Prof.

Marouane Zakhir
University Chouaib Doukkali
Multidisciplinary Faculty of El jadida
English for Specific Purposes

Paragraph writing

Paragraphs are comprised of sentences, but not random sentences. A paragraph

is a group of sentences organized around a central topic. In fact, the cardinal rule
of paragraph writing is to focus on one idea. A solidly written paragraph takes
its readers on a clear path, without detours. Master the paragraph, and youll be
on your way to writing gold-star essays, term papers, and stories.

The basic elements in paragraph writing

A basic paragraph structure usually consists of five sentences: the topic

sentence, three supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence. But the secrets
to paragraph writing lay in four essential elements, which when used correctly,
can make a okay paragraph into a great paragraph.

1. Element 1: Unity. Unity in a paragraph begins with the topic sentence.

Every paragraph has one single, controlling idea that is expressed in its
topic sentence, which is typically the first sentence of the paragraph. A
paragraph is unified around this main idea, with the supporting sentences
providing detail and discussion.
2. Element 2: Order. Order refers to the way you organize your supporting
sentences. Whether you choose chronological order, order of importance,
or another logical presentation of detail, a solid paragraph always has a
definite organization. Order helps the reader grasp your meaning and
avoid confusion.
3. Element 3: Coherence. Coherence is the quality that makes your writing
understandable. Sentences within a paragraph need to connect to each
other and work together as a whole. One of the best ways to achieve
coherence is to use transition words. These words create bridges from one
sentence to the next. You can use transition words that show order (first,
second, third); spatial relationships (above, below) or logic (furthermore,
in addition, in fact).
4. Element 4: Completeness. Completeness means a paragraph is well-
developed. If all sentences clearly and sufficiently support the main idea,
then your paragraph is complete. If there are not enough sentences or
enough information to prove your thesis, then the paragraph is
incomplete. Usually three supporting sentences, in addition to a topic
sentence and concluding sentence, are needed for a paragraph to be
complete. The concluding sentence or last sentence of the paragraph
should summarize your main idea by reinforcing your topic sentence.

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Strategies for adequate development:

Elaborate: Spell out the details by defining, or by clarifying and adding

relevant, pertinent information.

Illustrate: Paint a verbal picture that helps make or clarify your point(s). Well
illustrated pieces are easier to read and follow than those on a high level of
abstraction.

Argue: Give the reasons, justifications, and rationales for the position or view
you have taken in the topic sentence. Draw inferences for the reader and explain
the significance of assertions or claims being made.

Narrate: Relate the historical development of the phenomenon at issue.

Process: Describe how something works.

Describe: Observe without preconceived categories.

Classify: Organize phenomena or ideas into larger categories that share

common characteristics.

Analyze: Divide phenomena or ideas into elements.

Compare and Contrast: Show similarities and differences between two or

more phenomena or ideas.

Relate: Show correlations and causes (beware of logical fallacies, however!)

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Prof. Marouane Zakhir
University Chouaib Doukkali
Multidisciplinary Faculty of El jadida
English for Specific Purposes

SOME USEFUL TRANSITIONS

To show addition:
again, and, also, besides, equally important, first (second, etc.), further,
furthermore, in addition, in the first place, moreover, next, too
To give examples:
for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that is, to illustrate
To compare:
also, in the same manner, likewise, similarly
To contrast:
although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even though, however, in
contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still,
though, yet
To summarize or conclude:
all in all, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in summary, on the
whole, that is, therefore, to sum up
To show time:
after, afterward, as, as long as, as soon as, at last, before, during, earlier,
finally, formerly, immediately, later, meanwhile, next, since, shortly,
subsequently, then, thereafter, until, when, while
To show place or direction:
above, below, beyond, close, elsewhere, farther on, here, nearby, opposite,
to the left (north, etc.)
To indicate logical relationship:
accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this reason, hence, if,
otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thus.

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Punctuation

Punctuation is used to create sense, clarity and stress in sentences. You use
punctuation marks to structure and organise your writing.

You can quickly see why punctuation is important if you try and read this
sentence which has no punctuation at all:

perhaps you dont always need to use commas periods colons etc to make
sentences clear when i am in a hurry tired cold lazy or angry i sometimes
leave out punctuation marks grammar is stupid i can write without it and
dont need it my uncle Harry once said he was not very clever and i never
understood a word he wrote to me i think ill learn some punctuation not too
much enough to write to Uncle Harry he needs some help

Three of the fourteen punctuation marks are appropriate for use as sentence
endings. They are the period, question mark, and exclamation point.

The period (.) is placed at the end of declarative sentences, statements thought to
be complete and after many abbreviations.

For example:

As a sentence ender: Jane and Jack went to the market .

After an abbreviation: Her Mar . birthday came and went.

Use a question mark (?) to indicate a direct question when placed at the end of a
sentence. For example: When did Jane leave for the market ?

The exclamation point/mark (!) is used when a person wants to express a sudden
outcry or add emphasis.

1. Within dialogue: Holy cow! screamed Jane.

2. To emphasize a point: My mother-in-law's rants make me furious !

Comma, Semicolon and Colon

The comma, semicolon and colon are often misused because they all can
indicate a pause in a series.

The comma is used to show a separation of ideas or elements within the

structure of a sentence. Additionally, it is used in letter writing after the
salutation and closing.

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Prof. Marouane Zakhir
University Chouaib Doukkali
Multidisciplinary Faculty of El jadida
English for Specific Purposes

Separating elements within sentences: Suzi wanted the black , green , and blue
shoes.

Letter Salutations: Dear Uncle John ,

Separation of two complete sentences: We went to the movies , and we went to

the beach.

The semicolon (;) is used to connect independent clauses. It shows a closer

relationship between the clauses than a period would show. For example: John
was hurt ; he knew she only said it to upset him.

A colon (:) has two main uses:

The first is after a word introducing a quotation, an explanation, an

example, or a series. It is also often used after the salutation of a business
letter.

The second is within time expressions. Within time, it is used to separate

out the hour and minute: 12 : 15 p.m.

Dash and the Hyphen

Two kinds of dashes are used throughout written communications. They are the
endash and the emdash. An endash is a symbol (-) that is used in writing or
printing to connect numbers or to connect elements of a compound adjective,
such as 1880 - 1945 or Princeton - New York trains.

However, the emdash has more complicated grammatical use. The symbol of is
used to:

Indicate a break in thought or sentence structure

Introduce a phrase added for emphasis, definition, or explanation
Separate two clauses

Use it in the following manner: We only wanted to get two birds - but the clerk
talked us into four pregnant parakeets.

A hyphen (-) is the same symbol as the endash. However, it has slightly different
usage rules. A hyphen is used between the parts of a compound word or name or
between the syllables of a word, especially when divided at the end of a line of
text.

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Examples of this in use include:

Between a compound name: Mrs. Smith - Reynolds

Within a compound word: back - to - back

Brackets, Braces and Parentheses

Brackets, braces and parentheses are symbols used to contain words that are a
further explanation or are considered a group.

Parentheses ( () ) are curved notations used to contain further thoughts or

qualifying remarks. However, parentheses can be replaced by commas without
changing the meaning in most cases. For example: John and Jane ( who were
actually half brother and sister ) both have red hair.

Brackets are the squared off notations ([]) used for technical explanations.
YourDictionary uses them when you look up word definitions. At the bottom of
each definition page, brackets surround a technical description of where the
word originated.

Braces ({}) are used to contain two or more lines of text or listed items to show
that they are considered as a unit. They are not commonplace in most writing,
but can be seen in computer programming to show what should be contained
within the same lines.

Apostrophe, Quotation Marks and Ellipses

The final three punctuation forms in English grammar are the apostrophe,
quotation marks and ellipses. Unlike previously mentioned grammatical marks,
they are not related to one another in any form.

An apostrophe (') is used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters from a

word, the possessive case, or the plurals of lowercase letters.

Examples of the apostrophe in use include:

Omission of letters from a word: An issue of nat'l importance.

Possesive case: Sara's dog bites.

Plural for lowercase letters: Six people were told to mind their p's and q's. It
should be noted that, according to Purdue University, some teachers and editors
enlarge the scope of the use of apostrophe, and prefer their use on symbols (&'s),

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Prof. Marouane Zakhir
University Chouaib Doukkali
Multidisciplinary Faculty of El jadida
English for Specific Purposes

numbers (7's) and capitalized letters (Q&A's), even though they are not
necessary.

Quotations marks ( ) are a pair of punctuation marks used primarily to mark

the beginning and end of a passage attributed to another and repeated word for
word. They are also used to indicate meanings and to indicate the unusual or
dubious status of a word.

Single quotation marks (') are used most frequently for quotes within quotes.

The ellipses mark is generally represented by three periods (. . . ) although it is

occasionally demonstrated with three asterisks (***). The ellipses are used in
writing or printing to indicate an omission, especially of letters or words.
Ellipses are frequently used within quotations to jump from one phrase to
another, omitting unnecessary words that do not interfere with the meaning.
Students writing research papers or newspapers quoting parts of speeches will
often employ ellipses to avoid copying lengthy text that is not needed.

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Business writing

Business writing requires of you what other kinds of writing call for:
understanding your audience and your purpose. When you write for the business
worldperhaps a letter asking for a job interview or a memo or report for an
employerkeep five points in mind.

1. Consider your audiences needs and expectations.

2. Show that you understand the purpose for a business
communication and the context in which it takes place.
3. Put essential information first.
4. Make your points clearly and directly.
5. Use conventional formats.

Understand how to write and format a business letter

Business letters are clear, usually short communications written to

give information, to build good will, or to establish a foundation for discussions
or transactions. Experts in business and government agree that the letters likely
to get results are short, simple, direct, and human. As parts of international paper
companys series of advertisements The power of the printed word, Malcom
Forbes of Forbes magazine gave these recommendations for effective business
letters.

1. Call the person by name.

2. Tell what your letter is about in the first paragraph.
3. Be honest.
4. Be clear and specific.
5. Use accurate English.
6. Be positive and natural.
7. Edit ruthlessly.

The guidelines below should be followed to write a business letter and envelope.

Letterhead: if printed stationery is not available, type the company name

and address centered at top of opaque white paper.
Date: place the date at left margin under letterhead, when typing in block
form as shown in the example below. If using paragraph indentations,
type date to end at right margin.

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Prof. Marouane Zakhir
University Chouaib Doukkali
Multidisciplinary Faculty of El jadida
English for Specific Purposes

Inside address: direct the letter to a specific person. Be accurate in

spelling the name and in the address. If unsure of your information, call
the company and ask questions.
Subject line: type at left margin. Be concise; in a few words inform your
reader of the subject.
Salutation: Use a first name only if you know the person. Otherwise, use
Mr. or Mrs. Or whatever title is applicable.
Closing: sincerely is generally appropriate unless you know the person
very well and wish to use Cordially. Leave about four lines for your
signature.
Name lines: type your name and title. The title can be on the same line as
your name or on the next line.
Envelope: use block form. If printed envelope is not available, type the
company name and return address in the upper left corner of the envelope.
In the center of envelope, type the name and address of the person to
receive your letter.

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 Understand how to write and format a job application letter

One important type of business letter is the job-application letter. Specific

advice about each part of the letter is given in the chart below.

Your address: to the right, type your address as you would on an envelope. Be
sure to give as your address a place where you can be reached by letter. Be also
sure to give your zip code.

Date: put the date below your address.

Inside address: (1) Direct your letter to a specific person. You can phone a
company to find out the name of the personnel director or a department head, if
you know what department the job is in. (2) Be accurate. With a misspelled
name or the wrong address, your letter may never get to the destination. If it
does, inaccuracies make you seem careless.

Salutation: again, be accurate. No one likes to see his name misspelled. If you
are replying to a ad that gives only a post-office box number (no personal of
company names), omit the salutation. Start the opening paragraph right below
the inside address.

Introductory paragraph: state your purpose for writing and the source of your
information about the job.

Body paragraphs: interest the reader in the skills and talents you offer by
mentioning whatever personal experience you have that relates to the job. Say
that you have enclosed you rsum, but do not summarize it.

Closing paragraph: suggest an interview stating when you are available for one
and when you will call to make arrangements.

Closing: sincerely is generally appropriate for a job-application letter.

Name lines: type your full name below your signature.

Notation: if you are enclosing any other materials with your letter of
application, type Enc. : and briefly list what you are enclosing.

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Prof. Marouane Zakhir
University Chouaib Doukkali
Multidisciplinary Faculty of El jadida
English for Specific Purposes

Understanding how to write and format a rsum

A rsum is an easy-to-read, factual document that presents your qualifications

for employment. All rsums cover certain standard items.

Name; address; phone number; education; past experience; skills and

talents; publications; awards; honors; membership in professional
organizations; list of references or a statement that they are available
upon requests.

A rsum gives you an opportunity to present a positive picture of yourself to a

prospective employer. You are expected to give information about your skills,
your experience, and your education. Employers understand that college
students may have limited experience in the business world. Think of headings
that allow you to emphasize your strengths. For example if you have never done
paid work, do not use Business Experience. You can use Work Experience, if
you have done volunteer or other unpaid work. If the experience you can offer
an employer is that you have run school or social events, you might use
Organizational Experience. If your greatest strengths is your academic record,
put your educational attainments first.

You may choose to arrange your rsum with the most important information
first and the least important last. You may also choose to arrange information in
a chronological (time) order, a sequence that is good for showing a steady work
history or solid progress in a particular field. The following rsum is
chronological.

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Understanding how to write and format a memo

A memo can call for action or document action; it can provide a written record
of a conversation; it can make a brief, informal report. A sample memo, its parts
labeled, is shown. You can follow it for format guidance. When you are writing
a memo, determine who should receive the information by evaluating the
audience and deciding the memos goals. At the to line, list the person or
people who need to act on the information in the memo. List for distribution
anyone else you think should be informed.

Use the subject line to define and limit the memos contents. The
subject line should also set the tone for the message, signaling to the reader your
attitude toward the subject. A subject line is like an easy title.

In the message, give the most important information first. Give

additional information or secondary points in decreasing order of importance,
but include them only if they are essential to the picture. If you expect action of
some kind from the memo, end the memo with a clear statement of your
expectationsabout the action and about the time the action should take place.

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