ESS2.

6 Revision Questions 2015

Question 1 HR Diagram
The diagram below shows the main sequence stars on the HR diagram.

On the HR diagram, draw and label the locations of the following star types:

red dwarfs
white dwarfs
red giants
supergiants

Draw an arrowed line to show the future evolution of the Sun.

Explain, in detail, the processes that will occur in the Sun over the next 5 billion years. In your
answer, refer to:

surface area
temperature
fuel use
luminosity

The sun as a main sequence star will run out of hydrogen in the core. So the radiation
pressure force outwards stops, the forces are unbalanced so the gravity force collapses the
core. As GPE is converted to KE / heat, the temperature increases. At about 10 million
kelvin it is hot enough for the fusion of helium to carbon. Also a layer of hydrogen
surrounding the core is hot enough to fuse to helium. Radiation pressure force then
expands the star to a new equilibrium. The increased energy output from the larger fusion
explains why the star swells up to a giant surface area. The surface is cooler as the heat is
spread over a large surface area, so it is red in colour. It is more luminous because of its
large surface area (even though it is colder).

Eventually helium in the core runs out so the core collapses again, delivering fuel into the
core which fuses and causes the outwards force again. This time outer layers are far away
so escape the force of gravity and are puffed away forming planetary nebula. The core of
carbon is left behind as a white dwarf. This has a very low luminosity as it has a small
surface area (even though it is very hot). It cannot fuse so eventually it will lose its heat
and become a black dwarf.
Question 2 Atmosphere and water on Mars
On 29 September 2015, NASA announced that new findings from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter
provide strong evidence that some water flows intermittently on Mars.

Explain how Mars was formed. In your answer refer to:

how planetesimals formed planets

the size and gravity of Mars
how temperature affects the abundance of elements
how Mars had water and an atmosphere and suggest reasons why it is now mostly gone

A giant molecular cloud formed from after a supernova. Different parts of the cloud would
be denser so gravity would cause the cloud to collapse. Shockwaves from nearby supernova
cause the changes in density and cause the cloud to rotate. As it collapses, it forms a
protoplanetary disk. Colliding dust particles become charged by friction and stick
together by electrostatic forces and these grow in size attracting other rocky objects by
gravitational forces forming planetesimals. These planetesimals attract others and form
the planet Mars.

At Mars position in the Solar System the temperature would be hot too hot for light
volatiles to freeze so Mars formed from high melting point elements, like silicates, iron,
nickel which are rare (as only formed after a supernova). So Mars is relatively small and
has a low gravity.

Asteroids, comets (and particularly carbonaceous chondrites) collided with Mars over
millions of years and delivered volatiles and water, giving Mars an atmosphere and
liquid water. Mars gravity is weak so over time these would escape. Also, once Mars core
cooled and solidified it lost its magnetic field and the solar wind / ionising radiation
from the Sun caused molecules to break down and these lighter elements could escape
Mars gravity.
Question 3 Cassiopeia
The picture shows the constellation Cassiopeia, which is an easily recognisable constellation visible
in the Northern Hemisphere forming a distinctive W shape. The two brightest stars, Alpha and Beta
Cassiopeia appear similar in brightness from Earth.

Alpha Cassiopeia (or Shedir) Beta Cassiopeia (or Caph)

Apparent magnitude 2.2 2.3
Distance 229 ly 54 ly
Surface temperature 4530 K 7000 K
Luminosity 676 solar units 27 solar units
Radius 42 radius of the Sun 3.5 radius of the Sun
Mass 4.5 mass of the Sun 2 mass of the Sun
Stage of life cycle Red giant Subgiant (leaving Main
sequence and becoming a Red
giant)
Age 200 million years 1 billion years

Using data from the table, compare and contrast Alpha and Beta Cassiopeia and explain why they
both appear similar in brightness.

As a main sequence star, Beta is fusing hydrogen to helium in its core, whereas Alpha is
a red giant so is fusion helium to carbon in its core, as well as hydrogen around the core.
Alpha would be hotter (over 10 million K) than beta (about 3 million K) in its core to
allow the fusion of helium. Alpha is much larger in size (42x) than beta (3.5x) so Alpha
has a much bigger surface area. Alphas energy from fusion is spread over a large surface
area, far away from the core, making the surface cool (4500K) and red in colour. Whereas
Betas energy is spread over a small surface area nearer to the core, making it hot (7000
K) and white-blue in colour. As Alpha has such a large surface area Alpha is more
luminous (676) than Beta (27), even though its surface temperature is cooler.

As Alpha is already a red giant, it is further through its life cycle than Beta, even though
it is younger. This is because Alpha is more massive (4.5x) than Beta (2x) and so the
increased gravity in the core increases pressure so it fused hydrogen at a faster rate and
left the main sequence already, whereas Beta is only just doing so.

Alpha and Beta appear near each other in the night sky and similar in brightness, but
they are actually very far away from each other and have different luminosities. Alpha is
229 ly away whereas Beta is only 54 ly. As Alpha is much more luminous than Beta, if
it was the same distance away as Beta it would appear the much brighter. Alphas energy
is spread over a greater surface area of space so by the time it reaches Earth it appears the
same brightness as Beta. This is why they have similar apparent magnitudes of 2.2 and
2.3.
Question 4 Moons of Jupiter
Jupiter has 67 moons. The four Galilean moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto) are large and
have regular orbits. Io has over 400 active volcanoes and is the most geologically active object in the
Solar System. Europa is thought to have liquid oceans under its frozen surface. The four Galilean
moons are thought to be formed by a circumplanetary disk, similar to a protoplanetary disk. Many of
the other moons are irregular satellites with more distant and highly eccentric orbits, often
retrograde with Jupiters rotation.

Explain how the Jupiters moons were formed. In your answer:

explain how the Galilean moons were formed in a circumplanetary disk

explain how the other moons were formed
suggest reasons why Io is so volcanic and why Europa may have liquid water

As Jupiter was accreting in the protoplanetary disk, it would form a circumplanetary disk
of gas, dust, rock and planetesimals around the protoplanet Jupiter. As planetesimals
attracted each other by gravity they collided and coalesced. They lose GPE and gain KE
increasing temperature, so proto-moons and proto-Jupiter would be very hot. Temperature
in the circumplanetary disk would therefore be hotter where Io and Europa formed, and
colder where Ganymede and Calliso formed which may account for their size as the inner
ones could only form from elements with higher melting points which are rarer. Also
Jupiters large gravity attracted more planetesimals than the inner moons so they became
relatively small. As all of these moons formed from a rotating disk around Jupiter, they
all rotate in the same direction and on the same plane.

The outer moons of Jupiter are irregular in shape, are much smaller and orbit in opposite
directions and alternative planes. These are likely to be captured asteroids from the
asteroid belt. These planetesimals were knocked out of orbit from the gravity of Jupiter and
Mars and got captured by the gravity of Jupiter. They are irregular in shape as they
havent formed from impacts of lots of planetisimals making them molten and spherical
like the Galilean Moons.

The gravity of Jupiter on Io stretches and squashes the moon like the tides. This causes
tidal heating making Io very volcanic. Europa may also be very volcanic with volcanoes
under the frozen ice which would melt the ice forming liquid oceans.
Question 5 Supernova Doomsday

In 2011, it was predicted that

the red supergiant Betelgeuse
would go supernova in 2012,
creating an explosion so bright it
will appear as a second sun in
the sky for a few weeks. Some
journalists even linked this
event to doomsday theories
confirming the Mayan end of
the world in 2012.

Explain what happens in a supernova. In your answer, refer to

the mass and size of a star that goes supernova

the elements formed before and during a supernova
the star formed after a supernova, giving reasons
as Betelgeuse is 625 light years away, why is this journalist just plain wrong!

A main sequence star that is at least 8x mass of the Sun forms a supergiant. Initially as
a blue supergiant fusing helium into carbon in the core but when the helium is used up,
the core collapses, GPE is converted into KE and the increased temperature allows the
carbon to fuse to oxygen and neon. This happens again allowing the fusion of neon,
oxygen, silicon in the core and layers of fusion of other elements at different temperatures
surrounding it. The supergiant has swollen up into an enormous surface area forming a
red supergiant. Eventually the fusion of silicon forms a core of iron which cannot be
fused to release energy. When the fuel is used up, the outwards forces from radiation
pressure stop, the forces are unbalanced so gravity collapses the supergiant. Protons and
electrons are forced together making neutrons and as these are neutral in charge, they
can be tightly packed to an incredibly high density. Eventually they cannot be packed
any closer so the collapse stops and rebounds outwards as an explosion called a supernova.
The immense amount of energy is used to allow fusion of elements to form elements
heavier than iron which are ejected as nebula. The core left behind is made of neutrons so
forms a neutron star. If the core is more than 3x mass of the Sun, it will have such a
strong gravity that not even light can escape its pull and the star forms a black hole.

A lot of energy is released in a supernova making it incredibly luminous but Betelgeuse

is 625 ly away. So this energy will spread over a huge area of space by the time it reaches
Earth it will appear a lot less bright. So its unlikely it will appear as bright as a second
sun and the radiation we receive from it will not cause the end of the world. The black hole
that will probably form would be so far away, Earth would be well away from its event
horizon so the gravitational force will not destroy the Earth. Also as its 625 ly away, if
it went supernova in 2012, we wouldnt see it until 2637 as the light would take 625
years to reach Earth.