1 +P
2
And substituting the following relation for the specific heat value:
=
1
(6J ) 67
2 2 (67 ) 6
V
Eq. 3-30 in text
W = 1 +P
1 +1
The thrust coefficient is dimensionless

A key parameter for analysis as its dependent on a gas property, , the nozzle geomtery, P,
and the pressure distribution through nozzle, 1/ 2
Optimum Thrust Coefficient: peak U for a given motor ( , P, and 1/ 2 ) over a constant
1/ 3 curve that corresponds to 2 = 3
Motor thrust can be simply obtained from: U= GI W

32
(6J ) 67
Typical variation: 2 2 (67 ) 6
V
W = 1 +P
1 +1
2
1.8
Max W YZ 1/ 3 higher altitude

1.6
Max W [\]
1.4
C [-]
F
1.2 1/ 3 lower altitude
Increasing altitude does

1 increase thrust but the
motor is not optimized
for that ambient
0.8 pressure
0.6 0 1 2
10 10 10
[-]
33
P
(6J )/(67 ) (67 )/6
2 A A AV G Eq. 3-30
W = 1 +
1 +1 A A GI

34
Eq. 3-30

35
Eq. 3-30
36
A nozzle of varying area ratio to maintain a nozzle geometry that will keep the thrust coefficient on the
loci of maximum optimal thrust coefficient is ideal
This is terribly impractical and staging of rocket motors has been adopted as the standard design
practice
This is not to sat that there is still interest in reducing/eliminating the staging process
Single stage to orbit (SSTO) concepts are still receiving research funding and attention some of these
concepts will be addressed later in the semester
37

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ME 239: Rocket Propulsion

Nozzle Thermodynamics and

1. Steady, one-dimensional flow

4. Chemical Equilibrium Established in Combustion Chamber

6. Axial Exhaust Velocity

(1) Energy Equation

(2) Isentropic Flow Relations

(3) Nozzle Mass Flow Rate

(4) Nozzle Discharge Coefficient

(5) Area Ratio Function

(7) Specific Impulse

(8) Thrust Coefficient

Normally its safe to assume stagnated conditions in the combustion chamber: =0

= Equation of state for TPG

= Internal Energy for CPG

Including into the velocity relation:

For a perfect gas

= Specific heat at constant pressure

= Specific heat ratio. Frequently denoted as in other texts

Exit velocity for an isentropic nozzle

What would be the maximum theoretical exit jet velocity?

This occurs at an infinite expansion where: =0

Exhaust velocity ( ) and specific impulse Eq. 3-16

-or- ;< -and-

Increase in Rich hydrogen

Revisiting the energy equation: =+ Assuming CPG ( = ): = +

=1+ Recall that the sound speed and ? =

1 Eq. 3-12 Stagnation (aka total) temperature remains constant

Table 3.1 : Nozzle types

For air ( = 1.4) and @ = 1, 0/ = 1.89

Multiplying through by / and / and placing term under the radical:

Evaluated at the throat (@ = 1 and G = GC):

6J As the mass flow through the nozzle is constant, this

Not yet covered in class

And then take their ratio: (6J )

available and tabulated

1 For air (k=1.4):

Pressure ratio depends little on

Fig 3-1: Relationship of area ratio, pressure ratio, and temperature

Eq. 3-14 for M1 = 1

Contraction ratio is quite small

Fig 3-1: Relationship of area ratio, pressure ratio, and temperature

University of Vermont ME 239: Rocket Propulsion Nozzle Theory

University of Vermont ME 239: Rocket Propulsion Nozzle Theory

University of Vermont ME 239: Rocket Propulsion Nozzle Theory

University of Vermont ME 239: Rocket Propulsion Nozzle Theory

Bring out the G term:

Ideal Thrust Equation (Eq. 3-29 in text)

University of Vermont ME 239: Rocket Propulsion Nozzle Theory

University of Vermont ME 239: Rocket Propulsion Nozzle Theory

University of Vermont ME 239: Rocket Propulsion Nozzle Theory

The thrust coefficient is dimensionless

Motor thrust can be simply obtained from: U= GI W

University of Vermont ME 239: Rocket Propulsion Nozzle Theory

Max W YZ 1/ 3 higher altitude

1.2 1/ 3 lower altitude

Increasing altitude does

University of Vermont ME 239: Rocket Propulsion Nozzle Theory

University of Vermont ME 239: Rocket Propulsion Nozzle Theory

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