B a OPERATIONS ~ George Granger Brown Alan Savers Foust ipnheia Taverne eats Anker Gon netiey ane Bit ger Sige AN ae Ss Viney a We if Georg? Martin Brown 3 Peviea crawnet as accepn a Marin Pierce Grice: Vitae - eS reas Berarers desea Inula york Twelve leading authorities present a comprehensive treatment of modern process operations-stressing Puree e-Lelsgael ttle basic principles.ital Unit Operations George Granger Brown [BUWAND DEMILL2 CAMPNELL URIVAASITY PROVESSOM OF CHRMICAL ENGINEERING [AND DEAN OF THE COLEOE OF ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Alan Shivers Foust ‘PROFRAGOR OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, UE ‘Yinatre OP MICHIGAN Donald LaVerne Katz ‘AND METALLOMGICAL ENOINERIUNG, UNIVER” ‘irr oF micarcan Richard Schneidewind ‘AQVESSOR OF METALLURGICAL ENCINEER- ING, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Robert Roy White PAOFESSOM OF CHEMICAL RNGINEBRING, UNI- VERSITY OF MICHIOAN William Piatt Wood PROPESEON OF METALLUAGICAL ENGINEER ING, UNIVERSHTY OF MECAIOAN George Martin Brown. ‘ASSOCIATE PROFESGOR OF CHUMICAL BNOI- NRURING, NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, Loyd Earl Brownell 'ABOCIATE PROFESSOR OF CEMICAT. ERG [REDWING UNIVEKSITY OF MICHIGAN Joseph J. Martin. ABEOCIATE PROFESSOM OF CHEMICAL ENGI George Brymer Williams ASSOUATE FROFESGOR OP CHEMICAL uNGI Julius Thomas Banchero ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF CHEMICAL. ENGI- Jesse Louls York AMROCIATE PROVESSOR OF CHEMICAL EXGINEERING, ‘UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN cBs CBS PUBLISHERS & DISTRIBUTORS 4596/1A, 11 DARYAGANJ NEW DELHI - 110 002‘This textbook i the first to earry the title Unit Operations, but it is not the fist to treat the subject. Modern practice and equipment. aro emphasized as well as mathemutical inter- pretations, as only by properly designed, construeted, and operated equipment can ‘mathematical treatment yield useful results, The object: is to build the student's Knowledge and power progressively and continuously until he has @ reasonably clear concept of how to approach the problems of design and operation of processing equipment. The unit operations are grouped according to similarities in action or in mothods of calculation and presented in sequence according to incressing diff- culty. By grouping similar operations and using a common nomenclature in similar theoretical discussions, we find that the student makes more rapid progress, less effort is required to master nomenclature, and a better understanding is gained of the relationships among the different unit operations, ‘The association and com. parison of similar operations from different industrial processes is the essence of unit operations and the major factor in developing chemical, metallurgical, or process engineers capable of successfully designing new plants for conducting new processes. ‘The full advantage of the study of unit operations can be realized only if the unit operations are themselves associated and compared go the engineer may more skilfully select the most suitable operation and equipment desired for each step in the process. The tendency of the specialist to treat each unit operation a3 ‘a specialty having its own peculiar result, rationalisation, and nomenclature is of ‘questionable value in any sustained educational effort and is to be resisted by all means in an undergraduate curriculum. ‘The arrangement in order of increasing difficulty rather than in order of assumed importance continually presents new advanced intriguing problems to the student, maintains his interest, and encourages him to continue his own development, beyond the limitations of the book. ‘The treatment of those operations covering solids in Part I requires little moro preparation than is ordinarily given in high school, whereas the treatment of mass transfer in Part IV is suitable for » post- graduate course and is presented with a critical attitude tending to develop the research point of view, “The inductive method is generally followed, relying upon observations from ‘experience rather than upon deductive rationalizations. ‘This method is a powerful tool of the practicing engineer and has been found most satisfactory for under- graduate students. However, kinetic explanations are not neglected and receive increasing emphasis in the last part on energy and mess transfer as an important ‘meuns to a thorough understanding of the mechanisms involved. Physics, calculus, and a beginning course in material and energy balances, or thermodynamics, are assumed as prerequisites to unit operations. Even with this background the student may be confused regarding dimensions and energy balances, and these subjects are treated rather fully. It is hoped that all chapters have a‘PREFACE received sufficiently extensive treatment to meet the requirements of any under Sraduate curriculum s0 that the desired emphasis may be obtained by omission rather than addition. About 180 recitations should be required to cover the entire material in an adequate manner with undergraduate students, allowing & to 10 for the first five chapters and 50 to 60 each for Parte UI, IU, and IV. Ina Postgraduate courve for students who have completed an undergraduate course in ‘unit operations, this time could be reduced by one-third or one-half. With appro- Priate omissions the text has been used successfully for undergraduato oamsca of three quarters with total of 117 class meetings and of two semesters with a total of 105 class meetings, as well as for a single-semester short course of 60 class meetings. References to the literature are included for the purpose of attracting the stu- dent's attention to other sources of information aa well as to acknowledge sources, An effort bas been made to give eredit for all material used, but so many workers have contributed so much that it is impossible to reeognize the contributions of everyone. Indebtedness to previous texts and handbooks and to manufacturers of equipment is freely acknowledged. The specific help and of LF Stutaman and George Thodos, Associate Professors, and D. A. Dablstrom, Assistant Professor of Chemical Engineering, at Northwestern University, F. Chaslea Mossel and Cedomir Sliepeevich, Asristant Professors of Chemical Engineering at The University of Michigan, Dr. Joseph Allerton, of Sayville, Long Island, and Verne C. Kennedy, Jr., of Chicago, and the frank criticisms of students who have used the ‘material as mimeographed notes have been invaluable. ‘Tolerance and your oo operation in helping to eliminate errors end suggest improvements as they may appear are requested, ‘Tur AvtnossContents caarren, 1. Tntrodustion to the Unit: Operations Unit Operations Classified, 1; Practical Opera tions, 2; Fundamental Concopts, 3; Application of Concepts, 4 Port I. Solids 2 Proporties of Solids 3. Screening Industrial Sereoning Equipment, 9; Determining Particle Size, 16; Screen Analyses, 17; Problems, 2 4 Size Reduction of Solids Objectives, 25; Stages of Reduction, 26; Operating: Variables, 26; Coarse Size Reviuction, 27; Inter- mediate Size Reduction, 32; Fine Size Reduction, 87; Bnergy Requirements, 42; Problems; 45 5. Handling of Solids Portable Power-Driven Machines, 40} Permanent Installations, 61; Flight Conveyors, 63; Belt Con- ‘veyors, 55; Weight Determination, 61; Problems, o Port 1 6. Properties of Fluids Viscosity, 67; Relutive Motion between Fluids and Solids, 68; Problems, 71 1. The Flow of Solids through Fluids Maximum, Velocity, 78; Two-Dimensional Mo- tion, 79; Problems, 83 8, Classification “qual Falling” Particles, 84; Equipment, 85; ‘igging, 91; Tabling, 95; Hleotrostatio Claeifica- tion, 96; Problems, 97 9. Flotation Fotation Calls, 100; Flotation Agenta, 104; Cal- culations for a Flotation Proosss, 107; Problems, 109 10, Sedimentation Laboratory Batch Sedimentation, 111; Equip- ‘meat, 113; Continaona Sedimentation, 114; Beps- ration from Gases, 119; Problems, 120 Fluide 25 0 65 or a0 11. Transportation of Fluids 1—Pipes and Fittings ‘Threaded Canmections, 128; Fittings, 124; Valves, 194; Belland-Spigot Connections, 127; Welded. ‘Connections, 127; Flanged Connections, 129 12, Traneportation of Fluids 2—Energy Relations Dimensions snd Units, 191; The Flow Equation, Friction Losses, 196; Dimensional Analysis, 126; Problema, 146 13, Measurement of Flow of Fluids Dieplacoment Flowmeters, 140; Ouirrent. Flow meters, 152; Manometer, 154; Pitot Tube, 1555 ‘Venturi Meter, 158; Flow Nozale, 157: Orifice, 187; Aven Moters, 161; Problams, 168 14, Pumping and Compressing. Reciprocating Pumps and Compressors, 1675 Rotery Pumps and Blowers, 174; Centrifugal ‘Pumps and Compressors, 177; Speeial Pumps and ‘Blowers, 191} Problems, 197 Gas Flow at High Velocity ‘Noxalos, 198; Pipes, 203; Problems, 200 16, Flow of Fluide through Porous Media 1—Single: Fluid Phase 3 ‘Computations, 216; Equations Used for Laminar Flow through Porous Beds, 217; Problems, 219 7, Flow of Fluids through Porous Media 2—Two Fluid Phases im 1 9 168 198 210 ‘Residual Saturation, 229; Flow of the Wetting ” Fluid, 224; Flow of Nonvwetting Fluid, 225; Prob- lems, 228 18, Fitratiob Gravity Filters, 229; Plate-and-Frame Filters, 281; Batch Leaf Filters, 238; Continuous Rotary ‘Vacuum Filters, 235; Operation, 241; Solestion of Filters, 242; Filler Calculations, 242; Blower Re- {quirements for Rotary Vacuum Filters, 253; Probe Jems, 285 19, Centrifugation . ‘Equipment, 258; Calculations, 266; Problems, 268. 20. Fluidisation of Solide Partieulate Fluidisation, 260; Aggregative Fhuidi- zation, 270; Caleulation of Required. Preasure, ‘Drops, 270; Criteria for Particulate and Aggrega- 258 260x CONTENTS, cusorim tive Fluidiention, 272; Transportation of Fhuidized Disporved Solids, 273 Part III. Separation by Mass Transfer: The Ideal Stage Cancept 21, Solid-Liquid Extraction ‘Equipment, 277; Methods of Operation, 232; 22. Liquid-Liquid Extraction Equipment, 288; Methods of Operstion, 301; ‘Methods of Caleulation, $02; Equilibrium Rela: tionships ia Ternary Systems, 303; Graphical ‘Methods, 305; Continuous Countercurrent Multi ple-Contact Operation, 205; Intermediate Feed, 4808; Reflux, 312; Mase or Mole Ratio. Dingram, 316; Problems, $20 28. Vapor-Liquid Transfer Operations 1 Equipment, 322; Calculations by Eathalpy Com position Diagram, 325; Stripping Columns, 231; Rectifying Columns, 382; Complete Frictionsting Column, 384; Feed Plate Location, 337; Reflux Ratio, 337; Total Ref, 337; Minimum ReGux, 839; Optimum Reflux Ratio, 889; Partial Com densers, 889; Open Steam, 840; Entrainment, ‘340; Plate Efficiency, 949; Problems, 343 24, Vapor-Liquid Transfor Operations 2—Design and ‘Control of Fractionsting Colurans Bubble Plato Columns, 840; Packed Columns, 361; Instrumentation and Control of Fractional ing Colurans, 362; Problems, 365 25. Vapor-Liquid Transfer Operations 3—Caleulation of Ideal Stnges Assuming Constant Melal Overow Graphical Methods, 867; Analytic Expressions, 870; Multicomponents, 375; Short. Procedure, » 388; Problems, 387 26, Vapor-Liquid Transfer Operations 4—Distllation snd Condensation Batch Fractionation, 300; Vacuum end Steam Distillation, 291; Arcotropic and Extractive Dis- tilation, 898; Probleme, 306 221, Adsorption Equipment, 299; Method of Calculation, 407; Problem, 411 ‘Part IV. Bnergy and Mass Transfer Rates 28, Heat Transfer 1 Heat Exchange Equipment, 417; Theory and ‘Formulation, 424; Coiiduction through a Series of Solids, 428; Convection, 431; Caleulation of Heat ‘Transfer Coefficient, 432; Meat ‘Temnperature Dif- Sorence, 484; Fouling Factors, 486; Probleras, 486 278 cd 207 322 398 413 415 29. Heat Transfer 2—Transfer Coefficients between Fluids and Tubes Fluids inside Tubes, 438; Fluids outside Tubes, 443; Probloms, 444 90, Heat Transfer 8—Condensing Vapors and Boiling Liquids Filmwise Condensation, 448; Dropwise Conden- sation, 461; Boiling Coeficiente, 488; Problems, 456 31, Heul Transfer 4—Radistion Binek Bodies, 457; Geometric Factors, 461; AUlow- ance for Nonblack Surfaces, 464; Radiant Heat ‘Transfer to Banks of Tubes, 464; Graphical Sotu- tion for Radiation ins Furnace, 46; Radiant Hent Transfer Coefficients, 467; Radiation from ‘Nonluminous Gases, 468; Radiation from Lami- nous Flames, 471; Problems, 473 32, Evaporation HorizontalTubo Evaporator, 474; Vertical-Tube Evaporator, 475; Foreed-Cireulation Evaporator, 476; Long-Tube Vertical Evaporator, 477; Traps, 478; Evaporator Aurilaries, 479;' Evaporator Operation, 481; Multiple Pfect, 481; Vepor Re- compression, 482; Heat Transfor Coefficients, 483; Caleulations, 484; Problems, 492 233. Crystallization Rate of Crystallization, 498; Yield of @ Given Operation, 494; Purity of Product, 495; Energy Effects in the Provess, 495; Size of Crystals, 4975 Equipment, 499; Problema, 501 34 Agitation Objectives und Requirements, 808; Types of Agi tation Equipment, 504; Powsr Consuiption of Agitator, 06 5, Mase Transfer 1 ‘The Rate Equation, 510; The Driving Fores, Fugasity, and Concenization, 511; Wetted-Wall Goluron as an Adisbatio Humidifier, 812; Mans ‘Transfer by Molecular Diffusion, 614; Difusivity, ass Transfer in Turbulent Flow, 517; Dk ‘mensional Anniysir, 513; Analogy between Mo- ‘mentura, Feat, and Mass Transfer, 519; Distribue tion of Molecular and Turbuloat Shear Stress, 520; Prandtl Mixing Length, 522; Physical Sig nificance of Dimensionkes Groupa, 523; Problems, Ba 36, Mass Transfer 2—Coeffclents in Packed Towers Experimental Mase Transler Cosficienta, 827; Correlation of Liquid Phase Cooffsients, 529; Contention of Gas Phase Cooficients, 830; The Transfer Unit, 581; Distillation, 595; Liquid Liquid Extraction, 586) Masa Transfer in Systems m 510 525CONTENTS oe ot Phids and Granular Solid, 598; Fuied Beds, 1539; Problem, 540 > 37, Simuttancous Heat and Mass Transfer 1—Pay- chrometry tions, 542; Humidity Chart, 543; Wet- and ‘Dry-Bulb Temperature, 846; The Interaction of Air and Water, 547; Adiabuti, Humidifontion, 545; Dehumidification, 549; Cooling Towers, 552; Natural Draft, 55S; Mechanical Draft, 568; Cool- jing Ponds, 557; Speay Ponds, 857; Problems, 358 a2 ‘8, Simoltaneou Hest and Mase Transfer 2—Drying Daying Equipment, 550; Tray Drier, 550; Rotary Driers, 859; Spray Driers, 560; Drum Driers, 564; Vacuum Dore, 68; Mechanimn of Drving Soi, ‘566; Caloulations, 569; Continuous Driers, 872; ‘Entimating Drying Rates, 573; Problems, 574 (11) MASS TRANSFER Principles of molecular i Phases. Concept of stage wise processes, Distitation, vapour liquid equilibria, mixtures. MeCabe-Thiele, method, enthalpy concentration diagrams, Packed columns. H. E, 7. P. and extractive, steam and vacuum distilations. Absorption, mechanism of absorption theories of equipment, transfer coefficient and absorption wit reaction, Principles of absorption. * Extraction, equilibrium data use of tran cocurtent and countercurrent arr extraction and transfer coefficient, ‘methods of calculations, Humiditication. vap Squipment for humidification and dehumid Principles of drying, types of dryers Principles of crystallisation and Absorption and ion exchange, Text Books : McCabe and Smith, ___ Engineering,’ McGraw-Hill (Asian Edition) Treybal, R. . Mass Transfer Operation lusion and diffusion between two component ideal nonideaf binary systems, Plate efficiencies, plate and H. T. U. Batch, azeotropic, \gular diagrams, angements, continuous Principles of leaching and Our gas mixtures. humictt ification. Drying, and calculation methods, f j rystallisation equipment, Unit Operations in Chemical! crarren Nomencleture Appendix i au'tnis, 581; Vapor-Liquid eet ear oy eee thanol-Water, 882; Vapor Presnures, 583; Vole- tility. Equilibrium Distribution Ratios, K, for ‘Hydrocarbons, 584; Thermal Conductivities, 5 Sturt ani Vapor Destin 686; Viste ‘of Liquids and Vapors, 588; Specific es Liquide and Vapors, 587; Eothelpy of Par Hydrocarbon Liquide, 588; Enthalpy of Paraffin ‘Hydrocarbon Gases, 589; ema neces ‘Gases Accorapanying an Increase in Ba a Aer 501; Enthalpy-conoantretion Diagram, Ammonin- Woter, 02° e4 absorption n chemical ity chant end"N general. there are two different: approaches to tthe study, of.industrial processing. Each. par ticular industry, such as the alcohol, petroleum, plastic, copper, or steehindustry, including its char- acteristic operations, may. be studied-as a unit; oF the, different, operations common: to, many ;industrial processes may be classified, each aerording to. its function without regard tothe. industry using it, and each such operation studied a a unit operation. ‘Thus heat transfer isa single or unit operation com- mon.to practically all industries, and knowledge, of ‘the principles of heat transfer is.oqually useful to an engineer in any industry requiring the transfer of heat -As industrial processes have become more varied and technical, the fields open to the engineer have widened and it has become incressingly difficult, if not impossible, to cover the, various industries in an. adequate snanner without limiting the students to a few closely related fields. By studying the unit operations themselves and their functions the engi- neer is trained to. recognize these functions, in new industrial processes; and by applying his knowledge, and skill in the corresponding unit operations he is able to design, construct, and operate a plant for a new, process with almost, ae much confidence as for a raved process. For these reasons the study of unit operations has proved to be. the more efficient: approach to the study of industrial processing. Although the importanee of these operations that are common to different industries was reeognized as early as, 1898 by Professor George Lange,* the con- + Profuisor George Linge of the Federal Polytechnic School of Zurich, im an addross on, the “Education. of. Industriel Chemists presented at tie Congress of Chemists x te Exe position. in Chicago, 1843, es Introduction to the Unit Operations cept of unit. operations was firet crystallized by A.D. Litde t in 1915. “The its of pulverizing, evaporating, filtering; distilling and other operations: constantly vearsiod on. in chemical: works have heen 0 thoroughly. developed as to, amount. almost to special sciences.* é ay ‘Any herieal procom,on whatever ale conducted mg. bbe resolved into & coordinate series of what may be termed. “Unit: Operations,” 8 pulverizing, drying, roasting, ery talicing, filtering. evaporating, eleetrolysing, and s0 of. “The number of thése baste unit operations is tot large relatively few of them are involved in any particular ‘es, The complexity of chemical engineering results front < the variety of conditions as to temperature, pressure, ete under which the unit operations must, be earsiod out. in different processes, and from the limitations us to atin rinle of construction and design of apparatus imposed by ” the phil and chemical haracter o the reteting sab stances. . A.study of the unit operations is just ag_valuable | to the operating engineer as to the designer, since all” - industrial operations, ar plants, are eomppeed phys cally of a series of unit operations in their proper sequence. The ability or capacity of a plant id now greater than that of its weakest unit. The Operator’ analyzes his comple operations into units for indl- vidual improvement, and the designer synthesizes. complex operations from a number of unit operations. UNEP OPERATIONS CLASSIFIED’ Tn this treafment the unit operations are classified or grouped according to their function and the phase Arthur D. Lithle as cinran of ie Vsitinig Committee «of the Depactnent of Chetnistry and Chemical Engineering of the Massachusetts Insticute of Technology in & report f0 the President ofthe Dees *2 INTRODUCTION TO THE UNIT OPERATIONS cor phases treated. A phase is a homogeneous and mechanically distinet or separable mass, Thus sand and water are two mechanically distinet masses, and each represents a separate phase; whether the sand is separate from or suspended in the water makes no difference. An oil phase ‘loating upon water, or emulsified with the water, is a homogeneous mass mechanically distinet from the water whether or not it is continuous; and it is, therefore, a separate phase from the water phase. Similarly, a copper ore contains the mineral cheleopyrite as a separate solid phase from the surrounding gangue or rock, no matter how finely the mineral may be dis- persed, ‘The phases present at any one time may be one ot ‘more solid phases, and one or more fluid phases. Sand and water represent-one solid and one fluid phase, oil and water are two fluid phases, and the mineral end gangue are two (at Teast) solid phases. A mixture of solid salt, ice, water, and water vapor contains two solid and two fluid phases. Gases are fluids. Ordinarily there will exist only one gaseous hase. ‘The order of treatment begins with unit operations that treat solids alone, such as mechanical size sepa~ ration, size reduction, and conveying of solids. ‘These are followed by operations involving fluids. Since all fluids must be confined to store them or to 1 their flow, a solid boundary phase is always involved, whether the solid particles are flowing through the fluid as in classification and flotation, or whether the fluid is flowing through a solid as in fluid transportation or filtration. The operations in- volving’transfer of material from one phase to an- other are next treated by the method of equilibrium stages or contacts. These include leaching (solid to, liquid), extraction (liquid to liquid), gas absorption and distillation (vapor to liquid), and sdsorption (fluid to solid). Heat transfer and evaporation fol- low. Heat transfer deals with the rate of energy ‘transfer and serves as a means of leading directly to the coneept of rate of mass transfer as applied i crystallization, drying, absorption, distillation, and the more complicated operations involving catalysts and rates of reaction. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS In the study of unit operations, it must always be remembered that a unit operation is simply a unit of '# more complex operating plant: a heat exchanger ina sugar plant, a crusher in a cement plant, a distil letion column in a petroleum refinery, and that the important requirement in each case is a satisfactory workable overall operation. It makes no difierence whether the result is obtained by exact mathematical calculation, by empirical approximation, or by a geod guess based on the application of sound judg- ment, provided it is a satisfactory, workable, eco- nomical operation in its entirety. ‘The unit operations are the best available methods for classifying and formulating the combined expe- ienee of engineers as a guide to the operation and design of industrial plants. But these data, although of great help, ate inadequate in themselves to insure sucessful operations. ‘The successful engineer must develop sound judgment by his willingness to try, to recognize failures, nd to keep on trying until he arrives at a satisfactory result. Seldom if ever does he have the opportunity to assemble either on paper or in physieal form the ideat or perfect operation. Engineering operations require approximations and compromises. If made too nearly perfect, they may cost too much and last too long. Many plants be- come obsolete before they wear out. All the information now available started with a single obeorvation. As additional observations were made, the engineering mind began to draw eonclu- sions which could be presented in the form of an empirical tabulation, such as the power required to operate crushing and grinding machines, Frequently these tabulated data could be presented in the form of graph as a more satisfactory basis for extra- polating and interpolating the results. ‘The next step was to derive an equation for the line representing, ‘the plotted data and to indicate means for estimating how the constants in the equation would be affected by different conditions. These equations might thea be rationalized or sometimes “derived.” However, the student and engineer should always keep in mind. that these conclusions are drawn moro or leas soundly. from a series of more or less reliable observations that have been empirically correlated, also, they should remember that the practical operator in the plant who may never-have seen the equation or hoard the term “unit operation” has probably made ‘more observations himself than all those involved in deriving the equstion. But it has taken the practical operator s: much longer time to acquire his skill with- ‘out understanding than it has the modern student of unit operations to accmite his comprehensive under standing.FUNDAMENTAL ‘CONCEPTS 8 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS: Certain concepts or conclusions drawn from many observations are rogarded as fundamental beesuse, the more carefully the observations are made, the ‘more closely do the datz conform to the previous conclusion. Perhaps the most important of these to the engineer is the law of conservation of mass and energy. Operations involving atomic energy have empha- sized the concept that mass and energy are directly related. The quantity of energy equivalent to a unit of mase isso large, about 3X 10"® fib of energy per pound-mass, or the mass is so small, about. 2.6 X 10" pound-mass per British thermal unit (Btu), that ordinary means of measurement, are in= capable of deteoting any increase or deerease in mass accompanying 2 chemical process, In engineering operations, when nuclear changes are not involved, ‘the mass of the products equals the mass of the re~ sctants. This is in accord with engineering expe- rience over many years and simplifies calculations, sinee material balances can then be made inde- pendently of energy balances. ‘The following four concepts are basic and form the foundation for the ealeulation of all operations. If nuclear changes are involved, the energy changes be- come so great that the first and second concepts are not independent and a combined energy and mass balance must be made. 1. The Material Balance If matter may be neither oreated nor destroyed, the total mass for all materials entering zn operation equals the total mass for all materials leaving that ‘operation, except for any material that may be re- tained or accumulated in the operation. By the application of this principle, the yields of a chemical reaction or engineering operation are computed. Ir continuous operations, material is usually not secumulated in the operation, and a material balance consists simply in charging (or debiting) the opera- tion with all material entering and crediting the operation with all material leaving, in the same manner as used by any accountant. ‘The result must be @ balance. The acco.ntant uses dollars as his unit, and the engineer uses pounds, tons, ete. In making a material balance, the engineer should not attempt to use units that maybe created or de- stroyed during the process, such as units of volume or moles, or eubie feet, gallons, barrels, or molecules. ‘As Jong as the reaction is chemical and does not destroy or create atoms, it is proper and frequently very convenient to employ atoms a8 the basis for the material balance, The material balance may be made for the entire plant or for any part of it as a unit, depending upon the:problem ot: hand. It is most conveniently made by adopting as a basis for caloulation a fixed quantity of material which passes through the operation unchanged. 2. The Energy Balance Similarly, an energy balance may be made around any plant or unit operation to determine the energy required to carry on the operation or to maintain the desired operating conditions. The principle is just as importaht as that of the material balance, and it is used in the same way. The important point to Ikeep in mind is that all energy of all kinds must be included, although it may be converted to a single ‘equivalent form such as Btu's, calories, or foot ‘pounds for the sake of addition. A balanoe eannot be made of heat or electrical energy alone, since all energy is convertible and all forms must be included in the balance. 3. The Ideal Contact Whenever the materials being procewed are in contact for any length of time under spee*ed condi- tions, su-h as conditions of temperature, pressure, chemical composition, or electrical potential, they tend to approach a definite condition of equilibrium which is determined by the specified conditions. In many eases the rate of approach to these equilibrium conditions is so rapid or the length of time is suffi- cient that the equilibrium conditions are practically attained ut each contact. Such a contact is known as an equilibrium or ideal contact. ‘The calculation of the number of ideal contaets is an important step required in understanding those unit operations in- volving transfer of material from one phase to an other, such as leaching, extraction, absorption, and distillation, 4, Rates of an Operation In most operations equilibrium is not attamed, either bocause of insufficient time or because it is not desired. As soon as equilibrium is attained no further change ean take place and the process stops, but the engineer must keep the process going. For this reagon rate operations, such as rate of energy transfer, rate of mass transfer, and rate of chemical