SPWLA 54th Annual Logging Symposium, June 22-26, 2013

MISCIBILITY EFFECTS OF OIL-BASE MUD AND IN-SITU GAS ON

CONVENTIONAL WELL LOGS
Hamid Hadibeik, Essi Kwabi, Carlos Torres-Verdn, and Kamy Sepehrnoori, The University of Texas at Austin

Copyright 2013, held jointly by the Society of Petrophysicists and Well Log Analysts (SPWLA) and the
submitting authors. This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPWLA 54th Annual Logging Symposium
held in New Orleans, Louisiana, June 22-26, 2013.

ABSTRACT
Oil-base muds (OBMs) are often preferred over water-base muds for many applications, including hostile
environments such as high-temperature, high-pressure drilling. However, because the base fluid in OBM is oil,
OBM filtrate tends to mix readily with reservoir hydrocarbon during invasion. When reservoir hydrocarbon and
OBM filtrate properties are not similar, as is in the case of gas-bearing formations, near wellbore fluid properties can
be greatly affected by invasion. Consequently, wireline logs such as neutron, density, sonic, and nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR) can be affected by compositional fluid mixing. Recent field data collected in deepwater plays
show that fluid miscibility effects could explain questionable nuclear-log readings across gas reservoirs.

This study investigates and quantifies thermodynamic reservoir conditions that facilitate reservoir gas dissolution
into OBM filtrate during invasion and the consequent effect on neutron-density logs. Phase behavior of hydrocarbon
fluids indicates that any multi-component system, under given temperature and pressure conditions, would exist
either in a single phase (liquid or gas) or in multiple phases (liquid and gas). During invasion, formation gas and
OBM filtrate form a multi-component system which, under favorable conditions, can exist as a single liquid phase
due to the dissolution of formation gas into OBM filtrate. As a result, the large cross-over between neutron-density
logs, normally observed within a gas-bearing formation, is significantly reduced by gas-OBM miscibility. Other
dynamic reservoir properties, such as wettability, have a less intuitive, yet significant effect on neutron-density logs,
thereby requiring a more challenging petrophysical interpretation of well logs. This abnormal gas- OBM miscibility
effect could have a measurable impact on formation-tester, NMR, and sonic measurements. We use the University
of Texas at Austins Petrophysical and Well-Log Simulator (UTAPWeLS) to construct synthetic models to study
OBM-gas miscibility effects under various reservoir conditions. The roles of pressure, temperature, overbalance
pressure and invasion time, and wettability on OBM-gas miscibility are quantified to identify conditions that enable
fluid miscibility.

Results indicate that high reservoir pressure, low temperature, high overbalance pressure, and increased invasion
time facilitate gas dissolution into OBM filtrate, hence a reduction in neutron-density cross-over. Water-wet systems
also provide a favorable condition for the same phenomenon. It is therefore imperative to consider invasion and
fluid miscibility during petrophysical interpretations of logs acquired in OBM-drilled wells. The integration of
dynamic and static measurements prevents bypassing and/or misidentification of gas-bearing reservoirs for oil- or
even water-bearing reservoirs.

INTRODUCTION
Differential pressure between drilling fluid and rock formations during overbalance drilling causes mud filtrate to
invade permeable rocks (Hadibeik et al., 2009). This invasion causes changes in the near-wellbore fluid properties as
mud filtrate displaces in-situ fluid. Wireline logs acquired several hours after drilling can therefore be affected by
changes in the invaded zone of reservoir rocks (Hadibeik et al., 2010; Frooqnia et al., 2011). However, conventional
log-analysis techniques usually neglect the effects of drilling fluid invasion and, as a result, properties estimated
with these techniques may not represent true physical reservoir properties (Mendoza et al., 2007). Interpretation of
petrophysical measurements affected by mud-filtrate invasion poses significant technical challenges, especially in
the case of gas-bearing reservoirs (Angeles et al., 2007; Malik et al., 2009; Odumosu et al., 2009; Hadibeik et al.,
2012). Invasion of oil-based mud (OBM) into a gas reservoir is of particular interest for two reasons: (1) gas
properties such as density and hydrogen index are very different from those of OBM filtrate, and (2) gas and OBM
filtrate are both hydrocarbons, thus miscible depending on overbalanced or underbalanced drilling conditions
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 SPWLA 54th Annual Logging Symposium, June 22-26, 2013

(Hadibeik et al., 2012). Generally, a mixture of hydrocarbons would exist in a single phase or in multiple fluid
phases, based on the phase envelope of the fluid mixture (Orr and Taber, 1987). Because OBM filtrate and reservoir
gas are miscible, fluid phase behavior of the reservoir gas - OBM filtrate system becomes an important factor to
consider during invasion. Furthermore, dynamic reservoir properties such as relative permeability and capillary
pressure directly correlate with porosity and permeability (Angeles et al., 2010; Corey et al., 1956; Fetkovich et al.,
1986). These properties influence not only the radius of invasion but also the shape of the radial invasion front (Wu
et al., 2004; Dussan et al., 2002). In this paper, we evaluate the effect of several static and dynamic reservoir
properties on neutron-density logs with emphasis on fluid miscibility effects. Static properties include pressure,
temperature, overbalance pressure and time of invasion, while dynamic properties include relative permeability and
wettability.

Nuclear measurements are simulated assuming generic wireline tools (Mendoza et al., 2007). Neutron porosity
assumes a chemical americium-beryllium (AmBe) source while density measurements implement a gamma-gamma
response. Numerical simulations are performed using flux sensitivity functions (FSFs) and the linear iterative
refinement technique (Mendoza et al., 2007; 2010). Neutron and density porosity logs, reported in sandstone
porosity units, are environmentally corrected for an 8-inch, OBM-filled borehole (such as is commonly done in field
applications).

METHOD
A synthetic reservoir model was constructed to simulate neutron and density logs during OBM-filtrate invasion. The
model assumes a 20ft gas-bearing siliciclastic formation at irreducible water saturation, positioned between two
shale barriers. The sand unit is assumed homogeneous, with isotropic permeability. Table 1 summarizes the
assumed rock, fluid, and mud properties; FC22 represents a group of lumped hydrocarbons present in both OBM
filtrate and reservoir fluids. Table 2 describes the pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) properties of OBM and in-
situ gas.

Table 1: Summary of the formation, fluid and OBM Table 2: Summary of assumed PVT properties of
properties assumed for the simulation of OBM-filtrate OBM and in-situ gas.
invasion into a gas-bearing formation.
Parameter Unit CH4 FC22
Variable Unit Value
Critical
Reservoir pressure [psi] 5000 [F] 190.4 804.4
temperature
Reservoir temperature [oF] 200 Critical pressure [psi] 45.35 13.26
Reservoir porosity [ ] 0.22 Acentric factor [ ] 0.008 0.878
Reservoir permeability [mD] 300 Molecular
[lb/mole] 16 310
weight
CH4 : 93
Reservoir fluid composition [%]
FC22 : 7
Overbalance pressure [psi] 100
Days of invasion [days] 0.5
CH4 : 1
OBM filtrate composition [%]
FC22 : 99

Reservoir fluid flow capacity depends on saturation-dependent capillary pressure and relative permeability.
Capillary and relative permeability curves are assumed to follow Brooks-Coreys relation (Corey et al., 1956). A
three-phase (water-oil-gas) relative permeability and capillary pressure model was used to calculate dynamic
petrophysical properties. The model is constructed based on the Stone II method (Stone, 1973; Blunt, 2000) and is
defined as follows:
2
3
wo
k rw k 0rw Swt (1)

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SPWLA 54th Annual Logging Symposium, June 22-26, 2013

in an oil-water fluid system , where krw is relative permeability to water, k 0rw is end-point for relative permeability
to water, wo is oil-water saturation exponent, and Swt is normalized water saturation defined as

Sw Swr
Swt , (2)
1 Swr Sor

where Sw is water saturation, Swr is irreducible water saturation, and Sor is residual oil saturation. Relative
permeability to oil in the oil-water fluid system is given by
2
1
0 wo
k row k row (1 Swt ) , (3)

where krow is relative permeability to oil with respect to water and k 0row is end-point for relative permeability to oil.
Capillary pressure for the oil-water mixture is defined as
1

0 wo
Pcwo Pcwo Swt , (4)

0
where Pcwo is capillary entry pressure.

In an oil-gas system, relative permeability to oil with respect to gas is calculated as follows:
2
3
go
k rog k0rog (1 Sgt ) , (5)

where krog is relative permeability to oil, k 0rog is end-point relative permeability to oil, go is saturation exponent,
and Sgt is normalized gas saturation given by

Sg Sgr
Sgt , (6)
1 Swr Sor Sgr

where Sg is gas saturation and Sgr is residual gas saturation. Relative permeability to gas is given by
2
1
go
k rg k 0rg Sgt , (7)

where krg is relative permeability to gas and k 0rg is end-point for relative permeability to gas. Capillary pressure
between gas and liquid phases is defined as
1

0 S go
Pcgo Pcgo Lt , (8)

0
where Pcgo is oil-gas capillary pressure, Pcgo is capillary entry pressure, and SLt is normalized liquid phase
saturation such that

SLt 1 Sgt . (9)

Based on the afore-describe formulation, the UTAPWeLS fluid flow module calculates the interaction between gas
and liquid phase in the reservoir. Table 3 summarizes the parameters utilized for the Stone II model. Once reservoir

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 SPWLA 54th Annual Logging Symposium, June 22-26, 2013

and mud properties are defined in the model, the UTAPWeLS wireline nuclear simulator calculates neutron and
density tool responses. This simulator is based on Schlumbergers nuclear parameter code SNUPAR (McKeon and
Scott, 1989).

Table 3: Summary of assumed capillary pressure and relative permeability

properties of the reservoir.
Variable Unit Value

k 0rg [ ] 0.5

k 0rog [ ] 0.45

k 0row [ ] 0.9

k 0rw [ ] 0.5
0
Pcgo [psi] 1
0
Pcwo [psi] 0.5

Sgr [ ] 0.15

Sor [ ] 0.2

Swr [ ] 0.1

go [ ] 2

wo [ ] 5

OIL-BASE MUD IN A GAS RESERVOIR

When reservoir gas dissolves in OBM filtrate, the observed neutron-density response can be misleading. The large
cross-over between neutron-density logs, normally observed within a gas-bearing formation, is significantly
reduced, thereby creating a false impression that the in-situ fluid is oil or water. The type of rock (water-wet, oil-wet
or mix wet) can influence the degree of reduction of the neutron-density cross-over.

Effect of Pressure
Pressure and temperature govern both material properties and phase. When a single component material exists at a
given temperature and pressure, its phase is determined by the corresponding phase diagram. When there is a
mixture of components, the phase of the mixture is determined by its corresponding phase envelope. Figure 1 shows
a typical phase diagram for a single hydrocarbon component and that of a mixture of oil and gas. As highlighted in
that figure, low temperatures and high pressures enable a single liquid phase for a mixture of oil and gas. At high
pressures, reservoir gas dissolves into the oil included in OBM filtrate. When reservoir pressure is progressively
increased from 2000 psi to 15000 psi, hydrogen index (HI) of the near borehole fluid increases as the fluid
transitions from gas to liquid. This behavior translates into higher neutron porosity readings and a smaller neutron-
density cross-overs. Figure 2 illustrates the decrease of neutron-density cross-over with increasing pressure.
Analysis of the radial distributions of oil and gas saturation and mole fractions of oil and gas components provides a
better understanding of the miscibility process. Figure 3 shows the radial distributions of saturation and mole
fractions. Even though gas saturation is null in the near-wellbore region at high pressures, the mole fraction of
methane is not. Equivalently, while oil saturation is at its maximal value of 1-Swirr, the mole fraction of FC22 is not.
This discrepancy between saturation and mole fraction indicates that reservoir gas and OBM filtrate have combined
to form a single liquid phase. For better illustration and for convergence of simulations at very high pressures,
reservoir fluid composition was modified to 80% CH4 and 20% FC22 for the pressure simulation studies described in
Figure 2.

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SPWLA 54th Annual Logging Symposium, June 22-26, 2013

Liquid Critical
Solid Liquid region point
Pressure

Pressure
Critical
point

Liquid+Gas Gas
Triple region
point region
Gas

Temperature Temperature

Single component Multi-component system

(a) (b)

Figure 1: (a) Typical material phase diagram. (b) Typical phase envelope of an oil-gas system. The highlighted
region indicates conditions at which oil and gas co-exist into a single liquid phase.

T = 200 [oF] T = 200 [oF] T = 200 [oF] T = 200 [oF]

P = 2000 [psi] P = 5000 [psi] P = 8000 [psi] P = 15000 [psi]
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 2: Neutron-density response at (a) 2000 psi, (b) 5000 psi, (c) 8000 psi, and (d) 15000 psi. Track 1: relative
depth. Track 2: simulated neutron (NPHI) and density porosity (DPHI) logs in sandstone porosity units. At constant
overbalance pressure, an increase in pressure causes a reduction in the neutron-density cross-over. Initial mole
fractions of gas and oil in the reservoir are 80% and 20%, respectively.

Effect of Temperature
The change in neutron-density response is studied for reservoir temperatures of 100 oF, 200 oF, and 300 oF. Figure 4
shows that an increase in temperature causes a decrease in liquid phase (oil) saturation. Both liquid and gas phases
(in this case, OBM filtrate and reservoir gas) are present at high reservoir temperatures. However, as indicated by
Figure 5, the effect of temperature change on neutron-density cross-over is less noticeable because temperature has
a lower effect on HI than pressure.

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 SPWLA 54th Annual Logging Symposium, June 22-26, 2013

0.7 1

0.6
P = 2000 [psi]
P = 5000 [psi] 0.8
0.5

Mole fraction [ ]
P = 8000 [psi]
Saturation [ ]

0.6
0.4 P = 15000 [psi]
0.3 0.4 P = 2000 [psi]
0.2 P = 5000 [psi]
0.2 P = 8000 [psi]
0.1
P = 15000 [psi]
0 -1 0 1
0 -1 0 1
10 10 10 10 10 10
Radius [ft] Radius [ft]
(a) Gas saturation (b) Gas mole fraction
1 1

0.9
P = 2000 [psi]
0.8 P = 5000 [psi]
0.8

Mole fraction [ ]
P = 8000 [psi]
Saturation [ ]

0.7 0.6 P = 15000 [psi]

0.6
P = 2000 [psi] 0.4
0.5 P = 5000 [psi]
P = 8000 [psi] 0.2
0.4
P = 15000 [psi]
-1 0 1
0 -1 0 1
10 10 10 10 10 10
Radius [ft] Radius [ft]

(c) Oil saturation (d) OBM filtrate mole fraction

Figure 3: Radial profiles of oil and gas saturation in the near-borehole region. The radial profiles of mole fraction
indicate presence of both reservoir gas and OBM filtrate when gas saturation is null and oil saturation is at its
maximal value at high pressures.
1 1

0.8 0.8
Mole fraction [ ]
Saturation [ ]

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4
T = 100 [oF] T = 100 [oF]
0.2 T = 200 [oF] 0.2 T = 200 [oF]
T = 300 [oF] T = 300 [oF]
0 -1 0 1 2 3
0 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Radius [ft] Radius [ft]
(a) Gas saturation (b) Gas mole fraction
1 1
T = 100 [oF] T = 100 [oF]
0.8 T = 200 [oF] 0.8 T = 200 [oF]
Mole fraction [ ]

T = 300 [oF] T = 300 [oF]

Saturation [ ]

0.6
0.6
0.4

0.4
0.2

0.2 -1 0 1 2 3
0 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Radius [ft] Radius [ft]
(c) Oil saturation (d) OBM filtrate mole fraction
Figure 4: Radial distributions of fluid saturation and mole fractions of fluid components at various reservoir
temperatures.

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SPWLA 54th Annual Logging Symposium, June 22-26, 2013

T = 100 [oF] T = 200 [oF] T = 300 [oF]

P = 5000 [psi] P = 5000 [psi] P = 5000 [psi]
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5: Neutron-density response at (a) 100oF, (b) 200oF, and (c) 300oF. Track 1: relative depth; Track 2:
simulated neutron (NPHI) and density porosity (DPHI) logs in sandstone porosity units. Lower temperatures show
relatively lower neutron-density cross-over than at higher temperatures. Initial mole fractions of gas and oil in the
reservoir are 93% and 7%, respectively.

Effect of Overbalance Pressure (OBP) and Invasion Time

The effects of OBP and invasion time are studied simultaneously. Two cases were compared for this study: the first,
a 0.5 day mud-filtrate invasion with 100 psi OBP; the second, a 2 day mud-filtrate invasion with 500 psi OBP.
Invasion time and overbalance pressure measurably affect the volume of gas detectable with the neutron-density
tool. Figure 6 shows that both OBM filtrate and reservoir gas coexist at low OBP and invasion time. Fluid
saturations and mole fractions are non-null in the invaded zone. As illustrated in Figure 8 (b), presence of gas is
detectable by the relatively large separation between neutron and density logs.

1 1

Gas
0.8 0.8
Mole fraction [ ]

Gas
Saturation [ ]

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 Oil 0.2

OBM filtrate
0 -1 0 1 2 3
0 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Radius [ft] Radius [ft]

Figure 6: Radial distributions of fluid saturation and mole fractions of fluid components after 0.5 day of invasion at
100 psi OBP. The near-wellbore region shows presence of both reservoir gas and OBM filtrate.

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 SPWLA 54th Annual Logging Symposium, June 22-26, 2013

At higher OBP and longer invasion times, both gas saturation and mole fraction of gas are null. This phenomenon
occurs because, as time progresses, not only does invasion become deeper but filtrate also dissolves any existing
residual gas. Oil-base mud filtrate displaces gas further into the reservoir, beyond the radial length of investigation
of neutron-density measurements. Therefore, measurements exclusively sense mud filtrate, whereby only a minor
cross-over is observed in this case. Figure 7 illustrates the radial fluid distribution calculated for this case, while
Figure 8 (c) shows the resulting neutron-density responses.

1 1

Gas
0.8 0.8

Mole fraction [ ]
Gas
Saturation [ ]

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4
Oil

0.2 0.2
OBM filtrate

0 -1 0 1 2 3
0 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Radius [ft] Radius [ft]

Figure 7: Radial distributions of fluid saturation and mole fractions of fluid components after 2 days of invasion at
500 psi OBP. The near-wellbore region shows that there is negligible volume of reservoir gas and that hydrocarbon
present is mainly OBM filtrate. Oil saturation in the invaded zone reaches a maximum value of 1-Swirr.

Before Overbalance pressure = 100 [psi] Overbalance pressure = 500 [psi]

Invasion Invasion time = 0.5 [day] Invasion time = 2 [days]
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 8: Neutron-density response (a) before invasion, (b) after 0.5 day of invasion at 100 psi OBP, and (c) after 2
days of invasion at 500 psi OBP. Track 1: relative depth; Track 2: simulated neutron (NPHI) and density porosity
(DPHI) logs in sandstone porosity units. Prolonged invasion times and high OBP render neutron-density
measurements unable to detect reservoir gas.

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SPWLA 54th Annual Logging Symposium, June 22-26, 2013

Effect of Relative Permeability

Three rock types, one oil-wet and two different water-wet rocks, were used to assess the impact of wettability and
relative permeability on well logs. Figure 9 describes the relative permeability and capillary pressure curves for
each rock type. Tables 4, 5, and 6 summarize the Stone II model parameters used to construct these rock types. A
rock is oil-wet when relative permeability to oil (krow) is less than that of water (krw). The two water-wet rocks
considered in this study are different in their preference to gas or oil. Water-wet rock 2 is more permeable to gas
than water-wet rock 1. Figure 10 shows the neutron-density tool response calculated for the three rock types. When
OBM invades a gas-bearing, oil-wet formation, the neutron-density cross-over remains large; this phenomenon
indicates that gas is detectable in the formation. In a water-wet reservoir, however, the cross-over is much smaller,
indicating dissolution of gas into filtrate. Therefore, water-wet rocks offer a more favorable condition for OBM and
gas miscibility than oil-wet rocks. As a result, OBM filtrate is readily available to dissolve gas. When oil-phase
relative permeability increases with respect to that of the gas phase (water-wet rock 2), it gives rise to an increase in
oil mobility. Hence, the gas phase is displaced farther away from the wellbore during invasion causing neutron-
density logs to detect only filtrate, with an evident decrease in the cross-over between the two logs.

Table 4: Summary of assumed capillary pressure Table 5: Summary of assumed capillary pressure
and relative permeability properties of the oil-wet and relative permeability properties of the first
reservoir. water-wet reservoir.
Variable Unit Value Variable Unit Value

k 0rg [ ] 0.7 k 0rg [ ] 0.5

k 0rog [ ] 0.4 k 0rog [ ] 0.4

k 0row [ ] 0.4 k 0row [ ] 0.85

k 0rw [ ] 0.65 k 0rw [ ] 0.4

0
Pcgo [psi] 2.0 0
Pcgo [psi] 3
0
Pcwo [psi] 1.5 0
Pcwo [psi] 1.5

Sgr [ ] 0.15 Sgr [ ] 0.15

Sor [ ] 0.25 Sor [ ] 0.2

Swr [ ] 0.1 Swr [ ] 0.1

go [ ] 2 go [ ] 2

wo [ ] 5 wo [ ] 5

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 SPWLA 54th Annual Logging Symposium, June 22-26, 2013

Table 6: Summary of assumed capillary pressure and relative

permeability properties of the second water-wet reservoir.
Variable Unit Value

k 0rg [ ] 0.3

k 0rog [ ] 0.7

k 0row [ ] 0.85

k 0rw [ ] 0.4
0
Pcgo [psi] 3
0
Pcwo [psi] 3

Sgr [ ] 0.15

Sor [ ] 0.2

Swr [ ] 0.1

go [ ] 10

wo [ ] 10

Oil-wet
1 1 4
krw krg 20

krow krog 3 15
Pc[psi]
kr[ ]

Pc[psi]
kr[ ]

0.5 0.5
10
2
5

0 0 1 0
0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1
Sw [ ] SL [ ] Sw [ ] SL [ ]

Water-wet 1
1 1 4
krw krg 30

krow krog 3 20
P c[psi]

P c[psi]
kr[ ]

kr[ ]

0.5 0.5
2 10

0 0 1 0
0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1
Sw [ ] SL [ ] Sw [ ] SL [ ]

Water-wet 2
1 1 5 5
krw krg
4.5 4.5
krow krog
P c[psi]
P c[psi]
kr[ ]
kr[ ]

0.5 0.5 4 4

3.5 3.5

0 0 3 3
0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1 0 0.5 1
Sw [ ] SL [ ] Sw [ ] SL [ ]

Figure 9: Relative permeability and capillary pressure curves assumed for an oil-wet and two water-wet rocks.
Relative permeability to water is high in the oil-wet rock. Water-wet rock 2 is more permeable to the oil phase than
water-wet rock 1.

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SPWLA 54th Annual Logging Symposium, June 22-26, 2013

Oil-wet Water-wet 1 Water-wet 2

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 10: Neutron-density response in (a) oil-wet rock, (b) water-wet rock 1, and (c) water-wet rock 2. Track 1:
relative depth; Track 2: simulated neutron (NPHI) and density porosity (DPHI) logs in sandstone porosity units.
Water-wet rocks enable reservoir gas dissolution into OBM.
CONCLUSIONS
OBM invasion into gas-bearing reservoirs can give rise to dissolution of residual gas into OBM filtrate under
favorable PVT conditions. Therefore, OBM invasion should not be ignored in static petrophysical analysis; a gas-
bearing formation can be missed or mistaken for oil- or water-bearing because of the negligible neutron-density
cross-over. High-pressure reservoirs and/or heavy OBMs are major factors that can measurably affect neutron-
density logs. Combined interpretation of neutron-density logs with other well logs and fluid sampling can help to
properly identify hydrocarbon-bearing zones. Simulations of invasion and fluid miscibility can also help to better
predict reservoir/fluid properties. Oil-base mud filtrate invasion in gas reservoirs can substantially change a
formations hydrogen index, thereby affecting neutron logs. The following conclusions stem from the fluid-
miscibility studies considered in this paper:
1. An increase of formation pressure in gas reservoirs decreases the cross-over between neutron and density
logs.
2. Increasing the overbalance pressure and time of mud-filtrate invasion increases the volume of in-situ gas
that dissolves into OBM. This effect causes the neutron-density cross-over to decrease with respect to that
at pre-invasion conditions.
3. An increase in reservoir temperature decreases the volume of gas that can be dissolved into OBM.
4. Neutron-density cross-over in gas reservoirs changes with wettability and relative permeability, with the
smallest cross-over measured in water-wet rocks.

NOMENCLATURE
k : Absolute permeability, [mD]

k 0rg : End point for relative permeability to gas, [ ]

k 0rog : End point for relative permeability to oil in the presence of gas, [ ]

k 0row : End point for relative permeability to oil in the presence of water, [ ]

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 SPWLA 54th Annual Logging Symposium, June 22-26, 2013

k 0rw : End point for relative permeability to water, [ ]

krg : Relative permeability to gas, [ ]

krog : Relative permeability to oil in the presence of gas, [ ]

krow : Relative permeability to oil in the presence of water, [ ]

krw : Relative permeability to water, [ ]

P : Pressure, [psi]

Pc : Reservoir capillary pressure, [psi]

0
Pcgo : Capillary entry pressure between gas phase and oil phase, [psi]
0
Pcwo : Capillary entry pressure between oil phase and water phase, [psi]

T : Temperature, [oF]

Sgr : Residual gas saturation, [ ]

Sgt : Normalized gas saturation, [ ]

SL : Total liquid saturation, [ ]

SLt : Normalized liquid saturation, [ ]

Sor : Residual oil saturation, [ ]

Sw : Connate water saturation, [ ]

Swr : Residual water saturation, [ ]

go : Gas-oil saturation exponent, [ ]

wo : Water-oil saturation exponent, [ ]

ACRONYMS
FSF : Flux Sensitivity Function
OBM : Oil-Base Mud
OBP : Overbalance Pressure
PVT : Pressure-Volume-Temperature
SNUPAR : Schlumberger Nuclear Parameter code
UTAPWeLS : University of Texas at Austins Petrophysical and Well-Log Simulator

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work reported in this paper was funded by the University of Texas at Austins Research Consortium on
Formation Evaluation, jointly sponsored by Afren, Anadarko, Apache, Aramco, Baker-Hughes, BG, BHP Billiton,
BP, Chevron, ConocoPhillips, COSL, ENI, ExxonMobil, Halliburton, Hess, Maersk, Marathon Oil Company,
Mexican Institute for Petroleum, Nexen, ONGC, OXY, Petrobras, Repsol, RWE, Schlumberger, Shell, Statoil,
TOTAL, Weatherford, Wintershall, and Woodside Petroleum Limited.

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19-32.

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Angeles, R., Torres-Verdin, C., Lee, H. J., Alpak, F. O., and Sheng, J., 2007, Estimation of Permeability and
Permeability Anisotropy from Straddle-Packer Formation-Tester Measurements Based on the Physics of Two-
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 SPWLA 54th Annual Logging Symposium, June 22-26, 2013

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Hamid Hadibeik is a Ph.D. candidate in the formation evaluation research program with the Department of
Petroleum and Geosystems Engineering at The University of Texas at Austin. He has more than six years of
academic and industry experience in petrophysics, formation evaluation, and pore pressure estimation. Hamid has
authored and co-authored ten conference and journal papers. He has filed three US patents on the development of
unconventional reservoir and pore pressure assessment. His previous work experience was with Maersk Oil and
Halliburton Energy Services.

Essi Kwabi is a Masters student with the Department of Petroleum Engineering at The University of Texas at
Austin, where she has been working as graduate research assistant in the formation evaluation research group since
2011. She earned a Bachelors degree in Biology, with a minor in Chemistry at Worcester State College, MA in
2006 and has five years of industry experience in laboratory analysis of reservoir fluids. She has over two years of
academic and industry experience in petrophysics and formation evaluation. Her current research interests include
well log analysis in conventional and unconventional plays and formation evaluation.

Carlos Torres-Verdn is currently the Zarrow Centennial Professor in Petroleum Engineering with The University
of Texas at Austin and is Program Director and founder of the Formation Evaluation Joint Industry Research
Consortium. He received a Ph.D. degree in Engineering Geoscience from the University of California, Berkeley, in
1991 and has published more than 114 articles in refereed technical journals, over 158 articles in international
conferences, and two book chapters. Dr. Torres-Verdn is co-author of two US patents.

Kamy Sepehrnoori is currently a Bank of America Centennial Professor with the Department of Petroleum and
Geosystems Engineering at The University of Texas at Austin. He received a Ph.D. in petroleum engineering from
The University of Texas at Austin in 1977, and is a world famous expert on computational methods, reservoir
simulation, and numerical solutions of partial differential equations. Dr. Sepehrnoori has authored 2 books and
published more than 300 technical articles and reports.

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