ASSIGNMENTS

MB 0034
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
(3 credits)
Set I
Marks 60
Each question carries 10 marks

1. Explain the different types of research.

2. Discuss the criteria of good research problem.
3. Describe the procedure used to test the hypothesis
4. Write a note on experimental design
5. Elaborate the ways of making a case study effective.
6. What is non probability sampling? Explain its types with examples.

ASSIGNMENTS
MB 0034
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
(3 credits)
Set II
Marks 60
Each question carries 10 marks

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of secondary data?

2. Explain the prerequisites and advantages of observation.
3. Discuss the stages involved in data collection.
4. Briefly explain the types of interviews.
5. Describe the principles involved in the table construction.
6. Write a note on contents of research report.
1. Explain the different types of research.
Types of Research
Although any typology of research is inevitably arbitrary. Research may be classified crudely
according to its major intent or the methods . According to the intent research may be classified
as:

Pure Research
It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any Intention to apply it in practice, e.g.,
Einstein's theory of relativity, Newton's contributions, Gatileo's contribution, etc. It is also known
as basic or fundamental research. It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness.
It is not necessarily problem-oriented. It aims at extension of knowledge. It may lead to either
discovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing theory. It lays foundation for applied
research. It offers solutions to marry practical problems It helps to find the critical factors in a
practical problem. It develops many alternative solutions and thus enables us to choose the best
solution

Applied Research
it is carried on to And solution to d real-life problem requiring an action or policy decision. It is
thus problem-oriented and action-directed, It seeks an immediate and practical result, e.g.,
marketing research carried on for developing a news market or for studying the post-purchase
experience of customers. Though the immediate purpose of an applied research is to find solutions
to a practical problem, it may incidentally contribute to the development of theoretical knowledge by
loading to the discovery of new facts or testing of theory or a conceptual clarity. It can put theory
to the test. t may aid in conceptual clarification !t may integrate previously existing theories

Exploratory Research
It is also known as formulative research. It is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which
the researcher has little or no knowledge. It is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-determined
objectives. It usually takes the form of a pilot study. The purpose of this research may be to generate
new ideas, or to increase the researcher's familiarity with the problem or to make a precise formulation
of the problem or to gather information for clarifying concepts or to determine whether it is feasible to
attempt the study. Katz conceptualizes two levels of exploratory studies. "At the first level is the
discovery of the significant variable in the situations; at the second, the discovery of relationships
between variables."

Descriptive Study
It is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the simplest type of research. It is
more specific than an exploratory research. It aims at identifying the various characteristics of a
community or institution or problem under study and also aims at a classification of the range of
elements comprising the subject matter of study. It contributes to the development of a young science
and useful in verifying focal concepts through empirical observation. It can highlight important
methodological aspects of data collection and interpretation. The information obtained may be useful
for prediction about areas of social life outside the boundaries of the research. They are valuable in
providing facts needed for planning social action program.

Diagnostic Study
It is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed towards discovering what is
happening, why it is happening and what can be done about. It aims at identifying the causes of a
problem and the possible solutions for it. It may also be concerned with discovering and testing
whether certain variables are associated. This type of research requires prior knowledge of the
problem,
its thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of the given population, adequate methods for collecting
accurate information, precise measurement of variables, statistical analysis and test of significance.

Evaluation Studies
It is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic
programmes implemented or for assessing the impact of developmental projects on the development
of the project area. It is thus directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity of an activity and
its performance, and to specify its attributes and conditions required for its success. It is concerned
with causal relationships and is more actively guided by hypothesis. It is concerned also with change
over time.

Action Research
It is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an action programme launched
for solving a problem for improving an exiting situation. It includes six major steps: diagnosis,
sharing of diagnostic information, planning, developing change programme, initiation of
organizational change, implementation of participation and communication process, and post
experimental evaluation.
According to the methods of study, research may be classified as:

1.Experimental Research:
It is designed to asses the effects of particular variables on a phenomenon
by keeping the other variables constant or controlled. It aims at determining whether and in what
manner variables are related to each other.

2. Analytical Study:
It is a system of procedures and techniques of analysis applied to quantitative
data. It may consist of a system of mathematical models or statistical techniques applicable to
numerical data. Hence it is also known as the Statistical Method. It aims at testing hypothesis and
specifying and interpreting relationships.

3.Historical Research:
It is a study of past records and other information sources with a view to
reconstructing the origin and development of an institution or a movement or a system and
discovering the trends in the past. It is descriptive in nature. It is a difficult task; it must often depend
upon inference and logical analysis or recorded data and indirect evidences rather than upon direct
observation.

4. Survey:
It is a fact-finding study. It is a method of research involving collection of data directly
from a population or a sample thereof at particular time. Its purpose is to provide information,
explain phenomena, to make comparisons and concerned with cause and effect relationships can be
useful for making predications
2. Discuss the criteria of good research problem.

Horton and Hunt have given following characteristics of scientific research:

1. Verifiable evidence:
That is factual observations which other observers can see and check.

2. Accuracy:
That is describing what really exists. It means truth or correctness of a statement or describing things
exactly as they are and avoiding jumping to unwarranted conclusions either by exaggeration or
fantasizing.

3. Precision:
That is making it as exact as necessary, or giving exact number or measurement. This avoids colourful
literature and vague meanings.

4. Systematization:
That is attempting to find all the relevant data, or collecting data in a systematic and organized way so
that the conclusions drawn are reliable. Data based on casual recollections are generally incomplete
and give unreliable judgments and conclusions.

5. Objectivity:
That is free being from all biases and vested interests. It means observation is unaffected by
the observer's values, beliefs and preferences to the extent possible and he is able to see and accept
facts as they are, not as he might wish them to be.

6. Recording:
That is jotting down complete details as quickly as possible. Since human memory is
fallible, all data collected are recorded.

7. Controlling conditions:
That is controlling all variables except one and then attempting to examine what happens when that
variable is varied. This is the basic technique in all scientific experimentation – allowing one variable
to vary while holding all other variables constant.
3. Describe the procedure used to test the hypothesis
To test a hypothesis means to tell (on the basis of the data researcher has collected) whether or not the
hypothesis seems to be valid. In hypothesis testing the main question is: whether the null hypothesis or
not to accept the null hypothesis? Procedure for hypothesis testing refers to all those steps that we
undertake for making a choice between the two actions i.e., rejection and acceptance of a null
hypothesis. The various steps involved in hypothesis testing are stated below:

Making a Formal Statement

The step consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis (Ho) and also of the alternative
hypothesis (Ha). This means that hypothesis should clearly state, considering the nature of the
research
problem. For instance, Mr. Mohan of the Civil Engineering Department wants to test the load bearing
capacity of an old bridge which must be more than 10 tons, in that case he can state his hypothesis as
under
Null hypothesis Ho: N =10 tons Alternative hypothesis Ha: N >10 tons Take another example. The
average score in an aptitude test administered at the national level is 80. To evaluate a state's education
system, the average score of 100 of the state's students selected on the random basis was 75. The state
wants to know if there is a significance difference between the local scores and the national scores. In
such a situation the hypothesis may be state as under: ,
Null hypothesis Ho: N =80 Alternative hypothesis Ha: p 0 80 The formulation of hypothesis is an
important
step which must be accomplished with due care in accordance with the object and nature of the
problem under
consideration. It also indicates whether we should use a
tailed test or a two tailed test. If Ha is of the type greater than, we use alone tailed test, but when Ha is
of the
type "whether greater or smaller" then w. use a two-tailed test.

Selecting a Significant Level

The hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of significance and such the same should have
specified.
Generally, in practice, either 5% level or 1 % level is adopted for the purpose. The factors that affect
the level
of significance are:
•The magnitude of the difference between sample ;
•The size of the sample;
•The variability of measurements within samples;
•Whether the hypothesis is directional or non - directional (A directional hypothesis is one which
predicts the
direction of the difference between, say, means). In brief, the level of significance must be adequate in
the
context of the purpose and nature of enquiry.

Deciding the Distribution to Use

After deciding the level of significance, the next step in hypothesis testing is to determine the
appropriate sampling
distribution. The choice generally remains between distribution and the t distribution. The rules for
selecting the
correct distribution are similar to those which we have stated earlier in the context of estimation.

Selecting A Random Sample & Computing An Appropriate Value

Another step is to select a random sample(S) and compute an appropriate value from the sample data
concerning the test statistic utilizing the relevant distribution. In other words, draw a sample to furnish
empirical data.
Calculation of the Probability

One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result would diverge as widely as it has from
expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true.

Comparing the Probability

Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus calculated with the specified value for a,
the significance level. If the calculated probability is equal to smaller than a value in case of one tailed
test (and a/2 in case of two-tailed test), then reject the null hypothesis (i.e. accept the alternative
hypothesis), but if the probability is greater then accept the null hypothesis. In case we reject Ho we
run a risk of (at most level of significance) committing an error of type I, but if we accept Ho, then we
run some risk of committing
Flow Diagram for Testing Hypothesis

State Ho as well as Ha

Specify the level of significance

Decide the correct sampling distribution

Sample a random sample and workout an appropriate value

Calculate the probability that sample result would diverge as widely as it has form
expectations, if Ho were true

Is this probability equal to or smaller than a value in case of one-tailed test and a/2 in case
of two tailed test

Reject Ho Accept Ho

Run the risk of Run

Some risk of
Committing type II error
4. Write a note on experimental design

Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs:

1. The principle of replication:

The experiment should be reaped more than once. Thus, each treatment is applied in many
experimental units instead of one. By doing so, the statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased.
For example, suppose we are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose we may
divide the field into two parts and grow one variety in one part and the other variety in the other part.
We can compare the yield of the two parts and draw conclusion on that basis. But if we are to apply
the principle of replication to this experiment, then we first divide the field into several parts, grow
one variety in half of these parts and the other variety in the remaining parts. We can collect the data
yield of the two varieties and draw conclusion by comparing the same. The result so obtained will be
more reliable in comparison to the conclusion we draw without applying the principle of replication.
The entire experiment can even be repeated several times for better results. Consequently replication
does not present any difficulty, but computationally it does. However, it should be remembered that
replication is introduced in order to increase the precision of a study; that is to say, to increase the
accuracy with which the main effects and interactions can be estimated.

2. The principle of randomization:

It provides protection, when we conduct an experiment, against the effect of extraneous factors by
randomization. In other words, this principle indicates that we should design or plan the `experiment
in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under the general
heading of "chance". For instance if we grow one variety of rice say in the first half of the parts of a
field and the other variety is grown in the other half, then it is just possible that the soil fertility may be
different in the first half in comparison to the other half. If this is so, our results would not be realistic.
In such a situation, we may assign the variety of rice to be grown in different parts of the field on the
basis of some random sampling technique i.e., we may apply
randomization principle and protect ourselves against the effects of extraneous factors. As such,
through the application of the principle of randomization, we can have a better estimate of the
experimental error.

3. Principle of local control:

It is another important principle of experimental designs. Under it the
extraneous factors, the known source of variabiitity, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a range
as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and
hence eliminated from the experimental error. This means that we should plan the experiment in a
manner that we can perform a two-way analysis of variance, in which the total variability of the data is
divided into three components attributed to treatments, the extraneous factor and experimental error.
In other words, according to the principle of local control, we first divide the field into several
homogeneous parts, known as blocks, and then each such block is divided into parts equal to the
number of treatments. Then the treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of a block. In general,
blocks are the levels at which we hold an extraneous factors fixed, so that we can measure its
contribution to the variability of the data by means of a two-way analysis of variance. In brief, through
the principle of local control we can eliminate the variability due to extraneous factors from the
experimental error.
Important Experimental Designs:
Experimental design refers to the framework of structure of an experiment and as such there are
several experimental designs. We can classify experimental designs into two broad categories.
Informal experimental and formal experimental designs. Informal experimental designs are those
designs that normally use a less sophisticated form of analysis based on differences in magnitudes,
where as formal experimental designs offer relatively more control and use precise statistical
procedures for analysis.
Informal experimentsal designs:
Before and after without control design
After only with control design
Before and after with control design
Formal experimental designs:
Completely randomized design (CR design)
Randomized block design (RB design)
Latin square design (LS design)
Factorial design
5. Elaborate the ways of making a case study effective.
John Dollard has proposed seven criteria for evaluating such adequacy as follows:
i) The subject must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural series. That is, the case drawn out from its
total context for the purposes of study must be considered a member of the particular cultural group or
community.
The scrutiny of the life histories of persons must be done with a view to identify thee community
values, standards and their shared way of life.

ii) The organic motto of action must be socially relevant. That is, the action of the individual cases
must be viewed as a series of reactions to social stimuli or situation. In other words, the social
meaning of behaviour must be taken into consideration.

iii) The strategic role of the family group in transmitting the culture must be recognized. That is, in
case of an individual being the member of a family, the role of family in shaping his behaviour must
never be overlooked.

iv) The specific method of elaboration of organic material onto social behaviour must be clearly
shown. That is case histories that portray in detail how basically a biological organism, the man,
gradually blossoms forth into a social person, are especially fruitful.

v) The continuous related character of experience for childhood through adulthood must be stressed.
In other words, the life history must be a configuration depicting the inter-relationships between thee
person's various experiences.

vi) Social situation must be carefully and continuously specified as a factor. One of the important
criteria for the life history is that a person's life must be shown as unfolding itself in the context of and
partly owing to specific social situations.

vii) The 'life history material itself must be organised according to some conceptual framework, this in
turn would facilitate generalizations at a higher level.
6. What is non probability sampling? Explain its types with examples.
Non-probability sampling or non-random sampling is not based on the theory of probability. This
sampling does not provide a chance of selection to each population element.
Advantages:
The only merits of this type of sampling are simplicity, convenience and low cost.
Disadvantages:
The demerits are it does not ensure a selection chance to each population unit. The selection
probability sample may not be a representative one. The selection probability is unknown. It suffers
from sampling bias which will distort results.
The reasons for usage of this sampling are when there is no other feasible alternative due to non-
availability of a list of population, when the study does not aim at generalizing the findings to the
population, when the costs require for probability sampling may be too large, when probability
sampling required more time, but the time constraints and the time limit for completing the study do
not permit it. It may be classified into:
Convenience or Accidental Sampling:
It means selecting sample units in a just ‘hit and miss’ fashion E.g interviewing people whom we
happen to meet. This sampling also means selecting whatever sampling units are conveniently
available, e.g., a teacher may select students in his class. This method is also known as accidental
sampling because the respondents whom the researcher meets accidentally are included in the sample.
Suitability: Though this type of sampling has no status, it may be used for simple purposes such as
testing ideas or gaining ideas or rough impression about a subject of interest.
Advantage: It is the cheapest and simplest, it does not require a list of population and it does not
require any statistical expertise.
Disadvantage: The disadvantage is that it is highly biased because of researchers subjectivity, it is
the least reliable sampling method and the findings cannot be generalized.
Purposive (or judgment) sampling:
This method means deliberate selection of sample units that conform to some pre-determined criteria.
This is also known as judgment sampling. This involves selection of cases which we judge as the
most appropriate ones for the given study. It is based on the judgment of the researcher or some
expert. It does not aim at securing a cross section of a population. The chance that a particular case
be selected for the sample depends on the subjective judgment of the researcher.
Suitability: This is used when what is important is the typicality and specific relevance of the
sampling units to the study and not their overall representative ness to the population.
Advantage: It is less costly and more convenient and guarantees inclusion of relevant elements in
the sample.

Disadvantage: It is less efficient for generalizing, does not ensure the representative ness, requires
more prior extensive information and does not lend itself for using inferential statistics.
Quota sampling:
This is a form of convenient sampling involving selection of quota groups of accessible sampling units
by traits such as sex, age, social class, etc. it is a method of stratified sampling in which the selection
within strata is non random. It is this Non-random element that constitutes its greatest weakness.
Suitability: It is used in studies like marketing surveys, opinion polls, and readership surveys which
do not aim at precision, but to get quickly some crude results.
Advantage: It is less costly, takes less time, non need for a list of population, and field work can
easily be organized.
Disadvantage: It is impossible to estimate sampling error, strict control if field work is difficult,
and subject to a higher degree of classification.
Snow-ball sampling:
This is the colorful name for a technique of Building up a list or a sample of a special population by
using an initial set of its members as informants. This sampling technique may also be used in socio-
metric studies.
Suitability: It is very useful in studying social groups, informal groups in a formal organization,
and diffusion of information among professional of various kinds.
Advantage: It is useful for smaller populations for which no frames are readily available.
Disadvantage: The disadvantage is that it does not allow the use of probability statistical methods.
It is difficult to apply when the population is large. It does not ensure the inclusion of all the elements
in the list.
 MB 0034
RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
(3 credits)
Set I