ALEVEL PHYSICS AQA Unit 4 Fields and Further Mechanics NOTES

A2 unit 4
PHYa4
fields
further mechanics
GCE PHYSICS
Unit 4 PHYA4 Fields and Further Mechanics Dr. MB Cuthbert (20/04/2015) Page 1 of 41
AS Examination
Unit 1 . PHYA1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Written Examination . 70 marks, 6 or 7 structured questions
1 hours
40% of the total AS marks
20% of the total A-Level marks Available June only
Unit 2 . PHYA2 Mechanics, Materials and Waves

Written Examination . 70 marks, 6 or 7 structured questions
1 hours
Unit 3 Investigative and Practical Skills in AS Physics

PHA3X, Externally Marked Route X . 55 marks
Practical Skills Verification (PSV . teacher verification)
Externally Marked Practical Assignment (EMPA . 55 marks)
A2 Examination
Unit 4 . PHYA4 Fields and Further Mechanics

Written Examination . 75 marks,
1 hours
Section A is 25 multiple choice questions, each worth one mark.
Section B is a written paper of 4/5 structured questions and consists of 50 marks.
Unit 5 . One of Units PHA5A, PHA5B, PHA5C, PHA5D

Written Examination . 75 marks.
1 hours
Section A: Nuclear and Thermal Physics . 40 marks
Compulsory section 4/5 structured questions
Section B one of the following options.
Each paper has 4/5 structured questions and 35 marks.
Options: A - Astrophysics
B - Medical Physics C Applied Physics
20% of the total A-Level marks (Section A 10%, Section B 10%) Available June only
Unit 6 . Internal Assessment Investigative and Practical Skills in A2 Physics

PHA6X, Externally Marked Route X . 55 marks
Practical Skills Verification (PSV . teacher verification)
Externally Marked Practical Assignment (EMPA . 55 marks)
Unit 4 PHYA4 Fields and Further Mechanics
This is the first A2 module, building on the key ideas and knowledge covered in AS physics. The first
section advances the study of momentum and introduces circular and oscillatory motion and covers
gravitation. Electric and magnetic fields are covered, together with basic electromagnetic induction.
Electric fields lead into capacitors and how quickly they charge and discharge through a resistor.
Magnetic fields lead into the generation and transmission of alternating current.
Further Mechanics
Syllabus extract:
Momentum concepts
Force as the rate of change of momentum
F = (mv)/t
Impulse Ft = (mv)
Significance of area under a force-time graph.
Principle of conservation of linear momentum applied to problems in one dimension.
Elastic and inelastic collisions; explosions.
Force and Momentum
Newtons First Law states: Every object continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a
straight line, unless it is compelled to change that state by an external force acting on it.
A car will maintain a constant speed

if the drive force and the drag are
balanced. The total force is
zero.
Newton's Second Law states: Rate of change of momentum is proportional to the total force
acting on a body, and occurs in the direction of the force.
An object of mass, m, is pushed with a constant force, F, so that its velocity increases from an initial
value, u, to a final value, v, in time, t.
Change in momentum Force

Time
mv - mu F Thus m(v - u ) F since a = (v - u) Then F m a
t t t
Thus Force = mass x acceleration F = ma

Force in N,
Mass in kg,
Acceleration in ms -2.
Acceleration is always caused by a resultant force, the vector sum of all the forces. The acceleration
is always, without exception, in the same direction as the resultant force.
Newtons Third law states that: If body A exerts a force on body B, body B must exert an
equal and opposite force on body A.
In other words, forces always act in pairs. This is true whether the forces are in equilibrium, moving,
stationary or accelerating.
Momentum
Momentum is the product between mass and velocity. Being a vector quantity, it has a direction,
and the direction is very important when doing momentum calculations.
Momentum (kg ms-1) = mass (kg) x velocity (ms-1) p = mv
Units are kilogram metres per second (kg ms-1) or newton seconds (Ns). We can show that the
units are the same.
It is very important to make sure that you pay attention to

the signs when doing momentum calculations.
Think of a ball bouncing off a wall. It leaves the wall at the

same speed as before. Lets call going from right to left
negative, and going from left to right positive.
Conservation of Momentum
The total momentum of a system remains constant provided that no external forces act on
the system.
This has important implications in the study of collisions.
In simple terms, we can say that the total momentum before = total momentum after. The key thing is
that share of the momentum may change.
Collisions
Momentum is always conserved in collisions.
If objects bounce off each other, the collision is elastic. If the total kinetic energy is the same
(conserved) at the end as it is at the start, then the collision is perfectly elastic. The rebound of
particles against each other tends to be perfectly elastic. A tennis ball bouncing off the floor is not
perfectly elastic as it can lose up to 25 % of its kinetic energy in doing so. If some kinetic energy is lost,
converted into heat or light, then the collision is inelastic.
Think about two objects travelling in the same direction. The table below shows the properties of the
objects:
Property Large Object Small Object
Mass M m
Initial velocity u1 u2
Final velocity v1 v2
We can show this as a diagram:
There are two important principles here:
Conservation of momentum:
Total momentum before = total momentum after
Mu1 + mu2 = Mv1 + mv2
Energy is conserved:
Total energy before = total energy after
Mu12 + mu22 = Mv12 + mv22 + E
The term E is the energy that is lost in the collision. In a perfectly elastic collision E = 0.
When doing momentum calculations, always be careful about the directions you are using.
Impulse
The change in momentum is called the impulse and is given the physics symbol p. We can define
Newtons Second Law in terms of change of momentum:
Force = change in momentum F = p
time interval t
Impulse (Ns) = Force (N) x time interval (s)
If we plot a force time graph, we can see that impulse is the area under the graph.
Impulse is the physics phenomenon that explains how a ball behaves when kicked or hit with a bat. It
also has important implications in road safety. When a car is involved in a collision, we want the
impulse to occur over a longer time interval to reduce the forces involved.
Uniform motion in a circle
Syllabus extract:
Circular motion
Motion in a circular path at constant speed implies there is an acceleration and
requires a centripetal force.
Angular speed, = v/r = 2f
Centripetal acceleration, a = v2/r = 2r
Centripetal force, F = m v2/r = m2r
The derivation of a = v2/r will not be examined.
Angular speed ( ) describes the circular motion of a body in terms of the rate of change of the angle
at the centre of its path
= angular speed ( rad s-1 )

= angle ( rad ) =
t = time ( s ) t
= change (final value initial value)
There are 2 radians in a whole circle, so dividing 2 by gives the period ( T ), the time taken to
complete one revolution.
T = period ( s ) T = 2

Period: the time taken to complete one revolution or one complete oscillation.
The Radian
The angle through which a line rotates can be defined as:
Angle of rotation = length of arc ( s )

radius of arc ( r )
Circumference of a circle is 2r
For a complete circle the angle of rotation = 2r Thus = 2 radians
r
Angles are now described in terms of radians. There are 2 radians in one complete rotation (360 0)
Angular displacement ( ): the angle through which rotation has occurred in radians
Angular speed: the rate of change of angular displacement (the angle through which the
object rotates per unit time).
The period can also be found by dividing the distance around the circular path (circumference = 2r) by
the linear speed ( ) of the object. Bodies can have the same angular speed but different linear speeds
depending on how far they are from the centre of the circle. The linear speed increases with path radius
for objects with the same angular speed. A body moving around a circular path is continually changing
its direction of motion. The bodys velocity is continually changing although its speed remains constant.
Since the direction of the objects velocity is changing, it is always accelerating.
tA
vA D
A
M
v vB
O B F
vA E
vB
v = vB - vA
The change in velocity is towards the centre of the circle and therefore the direction of the acceleration
(centripetal acceleration) is towards the centre of the circle.
Centripetal acceleration: rate of change of velocity of a body following a circular path,

directed towards the centre of the circle.
There is a centripetal force acting in the same direction as the centripetal acceleration.
Centripetal force: resultant force that must act towards the centre of a circle to make a body
follow a circular path.
From the diagram above, the average acceleration between points A and B:
a = v
t
= vB - vA
tB - t A
As t gets close to zero, Distance AB = v t (no acceleration)
From similar triangles DF = AB Thus v = v t
DE OA v r
v = v2
t r
a = centripetal acceleration (ms-2) Centripetal acceleration: a = v2

v = velocity (ms-1) r
r = radius of circular path (m)
(The proof of this equation will not be examined)
Gravitational acceleration is the centripetal acceleration for satellites orbiting the earth.
A resultant force acts towards the centre to produce this acceleration. Without the centripetal force, the
body would continue in a straight line along the tangent.
Resultant force = mass acceleration (Newton II)
Centripetal force: F = mv2

F = Resultant force on object (N) r
m = mass of object (kg)
No work is done by the centripetal force as there is no displacement in the direction of the resultant
force. The centripetal force does not change the speed of the object and therefore does not change its
kinetic energy, only is direction of motion.
When a body is undergoing uniform circular motion, it travels right round the circumference, a distance
2r, in a time T. Since speed is distance/time v = 2r
T
But T = 2 , so v = 2r Thus: v = r
2/
Summary:
Angular velocity: v = r =
t
Centripetal acceleration: a = v2 a = r 2
r
Centripetal force: F = mv2 F = m r 2
r
Period & Frequency: T=1 T = 2
f
Oscillations and Simple Harmonic Motion
Syllabus extract:
Simple harmonic motion
Characteristic features of simple harmonic motion.
Condition for SHM: a = (2f)2x
x = A cos 2ft and v = 2f (A2 x2)
Graphical representations linking x, v, a and t.
Velocity as gradient of displacement-time graph.
Maximum speed = 2fA.
Maximum acceleration = (2f)2A
Simple harmonic systems

Study of mass-spring system: T = 2 (m/k)
Study of simple pendulum: T = 2 (l/g)
Variation of Ek, Ep and total energy with displacement, and with time.
Forced vibrations and resonance

Qualitative treatment of free and forced vibrations.
Resonance and the effects of damping on the sharpness of resonance.
Phase difference between driver and driven displacements.
Examples of these effects in mechanical systems and stationary wave situations
There are four different kinds of motion that we can encounter in Physics:
Linear (in a straight line)
Circular (going round in a circle)
Rotational (spinning on an axis)
Oscillations (going backwards and forwards in a to-and-fro movement.)
Anything that swings or bounces or vibrates in a regular to-and-fro motion is said to oscillate.
Examples include a swinging pendulum or a spring bouncing up and down. It is said that the regularity
of a swinging object was first described by a teenage Galileo who watched a chandelier swinging during
a church service in Pisa.
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) describes the

way that oscillating objects move. Consider a spring
with a mass going from side to side. A mass is
mounted on a small railway truck, which is free to
move from side to side, and there is negligible
friction in the truck.
The rest or equilibrium position at O is where the

spring would hold the mass when it is not bouncing.
A is the position where the spring is stretched the
most, and B is where the spring is squashed most.
At A there is a large restoring force because that is

where the spring is stretched most. As a result of this the mass is accelerated. It accelerates towards
the rest position.
Its velocity to the left increases. The acceleration decreases as the mass approached the rest
position.
Because of inertia, the mass overshoots the rest position.
Then the spring is being compressed, and there is a restoring force to the right.
At B the acceleration is at a maximum, but this time to the right.
At both A and B, the potential energy is at a maximum; the kinetic energy is zero.
As the mass passes the equilibrium position, there is zero potential energy, but maximum kinetic
energy because this is the point at which the object has its greatest velocity. Therefore there is an
interchange between potential and kinetic energy. The process is never 100 % efficient; some energy is
lost as heat and the process is not indefinite.
We can write down a relationship between the acceleration, a, and the displacement, x.
Since F = ma (Newton II) and F = kx (Hookes law)
Then a = F/m = kx/m
So we are saying that the acceleration is proportional to the displacement from the equilibrium position.
However that is not the whole story. Acceleration is a vector, so we must be careful of the direction.
The acceleration is towards the equilibrium position.
For all cases:
If the acceleration of a body is directly proportional to its distance from a fixed point and is
always directed towards that point, the motion is simple harmonic.
a -x a = - Kx where K is a constant.
The minus sign is important as it tells us that the acceleration is towards the equilibrium position or in
the opposite direction of the displacement.
SHM can be linked to circular motion.
Some useful relationships for SHM
Generally we measure the period, which is the time taken to make a complete oscillation or cycle. The
frequency is the reciprocal of the period:
f = 1/T
Acceleration can be linked to displacement by:
a = - (2f ) 2 x
This satisfies the condition for SHM that a = -Kx; in this case K = (2f )2.
Angular velocity is a quantity that is borrowed from circular motion. It is the angle in radians turned
per second. In SHM terms, we can consider it as the fraction of a cycle per second. It can be, of
course, greater than 1:
= 2f
This can also be written as:
a = - 2 x
The velocity at any point in the oscillation given by:
v 2 = (2f ) 2(A 2 x 2)
Thus v = 2f A 2 x 2
In this relationship, A is the amplitude and x is the displacement from the equilibrium position. If x =
0, v has a maximum value; if x = A, v = 0. The velocity is 0 at each extreme of the oscillation.
The displacement, x, is given by:

x = A cos 2f t
The plus and minus sign here tells us that the motion is forwards and backwards. Which sign we give
for direction is up to the individual. Generally left to right is forwards.
All these equations are true for any

simple harmonic motion. We can show
the relationships graphically by showing
displacement, velocity, and acceleration
against time:
These graphs are sinusoidal. The

displacement is /2 radians (900 or
cycle) behind the velocity. The
displacement and acceleration are
1800 radians out of phase.
Two Simple Harmonic Oscillators
1. Mass on a spring
The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the force (Hookes Law). Consider a mass,
m, put onto a spring of spring constant k so that so that it stretches by an extension l.
The force on the spring =

mg, and the stretching
tension = k l.
Thus mg = k l
Suppose the spring is pulled

down by a distance x below
the rest position. Now the
stretching force become
k(l + x).
This is also the tension in

the spring acting upwards.
So the restoring force,
F up = k(l + x)
mg.
This is because mg is the weight, which always acts downwards.
Since k l = mg, we can write:
F up = k l + kx k l
We can now apply Newton II to write:
-kx = ma (The negative sign tells us that the force is upwards)
We know from SHM that a = - (2f ) 2 x, so we can write: a = -kx/m = - (2f ) 2 x
So we can rearrange this to say that (2f ) 2 = k/m.
Since a = - (2f ) 2 x we can say that the condition for SHM is satisfied in this system, as long as
Hookes Law is obeyed. Since T = 1/f, we can now write down an expression to relate the period with
the mass and the spring constant.
T = 2(m/k)
This tells us that if we want to double the period, the mass has to be increased by four times. If we plot
a graph of T2 against m we will get a straight line, since T 2 = 42 (m/k). The gradient will be 42/k The
relationship of the graph suggests that the line should cut through the origin. However we find that it
does not. This is due to the mass of the spring itself; the effective mass of the spring is about 1/3 the
actual mass of the spring itself. However if the mass on the spring is very much bigger than the mass
of the spring, this effect is negligible.
The Simple Pendulum
Consider a small bob of mass m hanging from a very light string, length l , which in turn hangs from a
fixed point. If it is pulled to one side through a small angle it will swing with a to-and-fro movement
in the arc of a circle
As weight mg is a vector, we can break it into its two components, mg cos and mg sin .
At point A the bob accelerates with an acceleration a due to the force mg sin .
We can apply Newton II to write:

-mg sin = ma [negative sign as the force is directed to equilibrium position]
If is small and in radians, we can say that sin . This does not work for degrees. We can
measure the chord OA, which is the displacement. Remember that displacement is the straight-line
distance between two points. Now we can say that the displacement, x = L sin . So we can
therefore rewrite this as x = L. So now we
can write:
-mg = -mg(x/L) = ma [ms cancel
out]
thus a = -gx/L = - (2f ) 2x
The relationship a L = -(2f ) 2x arises because

this is a simple harmonic oscillator.
A
In this case (2f ) 2 mgsin = g/L because the x terms
cancel out. mgcos
We know that O period is given by T = 1/f.
W = mg
So we can write the formula linking period with length and gravity constant as:
T = 2(L/g)
Notice that T is independent of amplitude or mass of the bob.
If we plot a graph of T2 against L, we get a straight line of which the gradient is 42/g. To measure g we
divide 42 by the gradient we get. We can get a relatively accurate determination of this if we:
Count at least 100 swings, use a swing angle of less than 10 o, measure L to the centre of the bob and
count the oscillations as the bob passes the equilibrium position.
Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

There is constant interchange between kinetic and potential energy as the pendulum (or other oscillator)
swings to-and-fro. If the system does not have to work against restrictive forces, such as friction, the
total energy will remain constant.
E tot = E p + E k
We can
show the
variation of
the energy
graphically:
Now we will look at the energy with

displacement:
Potential energy is highest when the
oscillator is at the maximum amplitude;
Kinetic energy is highest when the

oscillator
Free and Forced Vibrations
An oscillation is any to-and-fro movement.

It can arise from:
a swinging pendulum;
a mass bouncing on a spring;
a vibrating system.
We need to define some terms:

Cycle a complete to-and-fro movement;
Period time taken for a complete to-and-fro movement. It is given the Physics symbol T and
measured in seconds
Frequency how many cycles there are in a second. Physics symbol f and measured in Hertz (Hz).
If we swing a pendulum at let it swing freely, it will swing at its natural frequency. The same will apply
to a mass bouncing up and down on a spring.
If we try to make the oscillator oscillate, we apply a forcing frequency. An example of this is the push we
give to a child on a swing.
If the forced vibrations have the same frequency as the natural frequency, the amplitude of
the oscillations will get very large. We can show this with our child on the swing. If we apply the
push at the same point of the swing every time, the child swings higher and higher. We call this
situation resonance.
If we plot a graph of amplitude against

frequency, we see a very large peak.
It occurs at the resonant frequency,
which we give the symbol f 0. When
considering the resonant frequency of
strings and columns of air, we often
call this the fundamental frequency.
Resonance has many uses:

In order to sound heavy church bells
(which may have masses of several
tonnes), bell ringers swing them at the
resonant frequency of the bell in its
carriage. They cannot swing them at any other rate. Resonance of strings at their fundamental
frequency and multiples of them give us musical sounds. Wind instruments are sounded by making a
column of air resonate by either blowing a whistle or a raspberry at one end. Resonance of electrons
makes radio waves and allows them to be received. Resonance can also be a nuisance or even
dangerous: Panels in a bus rattling.
Resonance in a car suspension needs to be damped. If the dampers (shock absorbers) are not working
properly, the car could go out of control.
If a suspension bridge started rocking in a wind at its resonant frequency, its oscillations would get so
large that the bridge would collapse.
The amplitude of resonant oscillations can be reduced by damping.

Light damping reduces
oscillations slowly.
Heavy damping
reduces oscillations
quickly.
Critical damping stops
the oscillation within one
cycle.
The graph on the right

shows light damping.
Over-damped systems do not oscillate. They take a long time to return to the equilibrium position. An
example is the return spring on a door. The graph looks like this
The graph
below shows
the effect on amplitude of damping. The resonant frequency changes slightly.
Useful website: http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/feschools/waves/shm.htm
Gravitation
Syllabus extract:
Newtons Law
Gravity as a universal attractive force acting between all matter.
Force between point masses, F = Gm1m2/r2 where G is the gravitational constant.
Gravitational field strength

Concept of a force field as a region in which a body experiences a force.
Representation by gravitational field lines.
g as force per unit mass defined by: g = F/m
Magnitude of g in a radial field given by: g = GM/r2
Gravitational potential
Understanding of the definition of gravitational potential, including zero value at
infinity, and of gravitational potential difference.
Work done in moving mass m given by W = mV
Magnitude of V in a radial field given by: V = GM/r
Graphical representations of variations of g and V with r.
V related to g by: g= V/r
Orbits of planets and satellites

Orbital period and speed related to radius of circular orbit.
Energy considerations for an orbiting satellite.
Significance of a geosynchronous orbit.
Gravity, Newtons law, the gravitational constant G
The concept of a field

The mass of an object creates a force field around it. Any other mass placed in the field is attracted
towards the object. The second object also has a force field around itself, and this pulls on the first
object with an equal force. The force field around a mass is called a
Gravitational Field.
Lines of force
A small mass, assuming it is free to move, is pulled by the force towards the
more massive body. The path which the smaller mass would follow is called a
field line, or a line of force. For a spherical object, the field lines are directed
towards the centre of the object.

The strength of a gravitational field, g, is the force per unit mass on a small test mass placed in the field.
g=F
m
F = force on a small test mass m placed in the field

g = gravitational field strength where m is placed.
The force varies from one position to another so g varies too. The unit of g is N kg-1 or ms-2
g near the earths surface is 9.8 ms -2
Field strength understood as a vector quantity.

Field strength is a vector quantity and is directed towards the centre of the object producing the
gravitational field.
Newtons Law of Gravitation: Force between point masses

All masses exert an attractive force on all other masses. Two point masses
m1 and m2 separated by a distance r attract each other with a force F
directly proportional to the product of the masses and indirectly proportional
to the square of the distance between them.
F =- G m 1 m 2
r2
G is the universal constant of gravitation and is a measure of the strength of the gravitational forces.
It is equal to the force in newtons exerted on a pair of 1 kg masses separated by 1 m.
G = 6.673 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
The negative sign is present because the force and separation are in the opposite direction.
Gravitational field strength in radial fields
Uniform field
In a uniform field, g will remain constant. You can consider the Earths gravitational field to be uniform as
long as you dont move more than a few kilometres above the surface of the Earth. On the surface of
the Earth, g = 9.81 Nkg-1
Radial Field
It is clear looking at the diagram of field lines that the field varies as you move away from the object at
its centre. In a radial field, the field strength reduces as you move away from the centre.
g=-GM
r2
g = field strength
G = the universal gravitational constant, value 6.7x10 -11 Nkg-2m2
M =the mass of the object producing the field
r = the distance from the centre of the object causing the field.
Increase the mass and you increase the strength of the gravitational field.
Increase the separation between yourself and the mass at the centre of the field and the field
strength reduces. This is called an inverse square law as field strength is proportional to the inverse
of the square of the separation of the masses.
r is taken from the centre of gravity of the object, the point at which all the mass seems to be.
Some facts about g
g is a vector
g is a property of the position in a field. That means that it is the same whether or not there is an
object at that point in the field.
We can define Gravitational Potential (V) as the work done per kg on an object when it moves
from infinity to a point in a field.
In other words, this means the work done to move a unit mass from infinity to the point under
consideration.
The zero point for gravitational potential is at infinity, so as we are moving towards the Earth, we are
getting work out of the system. Therefore gravitational potential is negative. If we moved the object
away to infinity, we would have to do work on the object. We work out gravitational potential with the
formula:
V = - GM
r
The gravitational potential at any point tells us the potential energy of each kilogram mass at that
point. V is measured in joules per kilogram (J kg -1)
Equipotential surfaces
Equipotentials are lines of constant potential. The equipotentials near the earth are uniformly spaced.
A 1 kg mass raised from the surface by 1 m gains 9.8 J of E P, If raised another 1 m it gains another 9.8
J. However, much higher up, the gravitational field strength becomes weaker, so the gain of E P per
meter of height becomes less. Further away from earth the equipotentials become more spaced out.
Look at any of the circular lines on the diagram to the left. The line is drawn a distance r from the centre
of the Earth. The potential at any point on that line is the same.
As this is a series of points of equal

potential, we call it an
equipotential. If you follow a path
along an equipotential, your EP
doesnt change. Therefore you
dont lose or gain energy. No work
is done.
Thats the theory behind why

satellites can remain in space
without always using energy to stay
there. They follow equipotentials. It
also applies to the Moon orbiting
the Earth and the Earth orbiting the
Sun. They all follow equipotentials.
Potential Gradient
If you draw equipotentials showing uniform, regular changes (steps) in potential, you will notice that the
space between them increases as you move away from the Earth. This shows that the potential
changes more rapidly for changes in height near the Earth than for changes of height a long distance
away from the Earth. It can be shown that:
Potential gradient = gravitational field strength, g = - V

x
where x is the distance from the centre of the earth.
Application to satellite
orbits.
Any small mass which

orbits a much larger mass
is called a satellite. The
moon is the earths only
natural satellite. For a
satellite orbiting a star or a
planet, the gravitational
attraction provides the
centripetal force. Johannes Kepler was a 16th century astronomer who studied the motion of the
planets. Through years of analyzing data, he came up with three laws that govern the motion of the
planets around the sun. He arrived at them trial-and-error, but Newton's laws of motion and gravitation
would later explain why they were true. Keplers Laws describe the orbital motion of the planets
around the sun. Newton showed that the same laws apply to the motion of any satellite. He based his
theory of gravitation on Keplers laws.
Artificial Earth Satellites
The period of a satellites orbit depends on the radius of its orbit. Geostationary satellites are put into
equatorial orbits of an altitude of about 36000 km where they have a period of 24 hours. They remain
above the same point on the rotating earth. The GPS or global positioning system operated by the
USA consists of 24 satellites placed so that several are always in line-of-sight contact with each point on
the earth.
Electric Fields
Syllabus extract:
Coulombs law
Force between point charges in a vacuum, F = Q1Q2/40r2 where 0 is the
permittivity of free space.
Electric field strength

E as force per unit charge defined by E = F/Q
Representation by electric field lines.
Magnitude of E in a radial field given by: E = Q/40r2
Magnitude of E in a uniform field given by: E = V/d
Electric potential
Understanding of definition of absolute electric potential, including zero value at
infinity, and of electric potential difference.
Work done in moving charge Q given by: W = QV
Magnitude of V in a radial field given by: V = Q/40r
Graphical representations of variations of E and V with r.
Comparison of electric and gravitational fields

Similarities; inverse square law fields having many characteristics in common.
Differences; masses always attract but charges may attract or repel.
Electrostatic phenomena and electric charge.
Charging by contact (friction): two kinds of charge.
Static electricity studies the forces between stationary electric charges. Inside an atom, electrons carry
a negative electric charge while protons carry a positive electric charge. Since protons are basically
stuck inside the nucleus of an atom, the electrons that are in motion around the nucleus are usually the
charge carriers. So, objects get charged mainly by gaining or losing electrons. Objects that have a
positive charge have less electrons than protons. Objects that have a negative charge have more
electrons than protons. If an object does not have an electrical charge, it is called electrically neutral.
Objects that have opposite charges are attracted to one another. Objects that have the same charges
are repelled from one another. When two charged objects touch, the charge will be distributed evenly
between them because electrons will flow from one object to another. Also, if two oppositely charged
objects come in contact, some or all of their charges may cancel each other out.
An electrical ground is something capable of accepting or donating large number of electrons without
significantly affecting its own electrical state. When an object is grounded, the object becomes neutral
because it gives or receives electrons from the ground. The ground is so called because the earth can
be an electrical ground. Since the earth is so big, it can give or accept electrons without affecting its own
charge much.
When two objects transfer charge from one another, the total charge of their
system must be conserved. In other words, the total charge of the two objects
before must be the same as the total charge of the two objects after the transfer.
The illustration at right gives an example of this principle.
We have one object with a charge of +4 and another object with a charge of -12.
Their total charge is -8. When they touch, the charge is evenly distributed between each of them
(electrons are transferred from the -12 to the +4). When they separate, their total charge still remains -8.
Thus, the charges will each have a charge of -4.
The electronic charge.
The SI unit for electrical charge is the coulomb (C). All charges have discrete units. The smallest
magnitude of electrical charge you can ever get normally is 1.6 x 10 -19 C (this value is referred to as e).
An object can have a charge of 2e or 3e, but it cannot have one of 2.5e. This is because the charge of
an electron is -1.6 x 10-19 C. Similarly the charge on a proton is +1.6 x 10 -19 C. You cannot have half an
electron or half a proton.
"An electric field is a region in which particles with charge experience a force "
We represent electric fields with diagrams that have conventions (or rules) that need to be followed. For
example:
The field lines (and arrows) show the direction of the force that would be felt by a positive
charge at that point in the field. Note that unlike gravitational fields, electric fields can attract or repel
objects.
The spacing between the lines shows how strong the field is at that point. In this case
its strongest near to the charge because the lines are closest there.
This field is uniform because the spacing between the lines remains the same
throughout the field shown. The field lines are parallel and equispaced.
Electric field strength.
The direction of a field is always outward from a positive charge and

inward towards a negative charge. The illustration to the left shows
the electric field of a positive charge. The one to the right shows
that of a negative charge. Field lines show where a charge particle
would move in an interaction with the
field. It is just another way of picturing the force between charges.
The strength of the field is called the field intensity or field strength ( E ), which is the force per charge on
a particular area: This is defined as the force per unit charge acting at a point in the
field .
F
E
q
E = electric field strength, F = force acting in newtons, q = the charge in coulombs
Units of E are NC -1 or Vm -1
Field strength is a vector - it has direction as well as magnitude.

This is important to remember because in electric fields you can have field strengths acting in different
directions due to different signs of charge.
Force between point charges

Same Charges Opposite Charges
In the case of same charges, notice

how the field lines are pushed away
from each other. This is because field
lines cannot cross. Thus, the two
charges repel from one another.
In the case of opposite charges, you can see how the field lines originate from the positive charge and
go into the negative charge. Field lines like to terminate at a negative charge. Thus, the two charges
attract one another.
The coulomb was named for Charles Augustus Coulomb, who did experiments in 1785 on electrical
charges. Coulomb devised a law to figure out the force between two charges:
1 Q1Q2
F
4 0 r 2
Where for free space, or air, 0 = 8.85 X 10-12 Fm-1
Electric field strength in radial fields
Inverse square law.

kQ
E
r2
Field between Oppositely Charged Parallel Conducting Plates
If you have a uniform electric field, you can also express the electric field
intensity using potential drop: The illustration to the left shows what the field
lines of two plane parallel conducting plates are. The field between the plates
is basically uniformly spaced but there is a little fringing, at the edges. We are
not concerned with the edges so we can assume it is uniform. These parallel
plates are the basis of capacitors.
Potential difference or potential drop is the change in electric potential between two points.
Potential drop (V) is given by:
V = Ed
V= the pd between the plates The units for potential drop is the volt (V). This is why potential drop is
sometimes called voltage.
d is the change in position in meters. This is why electric field strength is sometimes expressed in volts
per meter instead of Newtons per coulomb, though they are the same exact thing.
E=V
d
Electric field strength in uniform fields
If an electric field repels a charged particle from a certain direction, work must be done to move the
particle in that direction. Electric potential is the work per unit charge that is needed to move that
particle. For example, if work has to be done to move a positively charged particle from point A to point
B in an electric field, point B has a higher potential than point A. If the particle "falls" from point B back to
point A, it will be able to perform the same amount of work done to it.
A - - - - - - - - - - -
B + + + + + + + + +
The work done to move one elementary charge ( e) across the potential difference of one volt is:
W = Vq = (1.0 V)(1.6 x 10-19 C) = 1.6 x 10-19 J
Now, 1.6 x 10-19 J is a very small number to be working with sometimes. So, physicists decided to call
this value the electronvolt (eV):
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
Physicists use the electronvolt because its size is convenient for expressing the energies involved in
some chemical reactions between atoms.
Electric potential difference

W QV
When charged particles move in an electric field, work is being done by the field on the particles. In this
special case the work can be expressed in terms of potential energy which is associated with something
called electric potential. It is the potential that the particle has to do work, and since it is in an electric
field, electric potential seems like the most logical name for it. It is actually just like potential energy in
every respect.
Let's say we are talking about an electric field around a point charge, all spheres with a radius of r have
the same electric field strength. What that means is that the force of the electric field is the same for two
points as long as they are equidistant from the point. What that also means is that if the path of the
charge being moved, having work done on it, was curvy or straight, the amount of work done would be
the same. Work is another way of saying the change in potential energy. The change in potential energy
is the same whether the path taken is curvy or straight.
Now instead of dealing directly with potential energy of a charged particle, it might be better to just deal
with the more general concept of potential energy per unit charge, which is called simply potential. The
potential at any point of an electrostatic field is defined
as the potential energy per unit charge at the point and
is represented by V:
Potential is scalar because both potential energy and

charge are scalar. The potential of 1 J/C is called 1 Volt
(V) and is named after the Italian scientist Alessandro
Volta (1745-1827).
Equipotential surfaces.
Just as in gravitational fields, you can draw equipotentials on a field diagram. They are points in the
field of equal potential. In all cases, the equipotentials are at right angles to the field lines.
The separation of the equipotentials tells you about the field. Evenly spaced equipotentials - its a
uniform field.
Increasing separation - a weakening field.
The rate of change of spacing between equipotentials is called the potential gradient
and it can be shown that Field strength, E = potential gradient
Similarities and differences between Electric and Gravitational fields

Gravitational fields Electric fields
Vector quantity

Vector quantity
Act on all particles with mass

Act on all particles with charge
Always attractive

Attractive and repulsive
F = mg where g = gravitational field

F = qE where E = electric field
intensity/strength (force per unit mass)
intensity/strength (force per unit charge)
g is found by measuring the force exerted on

E is found by measuring the force exerted
a test mass of 1kg placed in the field
on a positive test charge (1C) charge
g measured in Nkg-1

E is measured in NC-1
Gravitational equipotentials are lines of equal

Electrical equipotentials are lines of equal
gravitational energy
electrical energy
The forces between point masses obeys an

The forces between point masses obeys
inverse square law:
an inverse square law:
Gm1 m2
F
r2 1 Q1Q2
F
4 0 r 2
There is nothing you can put round a mass

A metal container connected to earth
to shield other masses from its
gravitational effect. placed around a charge will shield other
Point masses and spherical masses produce charges from its effect.
a radial gravitational field directed

Point charges and spherical charges
towards the centre of the mass
produce a radial electric field directed
towards the centre of the negative charge
and away from the centre of a positive
charge
Capacitance
Syllabus extract:
Capacitance
Definition of capacitance; C=Q/V
Energy stored by a capacitor

Derivation of E = Q V and interpretation of area under a graph of charge against
p.d.
E = Q V = C V2 = Q2/ C
Capacitor discharge
Graphical representation of charging and discharging of capacitors through resistors
Time constant = RC
Calculation of time constants including their determination from graphical data.
Quantitative treatment of capacitor discharge, Q = Qo e-t/RC
Candidates should have experience of the use of a voltage sensor and datalogger to
plot discharge curves for a capacitor.
Capacitance is the ability of an object or surface to store an electrical charge. It is simply a measure of
the capacity of the electrical storage capability of the object.
Capacitors
Capacitance is typified by a parallel plate
arrangement and is defined in terms of charge
storage:
where
Q = magnitude of charge stored on

each plate.
V = voltage applied to the plates.
A capacitor stores energy.

A capacitor stores equal amounts of opposite charge on its two plates.
Parallel Capacitors: Consider two capacitors in parallel
The charge Q which comes out of the battery is deposited on both

capacitors and since charge is conserved
(1)
The potential across each capacitor is the same and equal to the
battery voltage V.
(2)
Divide each term of the above equation. by V and use equation. (2) to obtain
(3)
From the definition of capacitance
(4)
equation. (3) yields
(5)
for capacitors in parallel.
Series Capacitors: Consider two capacitors in series as

indicated on the right:
The battery voltage is the sum of the voltages across each

capacitor
(6)
The amount of charge Q which flows out of the battery is the same amount that resides on each
capacitor, that is
(7)
Divide each term of equation. (6) by Q and use equation. (7) to obtain
(8)
Finally use the definition of effective capacitance
(9)
and the capacitance of each capacitor in equation. (8) for each capacitor
(10) .
Example: Find the effective capacitance of the three capacitor on

the right
First for the two capacitors in parallel we have the effective

capacitance
and the circuit is reduced to
Finally for the two capacitors in series one obtains
where the total capacitance is the effective capacitance of all three capacitors.
Energy Stored on a Charged Capacitor
Consider a graph of V against Q for a capacitor.
The electrical work done in adding a small amount of charge

(dQ) to the capacitor is given by
dW = dQ x V
This is the area of the strip shown. The total work done is the
sum of all such strips and is the area under the line.
Energy stored = Area under the line
Energy stored = Q0V0
Other forms of the expression: - Since Q = CV
Energy Stored = Q0V0 Energy Stored = C V02 Energy Stored = Q02/C
Graphical Representation and Quantitative Treatment of Capacitor Discharge

Many electronic circuits use the charge and discharge of a capacitor. If we discharge a capacitor, we
find that the charge decreases by the same fraction for each time interval. If it takes time t for the
charge to decay to 50 % of its original level, we find that the charge after another t seconds is 25 % of
the original (50 % of 50 %). This time interval is called the half-life of the decay. The decay curve
against time is called an exponential decay.
The voltage, current, and charge all decay exponentially during the capacitor discharge.
We can plot a graph using a circuit like this:
We can note the voltage and current at time intervals and plot the data, which gives us the exponential
graph shown on the next page. We should note the following about the graph:
Its shape is unaffected by the voltage.
The half life of the decay is independent of the voltage.
The current follows exactly the same pattern as I = V/R.
The charge is represented by the voltage, as Q = CV.
The graph is asymptotic, i.e. in theory the capacitor does not completely discharge. In practice, it
does.
The graph is described by the relationship: Q = Q0 e t/RC

[Q charge (C); Q0 charge at the start; e exponential number (2.718); t time (s);
C capacitance (F); R resistance (W).]
For voltage and current, the equation becomes:

V= V0 e t/RC
I = I0 e t/RC
The product RC (capacitance resistance) which we see in the formula is called the time constant.
The units for the time constant are seconds. We can go back to base units to show that ohms farads
are seconds. So if we discharge the capacitor for RC seconds, we can easily find out the fraction of
charge left:
V= V0 e RC/RC = V0 e 1 = 0.37 V 0
So after RC seconds the voltage is 37 % of the original. This is used widely by electronic engineers. To
increase the time taken for a discharge we can:
Increase the resistance.
Increase the capacitance.
We can link the half-life to the capacitance. At the half life:
Q = Q0/2
t = t1/2
Q0/2 = Q0 e t1/2/RC
= e t1/2/RC
2-1 = e t1/2/RC
e + t1/2/RC = 2
loge (2) = t1/2/RC [In text books you may see the natural logarithm written as ln]
t1/2 = loge (2) RC = 0.693 RC
The half-life is 69 % of the time constant.
Magnetic Fields
Syllabus extract:
Magnetic flux density

Force on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field.
F = BIl, when field is perpendicular to current.
Flemings left hand rule
Magnetic flux density B and definition of the Tesla
Moving charges in a magnetic field

Force on charged particles moving in a magnetic field.
F = BQv when the field is perpendicular to velocity.
Circular path of particles; application in devices such as the cyclotron.
Magnetic flux and flux linkage

Magnetic flux defined by = BA where B is normal to A.
Flux linkage as N where N is the number of turns cutting the flux.
Flux and flux linkage passing through a rectangular coil rotated in a magnetic field:
flux linkage N = BAN cos where is the angle between the normal to the plane of
the coil and the magnetic field.
Electromagnetic induction (part)

Simple experimental phenomena.
Faradays and Lenzs laws.
Magnitude of induced emf = rate of change of flux linkage = N /t
Applications such as a moving straight conductor.
Emf induced in a coil rotating uniformly in a magnetic field:
= BAN sin t
The operation of a transformer.
The transformer equation: Ns/Np = Vs/Vp
Transformer efficiency = IsVs / IpVp
Causes of inefficiency of a transformer.
Transmission of electrical power at high voltage.
Electro-Magnetism
Field due to a Current in a Straight Conductor
Field due to a Current in a Short Coil
Field due to a Current in a Long Coil (Solenoid)
Measuring the Strength of a Magnetic Field

When current flows through a conductor which is
in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a
force (unless the current flows parallel to the
magnetic field).
The direction of the force is at 90 to both the

current and the magnetic field. Flemings left hand rule helps to remember the relation between
the three directions. This rule is for conventional current. Electron flow will give the opposite
direction for the force.
Factors affecting the Magnitude of the force
Experiments show that:
F is proportional to the current, I and F is proportional to the length of the conductor in the field l
F = (a constant) I l
and, if the current flows at 90 to the field, the constant is called the magnetic flux density (symbol, B).
B is a measure of the strength of the magnetic field.
F = BIl The units of B are NA-1m-1 or Teslas (T)
B is also known as the magnetic flux density.
Flux: The group of magnetic field lines emitted outward from the north pole of a magnet is called
magnetic flux. Magnetic field lines are lines of magnetic flux or flow The symbol for magnetic flux is
(phi).
The SI unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb). One weber is equal to 1 x 108, magnetic field lines.
Magnetic Flux Density : Magnetic flux density is the amount of magnetic flux per unit area of a
section, perpendicular to the direction of flux.
Magnetic flux density = magnetic flux

area
B=
A
B is measured in Teslas (T)

is measured in Webers (Wb)
A is area in meters squared (m2)
Magnetic Flux Density is the force per unit current per unit length acting on a conductor placed at 90
to the field.
Magnetic flux density of the Earth = 10-5 T

Air cored solenoid: 10-3 T
Bar Magnet: 10-1 T
Iron cored solenoid: 1 T
Ernest O. Lawrence (1901-1958) helped elevate American physics to world

leadership. His invention of the cyclotron, an accelerator of subatomic particles,
won him the Nobel Prize in 1939. His entrepreneurial development of the
Radiation Laboratory at Berkeley ushered in the era of Big Science. During
World War II Lawrence and his machines took part in the Manhattan Project,
which produced the first atomic bombs.
The Cyclotron
The two hollow D-shaped objects
(open on their straight edges) are
made of copper sheet.
These dees, as they are called,
form part of an electrical oscillator,
which establishes an alternating
potential difference across the gap
between them.
The dees are immersed in a

magnetic field.
Suppose that a proton, starts near
the center of the cyclotron, initially
moves toward a negatively dee. It will accelerate toward this dee and will enter it.
Once inside, it is "screened" from electric fields by the copper walls of the dee. The magnetic field is not
screen by the (nonmagnetic) copper dee, so the proton moves in the circle path.
Assume that at the instant the proton emerges into the center gap (again) from first dee, the
accelerating potential difference has changed sign. Thus the proton again faces a negatively charged
dee and is again accelerated.
This process continues, the circulating proton always being in step with the oscillations of the dee
potential, until the proton spirals out of the edge of the dee system. The frequency of the electric
oscillator must match the cyclotron frequency. If the gap between the dees is very small, the two
frequencies are the same.
Electromagnetic Induction
For a solenoid: The magnetic field strength B within a solenoid is independent of the cross-sectional
area of the solenoid, provided the length of the solenoid is large compared with its diameter. It depends
on the current I flowing and on the number of turns per unit length, n (the turns density)
Magnetic Flux linkage

area
When a coil having N turns surrounds a magnetic flux , each turn links a flux .
The total magnetic flux of the coil is N (magnetic flux link)

NB = N
A
area
Number of turns N
Electromagnetic induction was discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831. Faraday found that if a
conductor "cuts across" lines of magnetic force, or if magnetic lines of force cut across a conductor, a
voltage, or EMF (E), is induced into the conductor.
Dynamos generate electricity. Whenever there is relative motion between a wire and a magnet, an
e.m.f. is induced in the wire. The induced e.m.f. drives a current around the circuit. The moving wire is
a source of electrical energy.
EMF Induced in a Conductor Moving through a Magnetic Field
Consider the arrangement on the

left. If a wire is pushed to the right
through a magnetic field directed
into the page then the magnetic
field will force the electrons in the
wire to one end (downwards) and
then round the circuit. To keep a
steady current, the wire must be
moved with constant speed.
But now the wire is a current

carrying conductor in a magnetic
field so it experiences a magnetic
force which opposes its motion. To keep the rod moving, the applied force F must be equal and
opposite to the magnetic force B I l
The rod moving at a velocity v moves a distance of vt in time t. So the work done by the applied
force is given by
Work done = force (F) x distance moved (vt) = B I l vt
Electrical energy is produced from the work done:
E = work/Q Q = It EIt = B I l vt
Thus E = Blv
Faradays Law of Electro-Magnetic Induction
The magnitude of an induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux
linkage. ie the magnitude of the induced voltage depends on two factors: (1) the number of turns of a
coil, and (2) how fast the conductor cuts across the magnetic lines of force, or flux.
The induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic

flux linking the conductor.
E = N d
dt
Lenzs Law
The direction of the induced current is always so as to oppose

the change which causes the current.
A bar magnet approaching a coil induces a current in the coil

This current in the coil causes a magnetic field around the solenoid
The side of the solenoid closest to the magnet gets the same polarity as the magnet.
This repels the magnet back
When the pole is moved away then the pole closest to the magnet gets the opposite polarity.
Both the laws of e.m.f. can be combined into a single mathematical statement.
E = -
t
and, if the conductor is a coil having N turns, we have:

E = - N
t
When a magnet is dropped through a coil the following graph of the induced emf against time can be
found:
S
Positions of S
Magnet:
N S
N
S
N S
N
N
Induced emf
time
The magnetic field is at its strongest at the ends of the magnet. If the magnet is dropped from a greater
height then the emf would be larger but it would last for a shorter time.
The area under the graph = E t = N (The change in magnetic flux linkage)
The Laws of Electro-Magnetic Induction

.....
A B
If no current can flow through the coil, it is not (visibly) affected by the moving magnet (diagram
A).
If the coil is short circuited, a current can flow due to the induced emf and the coil is observed to
be pushed away from the magnet (diagram B). Similarly, if the magnet is moved the opposite
way, the coil "tries" to follow it.
This observation illustrates Lenzs law which states:
When electro-magnetic induction occurs, any induced current flows in such a

way as to oppose the change producing it.
Lenzs law is simply the law of conservation of energy applied to electro-magnetic induction.
Magnetic materials are those materials that can be either attracted or repelled by a magnet and
can be magnetized themselves. The most commonly used magnetic materials are iron and steel. A
permanent magnet is made of a very hard magnetic material, such as cobalt steel, that retains its
magnetism for long periods of time when the magnetizing field is removed. A temporary magnet is a
material that will not retain its magnetism when the field is removed.
Magnetic materials are classified as either magnetic or nonmagnetic based on the highly magnetic
properties of iron. Because even weak magnetic materials may serve a useful purpose in some
applications, classification includes the three groups described below.
Ferromagnetic Materials: Some of the ferromagnetic materials used are iron, steel, nickel, cobalt,
and the commercial alloys, alnico and peralloy. Ferrites are nonmagnetic, but have the ferromagnetic
properties of iron. Ferrites are made of ceramic material and have relative permeabilities that range
from 50 to 200. They are commonly used in the coils for RF (radio frequency) transformers.
Paramagnetic Materials: These are materials such as aluminum, platinum, manganese, and
chromium. These materials have a relative permeability of slightly more than one.
Diamagnetic Materials: These are materials such as bismuth, antimony, copper, zinc, mercury,
gold, and silver. These materials have a relative permeability of less than one.
Applications of Electromagnetic Induction
The Alternating Current Generator
The structure of a simple

generator is essentially the same
as a motor. The difference is that
now mechanical energy is
converted into electrical energy.
The electrical current to an
external circuit is via a
commutator for an ac generator
or slip rings if ac is required.
The point at which the flux
linkage is the greatest is when
the coil is vertical as in the
diagram on the left. When the
coil is horizontal, the flux
linkage is instantaneously
zero.
Consider a coil having N turns,

rotating in a magnetic field of
uniform flux density, B. The
area of the coil is A and the
angle between the vertical and
the coil is .
Flux linkage: N NBA cos
If the angular velocity is , then t , so the flux linkage at any time, t, is given by
Flux linkage: N NBA cos t

Therefore, the induced emf at any instant is given as:
N NBA(cos t )

t t
Now, represents the slope of a graph of cos t against t.
It can easily be shown that the slope of a graph of cos t against t is equal to sin t so the
induced emf is given by:
The point at which the rate of flux-cutting is the

greatest is when the coil is horizontal as in the diagram above on the right. When the coil is vertical,
the rate of flux cutting is instantaneously zero.
Transformers
We can use a magnetic field to induce a voltage in two ways:
1. Relative movement. The size of the voltage depends on:

Speed the magnet passes through a coil or vice versa.
Number of turns in the coil.
Strength of the magnet.
2. Changing a magnetic field. We dont have to make the magnetic field move. If we turn the current
on or off, there is a change in the magnetic field, and that induces a voltage in a second
unconnected coil. This is called the transformer effect or mutual induction.
The transformer is a very simple machine.

A primary coil connected to the alternating power source. This provides the changing
magnetic field.
A secondary coil connected to the external circuit (bulbs, resistors etc)
A laminated soft iron core.
The two coils are electrically completely different circuits. Either of the coils can act as a primary. The
laminated core is made up of layers of soft iron separated by an insulating layer of varnish or glue.
This reduces energy losses from eddy currents. Soft iron means that it loses its magnetism
immediately the current is turned off. Therefore the magnetic field can change forwards to backwards
as the current changes.
The ratio of the input voltage to the output voltage is the same as the ratio of the number of turns on the
primary to the number of turns on the secondary. We can write this as:
Number of turns on the primary = Primary Voltage
Number of turns on the secondary Secondary voltage
N 1 V1
In Physics symbols: If N1 is greater than N2, we have a step-down transformer,
N 2 V2
because the voltage is reduced. A step-up transformer increases the voltage.
If a transformer is 100 % efficient (and it nearly is) we can say that: power in = power out
V1I1 = V2I2
Therefore we can say that when the voltage is lower, the current is bigger. We can rewrite the
transformer equation in terms of current to give us:
N1 I 2

N2 I1
In practice, the transformer is about 97 % efficient. When a large transformer is transferring a lot of
energy, even 3 % losses produce a fair amount of heat. Therefore the transformer is cooled with oil
which is pumped to heat exchangers.
How do we get electricity to our homes?

Electrical energy cannot be stored as electricity. In a battery it is converted to chemical energy. We
are constantly using electricity, so it has to be constantly generated. Electricity is generated in large
quantities in power stations.
Electricity is passed from the power station to our homes through a complex network of wires called the
National Grid. When you see pylons, these are part of the National Grid. The Grid is constructed in
such a way that if one line of wires (a transmission line) fails, other lines can take over so that the
electricity supply to our homes does not fail.
Generally the system is very reliable, although overhead power lines are vulnerable to: lightning strikes;
high winds; heavy snowfall. Underground cables are less vulnerable, but are much more expensive to
put in.
Mains electricity comes in to our homes at a voltage of 230 Volts (V). However it is not generated at
230 V because the current needed would be huge. Big currents need heavy cables that get hot. In the
power station the electricity is generated at 25 000 V (at a current of 100 000 A). Outside the power
station there are huge step-up transformers that take the voltage from 25 000 V to 275 000 V. The
voltage can be as high as 415 000 V in the super grid. Obviously 275 000 V is far too high a voltage to
use, so step-down transformers are used to reduce the voltage as follows:
Application Voltage
Local distribution 33 000 V
Railways 25 000 V
Heavy industry 11 000 V
Light Industry 415 V
Homes 230 V
The drawing shows a very simplified diagram of the National Grid.
Step down
Step up National
NationalGrid Step
transformer
Step up
transformer Grid down
transfor
275 Transfor
mer 275 000 V
000 V mer
1111000 V Factories
000
25 000 V
25 V
000 V
Power Station
230
230 V
V
The reason for voltage being so high is that the current is lower. Therefore the wires can HomHome
es of
be thinner, and don't get so hot. Therefore less energy is wasted. Even so there is a fair amount
energy lost in heating up the wires which heats up the countryside.

ALEVEL PHYSICS AQA Unit 4 Fields and Further Mechanics NOTES

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ALEVEL PHYSICS AQA Unit 4 Fields and Further Mechanics NOTES

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A2 unit 4

Unit 1 . PHYA1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Unit 2 . PHYA2 Mechanics, Materials and Waves

Unit 3 Investigative and Practical Skills in AS Physics

Unit 4 . PHYA4 Fields and Further Mechanics

Unit 5 . One of Units PHA5A, PHA5B, PHA5C, PHA5D

Unit 6 . Internal Assessment Investigative and Practical Skills in A2 Physics

Unit 4 PHYA4 Fields and Further Mechanics

Force and Momentum

A car will maintain a constant speed

Change in momentum Force

Thus Force = mass x acceleration F = ma

Momentum (kg ms-1) = mass (kg) x velocity (ms-1) p = mv

It is very important to make sure that you pay attention to

Think of a ball bouncing off a wall. It leaves the wall at the

This has important implications in the study of collisions.

Momentum is always conserved in collisions.

Property Large Object Small Object

We can show this as a diagram:

There are two important principles here:

Impulse (Ns) = Force (N) x time interval (s)

= angular speed ( rad s-1 )

The angle through which a line rotates can be defined as:

Angle of rotation = length of arc ( s )

For a complete circle the angle of rotation = 2r Thus = 2 radians

Centripetal acceleration: rate of change of velocity of a body following a circular path,

As t gets close to zero, Distance AB = v t (no acceleration)

From similar triangles DF = AB Thus v = v t

a = centripetal acceleration (ms-2) Centripetal acceleration: a = v2

(The proof of this equation will not be examined)

Resultant force = mass acceleration (Newton II)

Centripetal force: F = mv2

Oscillations and Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple harmonic motion

Simple harmonic systems

Forced vibrations and resonance

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) describes the

The rest or equilibrium position at O is where the

At A there is a large restoring force because that is

Since F = ma (Newton II) and F = kx (Hookes law)

Then a = F/m = kx/m

For all cases:

SHM can be linked to circular motion.

Some useful relationships for SHM

The velocity at any point in the oscillation given by:

The displacement, x, is given by:

All these equations are true for any

These graphs are sinusoidal. The

Two Simple Harmonic Oscillators

The force on the spring =

Suppose the spring is pulled

This is also the tension in

This is because mg is the weight, which always acts downwards.

We know from SHM that a = - (2f ) 2 x, so we can write: a = -kx/m = - (2f ) 2 x

So we can rearrange this to say that (2f ) 2 = k/m.

The Simple Pendulum

We can apply Newton II to write:

The relationship a L = -(2f ) 2x arises because

Notice that T is independent of amplitude or mass of the bob.

Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

Now we will look at the energy with

Kinetic energy is highest when the

Free and Forced Vibrations

An oscillation is any to-and-fro movement.