ARTICLE IN PRESS

Building and Environment 42 (2007) 40004005

www.elsevier.com/locate/buildenv

Thermal comfort evaluation with virtual manikin methods

Hakan O. Nilsson
Department of Technology and Built Environment, Laboratory of Ventilation and Air Quality, University of Gavle, 801 76 Gavle, Sweden
Received 11 January 2006; accepted 21 April 2006

Abstract

Computational uid dynamics has become an important tool in the prediction of thermal comfort in occupied spaces. Despite its
ability to predict temperature and velocity elds, it is more difcult to evaluate the degree of thermal comfort experienced by an
occupant. This article describes the construction of a new numerical thermal manikin, with new comfort evaluation methods based on
data from thermal manikin measurements as well as subjective results from several hundred experiments. The level of thermal comfort is
highly dependent on the local environment. Human beings respond differently to local heat transfer in different parts of their bodies. It is
suggested for that reason that local results from manikins should be presented in new clothing independent comfort zone diagrams. The
research presented in here is intended to be used to evaluate system solutions that provide improved thermal climate in many different
everyday situations, e.g. all types of buildings and vehicles.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Thermal manikin; Mannequin; Thermal climate assessment; Clothing-independence; Comfort zone diagram

1. Introduction various types and amounts of clothing that manikins use

Modern occupants expect thermal indoor environments
of continually increasing quality in many different types of
situations. Thus, it has become necessary to calculate in
advance the effects of different indoor climate solutions
before anything permanent is built. Experimental work
with thermal sensation ratings is expensive, time consum-
ing and difcult to standardise. Simulations with computa-
tional models in virtual environments have been seen as a
new way of evaluating end simulating the inuence of and
on human beings [13]. However, values from computa-
tional uid dynamics (CFD) models still need to be further
related to human reactions and veried with measurements
in real environments. It is important to adjust the
evaluation methods used according to clothing worn by
subjects and manikins. The degree of thermal comfort
depends greatly on the local environment [47]. Human
beings usually use different types of clothing and respond
differently to heat transfer from different body areas. The
Tel.: +46702192492; fax: +4626648113.
E-mail address: hnn@hig.se.
URL: http://www.hig.se/hnn.
today, make comparative interpretation of results from
different manikins/methods very complicated. In order to
facilitate comparison of results, the methods should be
independent both of the manikin used as well as clothing
worn.
2. Methods
This method aims at combining different thermal climate
investigation techniques into one evaluation scheme
(Fig. 1). Results from human experiments and thermal
manikin measurements are used to develop a methodology
based on a virtual manikin positioned in a CFD-simulated
environment. The results are presented not only as whole
body inuence, but also with local information on how the
thermal climate varies over the human body. The devel-
opment of virtual models is an efcient complement to
traditional evaluation of the thermal environment.
An effective and clear measure of thermal comfort is the
equivalent temperature (teq). This measure comes closer to
the humans experienced temperature, compared to ordin-
ary operative temperature, with an inclusion of the effects

0360-1323/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2006.04.027
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
H.O. Nilsson / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 40004005
Fig. 1. The climate evaluation methods associated in this article: human
subjective ratings, manikin measurements and computer modelling.
from non-evaporative heat loss from the human body [8,9].
The denition of equivalent temperature can be related
to the whole body as well as local parts of a human being.
In more than 500 experiments, total and local heat uxes
from full-scale thermal manikins were determined for
different climatic conditions and compared with thermal
sensation votes from subjects exposed to the same
conditions [10]. The individual votes were averaged for
each condition and reported as a Mean Thermal Vote
(MTV) [11]. Equivalent temperature values obtained with
different manikins in different test houses should be
comparable during the same test conditions. As a
consequence of methodological and individual variations,
the use of climate evaluation limit lines is not the optimal
solution. A new diagram should be developed affording
practical support for judgement of complicated local
thermal climates, this would allow the generation of
general prole usable with different clothing and manikins
in various environments.
2.1. Computational manikin with new surface temperature
regulation
MANIKIN3 is built inside the computer with a heat ow
interface to a CFD code (Fig. 2). The virtual manikin is
built up of cubes and has a similar size, area and number of
zones as the real MANIKIN2. Both manikins have a free
surface area of 1.6 m2, giving the same constant heat ux to
the surrounding air. The surface temperature of MANI-
KIN3 is regulated during the iteration process, using the
adaptive boundary conditions at the rst grid cell. This
procedure together with a virtual calibration is implemen-
ted in order to even out the geometrical differences. When
the general mixing of the air is the main interest, it is
possible to use a constant turbulent (eddy) viscosity mt
instead of the molecular viscosity [12]. This zero-equation
model uses a constant to express the turbulent viscosity.
This does not require the solution of any additional
differential equations beyond the NavierStokes equations.
4001
Fig. 2. MANIKIN3 built with PROSTAR version 3.102.517, PRE/POST
processor for STAR-CD (Star CD 3.1B Computational Dynamics
Limited, 2001).
The turbulence model used for MANIKIN3 calculates the
turbulent viscosity empirically with
mt 0:04ru0 H, (1)
where mt is the turbulent (eddy) viscosity [Pa s], r the uid
density [kg/m3], u0 the characteristic velocity, inlet velocity
[m/s], and H the characteristic length, inlet min length [m].
The length scale is a characteristic length; normally the
minium length of the air inlet should be used. In the same
way, the inlet velocity is used as the characteristic velocity.
The empirical constant suitable for different indoor
airows is a number between 0.038 and 0.040. Although
this model is found to be sufcient for predicting the total
characteristic of a turbulent ow, it may not always be
suitable for predicting local details. One benet of this
method is that the time used for calculations is much less
compared to more complicated models. Furthermore, the
use of this model does not need extensive grid renement or
the use of special wall functions, two factors that
signicantly speed up the working and iteration process.
Consequently the computer power needed to calculate the
airow is less and can quite easily be realised using an
ordinary personal computer.
The STAR-CD CFD code [13] supports continuous
modication boundary conditions during the ow and
temperature eld calculations. Functions have been de-
signed that regulate the numerical manikin surface
temperature and calculate the equivalent temperature.
These functions are introduced in the CFD calculations
with the results of the ow and temperature elds as input.
The subroutines enable the user to calculate new surface
temperatures and heat transfer for each zone on the
manikin. In order to minimise the computational load, the
surface temperatures and equivalent temperatures are
calculated in a user subroutine that is programmed to be
called only once in every iteration step. These new Fortran
77 user subroutines are written so that the surface
temperature data and current equivalent temperature
data for comfort diagram output are continuously updated
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4002 H.O. Nilsson / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 40004005

for real time monitoring. This method is much faster 2.2. Clothing independent comfort zone diagram evaluation
compared to previously published methods involving two output
or three separate codes for thermoregulation, radiation,
and CFD. No thermoregulation model has to be used In order to make the comfort evaluation clothing
as the routines are based on correlation results from independent, the construction of new comfort zone
extensive studies of subjective responses in different diagrams can be made by inserting any seated total
radiative and convective environments. The conrmed insulation available. Eq. (2) shows how a relationship
hypothesis [4,10] is that human beings do not differentiate between the equivalent temperature level and MTV can be
between various avenues of heat loss, just experience established for each manikin body part. The heat loss
an increased or decreased general heat loss from any zone corresponding to a certain level of comfort, or discomfort,
of the body. in the diagram is consequently considered to be the same.

Table 1
Linear regressions and calculated neutral values for clothing combinations (LS) Light summer clothing (1.0 clo) and (EW) Enhanced winter
clothing (1.9 clo)

Zone a b r2 RT (m2K/W)LS RT (m2K/W)EW IT (clo) LS IT (clo) EW teq (1C) neutral LS teq (1C) neutral EW

Whole body 43.8 13.3 0.97 0.160 0.300 1.03 1.94 21.0 21.4
Scalp 65.5 33.9 0.89 0.199 0.193 1.28 1.25 21.0 21.4
Face 65.5 33.9 0.89 0.199 0.193 1.28 1.25 25.7 17.2
Chest 36.1 20.5 0.95 0.229 0.464 1.48 2.99 25.7 17.2
Up. back 36.1 20.5 0.95 0.229 0.464 1.48 2.99 24.8 15.4
L U arm 43.0 21.1 0.94 0.215 0.432 1.39 2.79 24.8 15.4
R U arm 43.0 21.1 0.94 0.215 0.432 1.39 2.79 28.8 15.4
L L arm 43.0 21.1 0.94 0.122 0.432 0.79 2.79 28.8 15.4
R L arm 43.0 21.1 0.94 0.122 0.432 0.79 2.79 24.1 21.6
L hand 84.9 57.2 0.98 0.117 0.146 0.75 0.94 24.1 21.6
R hand 84.9 57.2 0.98 0.117 0.146 0.75 0.94 28.0 20.4
L thigh 46.7 20.3 0.97 0.128 0.292 0.83 1.88 28.0 20.4
R thigh 46.7 20.3 0.97 0.128 0.292 0.83 1.88 28.0 20.4
L calf 46.7 20.3 0.97 0.128 0.292 0.83 1.88 28.0 20.4
R calf 46.7 20.3 0.97 0.128 0.292 0.83 1.88 28.0 24.0
L foot 46.7 20.3 0.97 0.128 0.215 0.83 1.39 28.0 24.0
R foot 46.7 20.3 0.97 0.128 0.215 0.83 1.39 24.2 19.0
Lo. back 39.5 19.5 0.93 0.247 0.381 1.59 2.46 24.2 19.0
Seat 39.5 19.5 0.93 0.247 0.381 1.59 2.46 21.0 21.4

"Light summer clothing" Comfort Zones "Enhanced winter clothing" Comfort Zones
Whole body Whole body
Scalp Scalp
Face Face
Chest Chest
Up. back Up. back
L U arm L U arm
R U arm R U arm
cold but comfortable

L L arm L L arm
cold but comfortable

R L arm R L arm
hot but comfortable

hot but comfortable

L hand L hand
R hand R hand
L thigh L thigh
R thigh R thigh
L calf L calf
neutral
too cold

too cold
neutral

too hot

too hot

R calf R calf
L foot L foot
R foot R foot
Lo. back Lo. back
Seat Seat

-10 0 10 20 30 40 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Equivalent temperature, teq (C) Equivalent temperature, teq (C)

Fig. 3. Comfort zone diagrams constructed for light summer (LS) and enhanced winter (EW) clothing ensembles. Note that the comfort zones of
acceptance are much narrower for the summer clothing, except for the less sensitive head and hands.
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H.O. Nilsson / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 40004005 4003

The shape of the zones is however changed according to local total insulation value (RT) of the clothing and air
the clothing used: layer together with a MTVzone for the zone borders (1.5
left blue, 0.5 right blue, 0.5 left red, 1.5 right red) in
teq;zone ts  RT a b MTVzone , (2)
Eq. (2). Now teq,zone can be calculated for the four borders
where teq;zone is the equivalent temperature in the zone [1C], of the three shaded comfort zones (bluegreenred) for all
ts the manikin surface temperature (here 34 1C) [1C], RT the zones and the whole body. The result, plotted in a diagram,
total insulation, seated [m2 K/W], a, b the linear regression forms the evaluation background in the clothing indepen-
constants [W/m2], MTVzone the MTV in the zone [n.d.]. dent comfort zone diagram. This is only done once for each
The equation is valid for an interval of seated whole clothing combination, and reects the insulation distribu-
body total insulation (IT) between 0.9 and 1.9 clo. With tion of the clothing used. As could be expected, diagrams
Eq. (2) and the information in Table 1, it is possible for the for clothing with less insulation show an increased
rst time to make a comfort zone diagram (Fig. 3) that sensitivity in most zones, except the normally unclothed
applies to a specic clothing combination used in a given head and hands. The opposite, decreased sensitivity for
situation. Insert corresponding local values of the surface heat loss variations, can be observed for diagrams with
temperature (ts, usually 34 1C), a and b (from Table 1) and increased clothing insulation.

Mixing ventilation office case Displacement ventilation office case

Whole body Whole body
Scalp Scalp
Face Face
Chest Chest
Back U Back U
Arm LU omix meas Arm LU odis meas
Arm RU Arm RU
Arm LL omix cfd Arm LL
cold but comfortable
cold but comfortable

odis cfd
hot but comfortable
hot but comfortable

Arm RL Arm RL
Hand L Hand L
Hand R Hand R
Thigh L Thigh L
Thigh R Thigh R
too cold
neutral

neutral
toocold

Calf L Calf L
too hot
too hot

Calf R Calf R
Foot L Foot L
Foot R Foot R
Back L Back L
Seat Seat

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Equivalent temperature, teq (C) Equivalent temperature, teq (C)

Fig. 4. The virtual and real ofce investigated with MANIKIN3 and MANIKIN2. Below the case with mixing ventilation (omixofce mixing) showing
good agreement between measurements and simulation and the displacement ventilation simulation (odisofce displacement) producing slightly lower
equivalent temperatures compared to the measurements due to an overall lower simulated air temperature. The comfort zone diagrams are drawn on the
basis of the 1.3 clo summer clothing that MANIKIN2 and MANIKIN3 wore.
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4004 H.O. Nilsson / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 40004005

3. Results simulations with MANIKIN3 made good predictions of

how a human will perceive the thermal climate.
3.1. Full-scale measurements vs. CFD simulations The cabin is build with an option to change the glazing used
in order to test the different possibilities to improve the thermal
Results from measurements with the full-scale MANI- climate. Fig. 5 shows few differences between simulation and
KIN2 (meas) have been compared to CFD simulations measurement in the case with clear cabin glass and no sun
with MANIKIN3 (CFD). The heat loss and temperature of (ccleargcabin clear glass). But in the case with solar radiation
the two manikins inuenced the air movements around the and reective glass (cregcabin reective glass) does a lower
body in a realistic way. Thermal interaction with walls, air temperature increase the heat loss from the hands and
ventilation and the seat inuenced each manikins thermal thighs for the measured data not compensated by the radiation
situation. The evaluated ofce room could alternatively be from the windows caused by the sun as in the simulation.
ventilated with mixing (omixofce mixing) or displace-
ment ventilation (odisofce displacement). MANIKIN3 4. Discussion
had no problem simulating the increased insulation of the
seat zones supplied by the virtual ofce chair (Fig. 4). In This work is intended to complement full-scale investi-
relatively homogeneous environments, as in this case, the gations in order to determine human thermal comfort in

Clear glass no sun cabin case Reflective glass and sun cabin case
Whole body Whole body
Scalp Scalp
Face Face
Chest Chest
Back U Back U
Arm LU Arm LU
cold b ut com fortable

cclearg meas
cold b ut com fortable
hot but com fortable

creflg meas
hot but com fortable

Arm RU Arm RU
Arm LL cclearg cfd Arm LL creflg cfd
Arm RL Arm RL
Hand L Hand L
Hand R Hand R
Thigh L Thigh L
Thigh R
too cold

Thigh R
neu tral

too cold
too h ot

neu tral

too h ot

Calf L Calf L
Calf R Calf R
Foot L Foot L
Foot R Foot R
Back L Back L
Seat
Seat
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Equivalent temperature, teq (C)
Equivalent temperature, teq (C)

Fig. 5. This gure shows pictures of the virtual and real cabin environment with MANIKIN3 and MANIKIN2 in driver position. The boxes to the right
of MANIKIN3 are the shielded air temperature probes always connected to the manikin measurements, as seen with MANIKIN2 in the picture to the
right. Below clothing independent comfort zone diagrams with measurements and CFD results with MANIKN3 presenting good agreement between
measurements and simulations for the case with clear cabin glass and no sun (ccleargcabin clear glass). The reective glass with sun (cregcabin
reective glass) produced higher equivalent temperatures at the middle zones in the simulation due to higher air temperatures around the manikin caused
by slightly different inlet and hand positions.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
H.O. Nilsson / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 40004005
different environments. For engineering purposes, the
comfort sensation needs to be converted to and
expressed in measurable, physical quantities. This is
facilitated using the concept of clothing independent
comfort zone diagrams. The model of clothing indepen-
dence assumes that the human being is equally sensitive to
different heat losses independent of the insulation of the
clothing worn. This may not always be the case, especially
at the borders of no clothing or heavy clothing and should
be investigated further. In the future, more data from
validation experiments with subjects and different methods
will contribute to the development of this general evalua-
tion criterion.
The numerical methods used need further development.
The computer should become a professional tool for
visualising thermal comfort problems, developing new
ventilation strategies and designing new systems. With
more research and experience the tools and methods for
simulation of thermal environment conditions can be
continuously improved. Unfortunately too little of the
theory behind CFD simulations is available in the public
domain. Many researchers and companies still use in-house
codes for all or essential parts of their calculations.
A remaining issue that requires more investigation is
how to simulate the correct heat transfer from different
types of wall boundaries to the uid, in order to carry out
CFD modelling with better accuracy. A lot of research
today uses high-resolution calculations with rened grids.
Research is also needed at the other end of the scale, where
the whole cell is substituted for one or a number of wall
functions specially adapted for the environment studied. It
is important that research concerning the relationships for
simulation of transient situations continues. The develop-
ment of thermal manikins to enable the handling of
thermal transient conditions has started. However, there is
still a need for more tests with human subjects in order to
investigate the correlation between subjective feelings and
equivalent temperature transients.
5. Conclusions
Results from subjective panels and measurements with
full-scale thermal manikins have been used to develop a
new type of virtual thermal manikin, MANIKIN3, to be
used in CFD simulations. The surface temperature of the
computational manikin is regulated continuously through
an iteration process. This procedure together with a new
model for virtual calibration forms the basis of this new
numerical manikin concept. Results from measurements as
well as simulations are visualised in new clothing
independent comfort zone diagrams, showing how an
average human being would perceive the whole body as
well as local climate.
The results shows that the set of equations used in the
simulations give good agreement with real life measure-
ments in the different environments. The use of input data
from CFD calculations produced reasonable results,
4005
especially in situations with relatively homogeneous
climate, like the ofce case, but still have to be further
developed in order to be reliable in more complicated
climate situations like the cabin case.
Today, CFD calculation methods have developed
further and a growing eld of research is working to
establish the methods for simulation of the human thermal
environment. Taking this into account, there are still too
many unexplained differences in the results within and in
between simulation methods, pointing out the limitations
of currently available CFD methods. There is consequently
a need for continued validation of CFD results with real
life measurements and benchmark tests.
Acknowledgements
The author sincerely appreciates the travel grant from
the research-funding agency Formas (Swedish Research
Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences and
Spatial Planning) that made it possible to present this
research at the 10th Indoor Air conference in China 2005. I
am also most grateful to the Journal Paper Selection
Committee for selecting my paper for publication.
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