Assignment questions

1. How will you check the quality of coal?

2. From your point of view, how far biodiesel is advantageous? Explain.
3. Classify the polymers based on their nature.
4. Give the preparation, properties and applications of any four polymers
5. Compare the various method of moulding of plastics and justify which
is advantageous over the other one.
6. What is meant by biodegradable polymer? What is the requirement for a
polymer to be a biodegradable polymer? Explain with some examples.
7. How polymers are a better material than the other materials? Justify
your answer
8. Give a note on the applications of conducting polymers in day today life

ANSWERS
1)
Coal is a source of energy that cannot be renewed. Because the coalification
involves several factors, the quality of coal also varies. General Coal quality
parameters is the calorie content of moisture, flight substances, ash content, carbon
content, sulphur content, size and Grinding Hardgrove Index, and other parameters
such as elemental analysis in the ash content (SiO2, Al2O3, P2O5, Fe2O3, etc.),
analysis of the composition of sulphur (pyritic sulphur, sulphate sulphur, organic
sulphur), and the melting point of ash (ash fusion temperature). Taking the example
of coal plants, the effects of the above parameters of power generation equipment
are as follows:
1. Calorific value (CV)
CV has a great influence on the operation of the sprayer / grinder, charcoal tubes,
and Wind box and the burner. The higher the CV of the flow of coal every hour, so
the lower your rate adjusted feeder coal.
For coal with a moisture content and Grinding Hardgrove Index same level, then a
high CV spray causes operate under its normal capacity (by design), or in other
words, the operating ratio will be lower.

2. Coal Moisture
The results for moisture analysis is divided into free moisture (FM) Dan inherent
moisture (IM). The number of calls for a total moisture (TM). The moisture content
affects the amount of primary air intake. Coal high humidity requires more primary
air for drying the coal to a specific temperature for the spray output.
3. Volatile matter
VM womb affects the perfection of the intensity of burning and fire. The evaluation
is based on the ratio of carbon (fixed carbon) substances flight, called the fuel ratio
(fuel ratio). The highest value of the fuel ratio, the amount of carbon in coal is not
burned is also growing. If the comparison is a value greater than 1.2, then the contact
will be less good, which resulted in lower recording speed.

4. Ash content
The ash content will meet with the combustion gases through the combustion
chamber and the conversion in the form of fly ash (fly ash), which amounted to 80
percent and bottom ash as much as 20 percent. The higher ash content, in general,
affect the level of fouling (fouling), wear and corrosion of the equipment that
passed.

5. Fixed Carbon
Carbon content value obtained by reducing the number 100 with the level of water
(moisture), ash content, and the number of flights. These values come up with
pembatubaraan level. Carbon levels and the amount of substance used as a flight
calculations to evaluate the quality of fuel, i.e. the fuel value ratio as described
above.

6. Sulphur content
Sulphur in the coal pyritic sulphur is divided, sulphate sulphur and organic sulphur.
But overall, the evaluation of the sulphur content in coal is expressed in total sulphur
(TS). Sulphur content affects the level of corrosion that occurs on the cold side of air
heater element, especially when the temperature is lower than the dew point of
sulphur, as well as influencing the effectiveness of the precipitator ash detention
peralatanelectrostatic.

7. Coal Size
Coal grain size is limited in the range of fine-grained (coal or dust pulverized coal)
and coarse grains (mass of coal). The most delicate to the maximum size of 3
millimetres, while the coarse grain sizes up to 50 mm.

8. Grinding Hardgrove Index (HGI)

Devastating performance or mill is designed, in particular, the values of HGI. To
download the HGI, their ability to operate lower than the default anyway to generate
the level of fineness (fineness) of the same.

2)
 A biofuel is a fuel that is produced through contemporary biological processes, such
as agriculture and anaerobic digestion, rather than a fuel produced by geological
processes such as those involved in the formation of fossil fuels, such as coal and
petroleum, from prehistoric biological matter.
Biofuels can be derived directly from plants, or indirectly from agricultural,
commercial, domestic, and/or industrial wastes. Renewable biofuels generally
involve contemporary carbon fixation, such as those that occur
in plants or microalgae through the process of photosynthesis. Other renewable
biofuels are made through the use or conversion of biomass (referring to recently
living organisms, most often referring to plants or plant-derived materials). This
biomass can be converted to convenient energy-containing substances in three
different ways: thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical
conversion. This biomass conversion can result in fuel in solid, liquid, or gas form.
This new biomass can also be used directly for biofuels.
Biofuels not only help a struggling economy by providing jobs but also helps in
reducing greenhouse gases up to much extent by emitting less pollution.

Advantages of Biofuels
1. Cost Benefit: As of now, biofuels cost the same in the market as gasoline does.
However, the overall cost benefit of using them is much higher. They are cleaner
fuels, which means they produce fewer emissions on burning. Biofuels are adaptable
to current engine designs and perform very well in most conditions. This keeps the
engine running for longer, requires less maintenance and brings down overall
pollution check costs. With the increased demand of biofuels, they have a potential
of becoming cheaper in future as well. So, the use of biofuels will be less of a drain
on the wallet.
2. Easy To Source: Gasoline is refined from crude oil, which happens to be a non-
renewable resource. Although current reservoirs of gas will sustain for many years,
they will end sometime in near future. Biofuels are made from many different
sources such as manure, waste from crops and plants grown specifically for the fuel.
3. Renewable: Most of the fossil fuels will expire and end up in smoke one day.
Since most of the sources like manure, corn, switchgrass, soyabeans, waste from
crops and plants are renewable and are not likely to run out any time soon, making
the use of biofuels efficient in nature. These crops can be replanted again and again.
4. Reduce Greenhouse Gases: Fossil fuels, when burnt, produce large amount of
greenhouse gases i.e. carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. These greenhouse gases trap
sunlight and cause planet to warm. The burning of coal and oil increases the
temperature and causes global warming. To reduce the impact of greenhouse gases,
people around the world are using biofuels. Studies suggests that biofuels reduces
greenhouse gases up to 65 percent.
5. Economic Security: Not every country has large reserves of crude oil. For them,
having to import the oil puts a huge dent in the economy. If more people start
shifting towards biofuels, a country can reduce its dependance on fossil fuels. More
 jobs will be created with a growing biofuel industry, which will keep our economy
secure.
6. Reduce Dependance on Foreign Oil: While locally grown crops has reduce the
nations dependance on fossil fuels, many experts believe that it will take a long
time to solve our energy needs. As prices of crude oil is touching sky high, we need
some more alternative energy solutions to reduce our dependance on fossil fuels.
7. Lower Levels of Pollution: Since biofuels can be made from renewable resources,
they cause less pollution to the planet. However, that is not the only reason why the
use of biofuels is being encouraged. They release lower levels of carbon dioxide and
other emissions when burnt. Although the production of biofuels creates carbon
dioxide as a byproduct, it is frequently used to grow the plants that will be converted
into the fuel. This allows it to become something close to a self sustaining system.
Disadvantages of Biofuels
1. High Cost of Production: Even with all the benefits associated with biofuels, they
are quite expensive to produce in the current market. As of now, the interest and
capital investment being put into biofuel production is fairly low but it can match
demand. If the demand increases, then increasing the supply will be a long term
operation, which will be quite expensive. Such a disadvantage is still preventing the
use of biofuels from becoming more popular.
2. Monoculture: Monoculture refers to practice of producing same crops year after
year, rather than producing various crops through a farmers fields over time. While,
this might be economically attractive for farmers but growing same crop every year
may deprive the soil of nutrients that are put back into the soil through crop rotation.
3. Use of Fertilizers: Biofuels are produced from crops and these crops need
fertilizers to grow better. The downside of using fertilizers is that they can have
harmful effects on surrounding environment and may cause water pollution.
Fertilizers contain nitrogen and phosphorus. They can be washed away from soil to
nearby lake, river or pond.
4. Shortage of Food: Biofuels are extracted from plants and crops that have high
levels of sugar in them. However, most of these crops are also used as food crops.
Even though waste material from plants can be used as raw material, the requirement
for such food crops will still exist. It will take up agricultural space from other crops,
which can create a number of problems. Even if it does not cause an acute shortage
of food, it will definitely put pressure on the current growth of crops. One major
worry being faced by people is that the growing use of biofuels may just mean a rise
in food prices as well.
5. Industrial Pollution: The carbon footprint of biofuels is less than the traditional
forms of fuel when burnt. However, the process with which they are produced
makes up for that. Production is largely dependent on lots of water and oil. Large
scale industries meant for churning out biofuel are known to emit large amounts of
emissions and cause small scale water pollution as well. Unless more efficient
means of production are put into place, the overall carbon emission does not get a
very big dent in it.
6. Water Use: Large quantities of water are required to irrigate the biofuel crops and
it may impose strain on local and regional water resources, if not managed wisely. In
 order to produce corn based ethanol to meet local demand for biofuels, massive
quantities of water are used that could put unsustainable pressure on local water
resources.
7. Future Rise in Price: Current technology being employed for the production of
biofuels is not as efficient as it should be. Scientists are engaged in developing better
means by which we can extract this fuel. However, the cost of research and future
installation means that the price of biofuels will see a significant spike. As of now,
the prices are comparable with gasoline and are still feasible. Constantly rising
prices may make the use of biofuels as harsh on the economy as the rising gas prices
are doing right now.

4)
Classification of Polymers:
a) Classification Based on Source
b) Classification Based on Structure of Polymers
c) Classification Based on Mode of Polymerisation
d) Classification Based on Molecular Forces

a) Classification Based on Source

(i) Natural polymers: The polymers which obtain by nature or natural sources like
plants and animals are called natural polymers.
Ex:- Proteins, Cellulose, Starch, Rubber etc.
(ii) Synthetic polymers: The polymers which found by laboratories or industries are
called synthetic polymers.
Ex:- Polythene, Fibers, Bunas etc.
(iii) Semi Synthetic polymers: These types of polymers formed by chemical reaction
with neutral polymers.
Ex:- Cellulose acetate (rayon) etc.

b) Classification Based on Structure of Polymers

Based on structure polymers have three types.
(i) Linear polymers: In this type of polymers, monomers are joined with each other
and formed long and straight chain.
These polymers have high melting points.
These polymers have high density.
Ex:- Polythene, Polyvinyl chloride, High density polythene (HDPE) etc.
(ii) Branch chain polymers: In this type of polymers, monomers are joined with each
other and formed long and straight chain having some branches.
These polymers have low melting points.
These polymers have low density.
Ex:- Low density polythene (LDPE) etc.
(iii) Cross linked or Network polymers: In this type of polymers, monomers are
formed from bi-functional and tri-functional monomers and contain strong covalent
bonds between various linear polymer chains. These polymers are brittle in nature.
Ex:- Bakelite, Melamine etc.

c) Based on Mode of Polymerisation

Based on polymerization polymers have two types.
(i) Addition polymers (ii)Condensation polymers
(i) Addition polymers:Theses type of polymers are formed by the repeated addition
of monomer molecules.
In this reaction small particles are not eliminated like water, HCl, NH3 etc.
In this type of polymers monomers are unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Ex: Vinyl chloride to Poly vinyl chloride.
(ii)Condensation polymers: Theses type of polymers are formed by repeated
Condensation between two different bi-functional or tri-functional monomeric units.
In this reaction small particles are eliminated like water, HCl, NH3 etc.
Ex:- Nylone 66 is formed by condensation of Hexamethelene diamine and adipic
acid.

d) Classification Based on Molecular Forces

(i) Elastomers: The polymers that have elastic character like rubber are called
elastomers.
In elastomers, the polymer chains are held together by weak inter-molecular forces.
 Cause of these weak forces, the polymers can be easily stretched by applying small
stress and regain their original shape when the stress is removed.
Ex:- Vulcanised rubber
In this rubber polymers chains are held by sulpher cross bond.
Cause of these cross bond it can be stretched by small stress.
(ii) Thermoplastics: The polymers in which inter-molecules forces are between the
elastomer polymers and fiber polymers.
These polymers are softened when it heated and hardened when it cooled.
These polymers do not have any cross bond.
These polymers can eaily convert into any shape by heating.
Ex:- Polyetene, Polystyrene, PVC etc.
(iii) Thermosetting: Theses polymers are made by low molecular mass semi fluid
substance.
These polymers can not convert in other shape by heating.
On heating, they become hard and in-fusible because these polymers have cross
bond.
Ex:- Bakelit, Melamine formaldehyde, Resin etc.
(iv) Fibers: These polymers have strong inter-molecules forces between the chains.
These forces are either hydrogen bonds or dipole dipole interaction.
Cause of these strong forces, the chains are closely packed giving high tensile
strength and less elasticity.
Therefore these polymers have high melting points.
Ex:- nylone 66, Dacron, silk etc.

5)
1) BAKELITE
Bakelite is the commercial name for the polymer obtained by the polymerization
of phenol and formaldehyde. These are one of the oldest polymers that was
synthesised by man. Phenol is made to react with formaldehyde. The
condensation reaction of the two reactants in a controlled acidic or basic medium
results in the formation of ortho and para hydroxymethylphenols and their
derivatives. When the phenol is taken in excess and the reaction medium is made
acidic, the product of the condensation reaction obtained is novolac.
Whereas, when the quantity of formaldehyde taken is more than that of phenol
in the reacting mixture , and the reaction occurs in a basic medium, the
condensation product is known as resol.
These intermediate condensation products are used as resins in different industries.
Bakelite is obtained when novolac is allowed to undergo cross-linking in the presence of
a cross-linking agent. In general, phenol taken in excess acts as the cross-linking agent.
The cross-linked product of phenol and formaldehyde have the following structure.

Bakelite has a low electrical conductivity and high resistance to heat and chemicals. It is
a thermosetting polymer and has high strength and retains its shape after moulding.
Phenolic resins are extensively used as adhesives and binding agents. It finds application
in coating industry as well for protective purposes. Bakelite is most commonly used for
making electrical switches due to its high resistance to heat and low conductivity. Earlier
it was used for making machine parts of electrical systems too. Bakelite is also used to
make the handles of variety of utensils. It is one of the most important polymers that are
used to make different components and parts.
2) MELAMINE
SYNTHESIS
Melamine formaldehyde is made from the polymerization of formaldehyde (chemical
formula CH2O) with melamine (chemical formula C3H6N6). Polymerization is the
chemical process in which two or more identical small molecules--called monomers--are
linked to form a chain of polymers. A polymer is a macromolecule--or a large molecule-
-that is comprised of bonded monomers. Polymers are commonly referred to as plastics.

SYNONYMS AND TRADE NAMES

Melamine formaldehyde is also called melamine resin, cymel 481 resin, melamine and
melamine formaldehyde polymer. It is sold under various trade names, including Melit,
Cellobond, Melmex, Isomin, Epok, Plenco, Melsir, Melopas and Melolam.
PROPERTIES
The chemical formula for melamine formaldehyde is C4H6N6O. It is white, tasteless,
odorless and exhibits great chemical and heat resistance. Melamine formaldehyde is a
thermosetting plastic and cannot be melted.
USES
Melamine formaldehyde resins are used as particleboard and plywood adhesives.
According to Handbook of Plastics Technologies, melamine formaldehyde is used
extensively in automotive coatings, epoxy coatings and polyester appliance coatings.
Melamine formaldehyde laminates are used to surface walls, cabinets and counters, and
to make decorative laminated panels in public transportation. Melamine formaldehyde
moldings are hard, scratch- and impact-resistant, and resistant to shrinkage and heat.
They are used to make household crockery items--such as glasses, cups, bowls and
plates. Toilet seats, pan knobs and handles are also made with melamine formaldehyde.

3) BUNA-N
Buna-N is a commonly used elastomer. Buna-N is also known as Nitrile rubber, NBR or
Perbunan.It is synthetic rubber copolymer of acrylonitrile(ACN) and butadiene.
Elastomer is natural or synthetic material which does not break when stretched and
when released it return to its original length. Acrylonitrile monomer used to prepare
Buna-N gives hardness,tensile strength and abrasion,fuel and oil resistance.It usually
contain 34% ACN. By reducing ACN content low temperature properties improves but
high temperature properties reduces,material swell increases and fluid resistance
decreases. Butadiene monomer used to make Buna-N gives elasticity and low
temperature flexibility. Buna N Properties and Uses are given below :

Properties of Buna-N:
Buna-N is resistant to oil,fuel and other chemicals means more Buna-N higher the
resistance to oil but flexibility of the material is less.It is resistant to aliphatic
hydrocarbons.It has tensile strength of >=10N/mm2 as well as excellent abrasion and
compression set resistance.Elongation of Buna-N after fracture is >=300%.It is not
resistant to solvents.It can be attacked by ozone,ketones,esters and aldehydes. It have
poor resistance to ozone,sunlight and weathering as the double bond present in the
polybutadiene segment of the chemical backbone. So,Buna-N should not be stored near
ozone generating electric motors,welding equipment or in UV light.Buna-N performs
good in petroleum oils and fuels,silicone oils and greases,ethylene glycol,dilute acids
and water below 212 degree fahrenhite. On the other hand,it does not perform good in
aromatic hydrocarbons,halogen derivatives, ketones, strong acids and phosphate ester
hydraulic fluids. The general properties of Buna-N are not altered by minor structural or
compositional differences.
Uses of Buna-N:
Buna-N is used in the automotive and aeronautical industry to make fuel and oil
handling hoses,seals and grommets.It is is used to make protective gloves in the nuclear
industry.It is ideal material for aeronautical application as Buna-N can withstand a range
of temperature from -40 to 108 degree C.It is useful material for disposable lab,cleaning
and examination gloves. Buna-N latex is used in the preparation of adhesives and as a
pigment binder. XNBR,an improved version of Buna-N,is used for hoses,rubber
belts,sealing parts,special purpose article in oil well,reciprocating oil seal,rubber
seal,gaskets,roll covers,shoe soles,varieties molded part for shoe heels and O-rings.
XNBR is specially used for modification of the adhesives and epoxy resin.

4) NYLON
SYNSTHESIS
Here the polyamide Nylon-66 is formed by heating the reactant mixture under pressure
and the process has been developed so that the molecular mass of the polymer is
controlled in the range of 12,000 to 20,000 amu.

Nylon-6 is prepared from the monomer caprolactum which is obtained from

cyclohexane (petrochemical). Since caprolactum is more easily available, it is used for
polymerization which is carried out in the presence of water that first hydrolyses the
caprolactum to amino acid. Subsequently the amino group of the amino acid can react
with caprolactum to form the polyamide polymer.

Filaments of Nylon-6 are obtained by melt-spinning of the polymer. The fibers are
cooled by a stream of air.

NYLON PROPERTIES
Nylon possesses many properties that make it a very useful fiber in many applications. It
is very strong and elastic; its also easy to wash, and can usually be washed with similar
items and does not typically require specialty laundering arrangements. Nylon dries
rather quickly and t retains its shape rather well after laundering, which ensures
longevity of the garment. Nylon fiber is very responsive and resilient as well as
relatively resistant to heat, UV rays and chemicals.
USES OF NYLON
 One of the most common uses for nylon is in women's stockings or hosiery. It is also
used as a material in dress socks, swimwear, shorts, track pants, active wear,
windbreakers, draperies and bedspreads. Less frequently encountered uses include flak
vests, parachutes, combat uniforms and life vests; the fiber is also often used in
manufacturing umbrellas, luggage and the netting for bridal veils.
NYLON ROPE
Since nylon is heat- and cold-resistant, strong and lightweight, it is often used for
making rope such as the kinds used for boat docking and towing. Manmade ropes are
typically stronger than natural fiber ropes, which makes nylon one of the strongest ropes
available; nylon's elasticity absorbs shock loads that would most likely break ropes
made of other types of fibers. There are different types of nylon ropes available, such as
hollow and braided styles, suited for specific purposes.
6)
The various methods of moulding of plastics are as follows:

Compression moulding
It is used for moulding both thermosetting as well as thermoplastic plastics. The raw
materials of correct composition are placed between the top and bottom part of the
mould which is closed under low pressure. Then high pressure and temperature is
applied which is of the range 100-500 kg/cm2 and 100 -200oC respectively to complete
the curing process. The cavities are filled with
the fluidized plastics. Finally curing is done either by heating and cooling. After curing,
the article is taken out by opening the mould.

Injection moulding
This is used for high speed moulding of thermoplastics. The moulding composition is
heated in a suitable chamber connected by a duct leading to the mould. The hot softened
molten plastic is injected at a controlled rate into the tightly locked mould by means of a
screw or a piston plunger. The mould is kept cold to allow the hot plastic to cure and
became rigid. When the material is cured sufficiently, half of the mould is opened to
allow the ejection of the finished article.
Drawback of this method is a large number of cavities cannot be filled simultaneously.
The temperature used is 90o-260o and pressure used is 100-500 kg/cm2cm2.

Transfer moulding
It is the modification of injection moulding and is suitable for thermosetting plastics.
The moulding composition is first plasticized by applying minimum heat and pressure in
a chamber outside of the mould. This plasticized material is then injected through an
orifice into the mould by a plunger working at a high pressure. It is heated upto curing
temperature required for setting. The moulded article is ejected mechanically.
Advantages-
1) Mould cost is low.
2) Finishing of article is not required.
3) Suitable for intricate shapes.

Extrusion moulding
This method is used only for thermoplastics for manufacture of electric wires, cables,
tubes, rods etc. having uniform cross-sections. Like injection moulding, the raw material
or the moulding composition is forced by a screw conveyor into a heated chamber where
it melts and then is forced through a Die having the required shape. The finished product
is cooled by atmosphere or by blowing air or by spraying water as it is carried away by a
long conveyor.
Rotational Molding
Rotational Molding, also called rotomolding, is a manufacturing process for producing
large hollow parts and products by placing a powder or liquid resin into a metal mold
and rotating it in an oven until the resin coats the inside of the mold. The constant
rotation of the mold creates centrifugal force forming even-walled products. Once the
mold cools, the hardened plastic is removed from the mold.
Very little material is wasted during the process, and excess material is often re-used,
making it economical and environmentally friendly.

Thermoforming
Thermoforming is a manufacturing process where a plastic sheet called thermoplastic is
heated to a pliable forming temperature, formed to a specific shape in a mold, and
trimmed to create a usable product. Thermoplastic comes in a wide variety of materials,
colors, finishes, and thickness.
Thermoforming uses several different types of molds and processes in order to achieve
the final product. To create 3D products, the mold is typically a single 3D form made
out of aluminum. Because thermoforming uses low pressures, molds can be produced
for a low cost using inexpensive materials.

8)
: Biodegradable polymers are a specific type of polymer that breaks down after its
intended purpose to result in natural byproducts such as gases
(CO2, N2), water, biomass, and inorganic salts. These polymers are found both naturally
and synthetically made, and largely consist of ester, amide, and ether functional groups.
Their properties and breakdown mechanism are determined by their exact structure.
These polymers are often synthesized by condensation reactions, ring opening
polymerization, and metal catalysts. There are vast examples and applications of
biodegradable polymers.
Even though biodegradable polymers have numerous applications, there are properties
that tend to be common among them. All biodegradable polymers should be stable and
durable enough for use in their particular application, but upon disposal they should
easily break down. Polymers, specifically biodegradable polymers, have extremely
strong carbon backbones that are difficult to break, such that degradation often starts
from the end-groups. Since the degradation begins at the end, a high surface area is
common as it allows easy access for either the chemical, light, or
organism. Biodegradable polymers also tend to have minimal[clarification needed] chain
branching as this cross linking often decreases the number of end groups per unit
weight. Crystallinity is often low as it also inhibits access to end groups. A low degree
of polymerization is normally seen, as hinted at above, as doing so allows for more
accessible end groups for reaction with the degradation initiator. Another commonality
of these polymers is their hydrophillicity. Hydrophobicpolymers and end groups will
prevent an enzyme from easily interacting if the water-soluble enzyme cannot easily get
in contact with the polymer.
Other properties of biodegradable polymers that are common among those used for
medicinal usages include
non-toxic,
capable of maintaining good mechanical integrity until degraded, and
capable of controlled rates of degradation.
A goal is not to elicit the immune response, and the products of degradation also need
not to be toxic. These are important as biodegradable polymers are used for drug
delivery where it is critical to slowly release the drug into the body over time instead of
all at once and that the pill is stable in the bottle until ready to be taken.
Factors controlling the rate of degradation include:
1) percent crystallinity, 2) molecular weight, and 3) hydrophobicity. The degradation
rate depends on the location in the body, which influences the environment surrounding
the polymer such as pH, enzymes concentration, and amount of water among others.
These are rapidly decomposed.

EXAMPLES:
9)
Polymers can be very resistant to chemicals. Consider all the cleaning fluids in your
home that are packaged in plastic. Reading the warning labels that describe what
happens when the chemical comes in contact with skin or eyes or is ingested will
emphasize the need for chemical resistance in the plastic packaging. While solvents
easily dissolve some plastics, other plastics provide safe, non-breakable packages for
aggressive solvents.
Polymers can be both thermal and electrical insulators. A walk through your house
will reinforce this concept, as you consider all the appliances, cords, electrical outlets
and wiring that are made or covered with polymeric materials. Thermal resistance is
evident in the kitchen with pot and pan handles made of polymers, the coffee pot
handles, the foam core of refrigerators and freezers, insulated cups, coolers, and
microwave cookware. The thermal underwear that many skiers wear is made of
polypropylene and the fiberfill in winter jackets is acrylic and polyester.
Generally, polymers are very light in weight with significant degrees of
strength. Consider the range of applications, from toys to the frame structure of space
stations, or from delicate nylon fiber in pantyhose to Kevlar, which is used in bulletproof
vests. Some polymers float in water while others sink. But, compared to the density of
stone, concrete, steel, copper, or aluminum, all plastics are lightweight materials.
Polymers can be processed in various ways. Extrusion produces thin fibers or heavy
pipes or films or food bottles. Injection molding can produce very intricate parts or large
car body panels. Plastics can be molded into drums or be mixed with solvents to become
adhesives or paints. Elastomers and some plastics stretch and are very flexible. Some
plastics are stretched in processing to hold their shape, such as soft drink bottles. Other
polymers can be foamed like polystyrene (Styrofoam), polyurethane and polyethylene
Polymers can be used to make items that have no alternatives from other
materials. Polymers can be made into clear, waterproof films. PVC is used to make
medical tubing and blood bags that extend the shelf life of blood and blood
products. PVC safely delivers flammable oxygen in non-burning flexible tubing. And
anti-thrombogenic material, such as heparin, can be incorporated into flexible PVC
catheters for open heart surgery, dialysis, and blood collection. Many medical devices
rely on polymers to permit effective functioning.
Polymers are materials with a seemingly limitless range of characteristics and
colors. Polymers have many inherent properties that can be further enhanced by a wide
range of additives to broaden their uses and applications. Polymers can be made to
mimic cotton, silk, and wool fibers; porcelain and marble; and aluminum and
zinc. Polymers can also make possible products that do not readily come from the
natural world, such as clear sheets and flexible films.
10)
Conducting polymers are organic polymers that conduct electricity. Such compounds
may have metallic conductivity or can be semiconductors. The biggest advantage of
conductive polymers is their processability, mainly by dispersion. Conductive polymers
are generally not thermoplastics, i.e., they are not thermoformable. But, like insulating
polymers, they are organic materials. They can offer high electrical conductivity but do
not show similar mechanical properties to other commercially available polymers. The
electrical properties can be fine-tuned using the methods of organic synthes is and by
advanced dispersion techniques.
Due to their poor processability, conductive polymers have few large-scale applications.
They have promise in antistatic materials and they have been incorporated into
commercial displays and batteries, but there have been limitations due to the
manufacturing costs, material inconsistencies, toxicity, poor solubility in solvents, and
inability to directly melt process.
They are also promising in organic solar cells, printing electronic circuits, organic light-
emitting diodes, actuators, electrochromism, supercapacitors, chemical sensors
and biosensors, flexible transparent displays, electromagnetic shielding and possibly
replacement for the popular transparent conductor indium tin oxide.
Another use is for microwave-absorbent coatings, particularly radar-absorptive coatings
on stealth aircraft.
Conducting polymers are rapidly gaining attraction in new applications with
increasingly processable materials with better electrical and physical properties and
lower costs.
The new nanostructured forms of conducting polymers particularly, augment this field
with their higher surface area and better dispersability.
Chemical structures of some conducting polymers-----