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) (GENERATION SYSTEM -1
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) (TRANSMISSION SYSTEM -2
: Overhead Transmission System Underground
. Cables

Reactive Power

-3 ) (DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
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Substations
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( ) Power System Stability
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( . V.K. Mehta
Theraja
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Transients TL
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 K
1992
Digital Protection
Om Parakash
.MALIK

Mohindar S. Sachdev
Saskatoon IEEE
Digital Protection
Digital Protection
Dr.
( Tarlochan Sidhu ) .
IEEE Sashdev Two Tutorials
Digital Protection
.

Digital Protection is a digital Filter. Explain :




Sashdev . That is enoug Mohendar :

Sashdev

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Contents
...................... ................................

...... ................................ ................................

............................... ................................

2 .... ................................ ................................

3 .......... ................................ ................................

4 .. ................................ ................................

5 ....................... ................................

6 ...... ................................ ................................

8 .....................................................................................................................................1
8 ................... ................................ 1.1
9 .......................................................................... 1.1.1
9 ................................................................. 1.1.2
13 .......................................................................... 1.1.3
20 ...................................................... 1.1.4
20 ................................................................................... 1.1.5
21 ...................................... 1.1.6
Spinning Reserve 25 ................................................... 1.1.7
25 ........................ 1.2
26 ............................................................. 1.2.1
Blackout 27 .................................................................. 1.2.2
27 ................................................. Restoration 1.2.3
28 ................ ................................ : 1.3
28 ................................................................... 1.3.1
50 6028 ...................................................... 1.3.2
Governor 29 ........................................ 1.3.3

 Governor 29 ...................................... : 1.3.4
30 ......................................................................... : Governor 1.3.5
31 ...... ................................ 1.4

32 ........................................................ 1.4.1
32 ...................................................................: 1.4.2
34 ............................. 1.5
: 34 .................................................................. 1.5.1
: 34 ...................................................................... 1.5.2
: 35 .............................................. phase sequence 1.5.3
: 35 .................................................... phase shift 1.5.4
35 ..................................................... (Automatic method): 1.5.5
36 ........................................ 1.5.6
37 .............. LOAD SHARING 1.6
38 ............................................................... 1.6.1
40 ........................................................ 1.6.2
54 ...................................................................................................................................2
55 ............. ................................ 2.1

56 ......................... ................................ 2.2

57 ................................................................ 2.2.1
57 .......................................................................... 2.2.2
58 ........................................................... 2.2.3
59 ..................................................................... : 2.2.4
PH 60 .................................................................... 2.2.5
PH 60 ................................................................ 2.2.6
60 ......................................................................... 2.2.7
62 ..................... )................................ (BOILER 2.3
)63 ................................................................................ (Furnace 2.3.1
)64 .................................................................................... (Drum 2.3.2
)64 .........................................................................(Economizer 2.3.3
( 65 ......................................................................... ) Heaters 2.3.4
66 ........................................................................... Dearator 2.3.5
66 ............................................................................... Chimney 2.3.6
67 ........................................................ 2.3.7
68 .................. )................................ ) TURBINE 2.4
 69 ......................................................................... 2.4.1
69 .............................................................................. 2.4.2
70 ............. )................................ (CONDENSER 2.5

72 ................. ................................ 2.6

74 ........................................................................................ 2.6.1
76 ........ ................................ : 2.7
76 ........................................................................... 2.7.1
77 .................................................................................................................. :
77 .......................... BLOW OFF VALVES 2.7.2
77 ..................................................................................... 2.7.3
78 ..................................................................................... 2.7.4
79 ..................................................................................... 2.7.5
79 ................................................... 2.7.6
80 ............................................................... 2.7.7
83 ....................... COMBINED CYCLE 2.8
84 ............................................................................... :HRSG 2.8.1
85 .................................................................. : 2.8.2
85 .................................................................. : 2.8.3
86 ...................................................... : 2.8.4
89 ...................................................................................................................................3
90 .................. ................................ 3.1
Stator 91 ............................................. Rotor 3.1.1
93 ..................................................................................... 3.1.2
94 ............................................................ 3.1.3
94 ............................................... Excitation 3.1.4
95 ..................................................... 3.1.5
96 ........................................................................ 3.1.6
99 .......................... 3.2

100 . ................................ 3.3

101 ............................. 3.4

101 .................................... Power Center 3.4.1
101 ....................................... Motor Control Center 3.4.2
102 .................................................................. : 3.4.3

 104 .. AUXILILARY SYSTEMS 3.5
)104 ...................... (COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 3.5.1
)104 ................................................ (CONTROL SYSTEM 3.5.2
105 ................................. (PROTECTION SYSTEM) :- 3.5.3
106 ............... ................................ : 3.6
107 .................................................... : 3.6.1
111 .................................................................................................................................4
111 ..................... ................................ 4.1
113 .............................................................................. 4.1.1
115 ........................................................................... 4.1.2
115 .............................................................................. 4.1.3
116 ................ ................................ 4.2
118 ............................................................................... 4.2.1
119 ............................................ 4.2.2
119 ............................................................................... 4.2.1
120 .............................................................................. 4.2.2
124 .................................................................................................................................
126 ................. ................................ 5.1
126 ............................................................... 5.1.1
128 ...................................................................................... 5.1.2
129 ........................................................................ 5.1.3
130 ....................................................................... 5.1.4
132 .................................................................................................................................6
134 ..... ................................ 6.1
134 ............................................... 6.1.1
135 .......................................................... 6.1.2
137 ....................... 6.2
137 ...................................................... 6.2.1
139 ........................................... 6.2.2
142 ......................... 6.3
142 .......................................................................... 6.3.1
143 ........................................................................ 6.3.2
144 .......................................................................... 6.3.3
147 ........................................................ 6.3.4
 147 .............................................................................. 6.3.5
148 ......................... GEOTHERMAL 6.4
148 ......................................................................... : 6.4.1
148 ..................................................................... : 6.4.2
150 ......... TIDAL POWER STATIONS 6.5
151 ....................................................................................... 6.5.1
154 ........................... ................................ 6.6
154 ............................................................ 6.6.1
154 ................................................................. 6.6.2
155 .................................................... 6.6.3
157 ................................................................. 6.6.4
157 ....... ................................ 6.7
158 ............................................................................: 6.7.1
158 .................................................................................... : 6.7.2
159 ................................................................................... : 6.7.3
160 .............................................................................. : 6.7.4
160 ........................................................... 6.7.5
162 ............... ................................ 6.8

164 ... ................................ 6.9

168 ..............................................................................................................
168 ........................................................................
169 .................................................................................... Rate of Interst
170 .................................................................................... Depreciation
170 .................................................................................... Tariff
174 ......................................................................
175 ...................................................
180 .................................................................................................................................7
180 .... ................................ 7.1
181 ................................................................................. 7.1.1
182 ............. ................................ 7.2
182 .................................................................... AC 7.2.1
HV-AC 183 ........... HV-DC 7.3
184 ..................................................................... HV-DC 7.3.1
185 .................................................................. HV-DC 7.3.2

 HVDC 187 ....................................... 7.3.3
187 ..................................................................... 7.3.4
188 .............................. 7.4

190 ................................ 7.5

194 .................................................................................................................................8
194 ......................... ................................ 8.1
196 ....................................................................... 8.1.1
198 .......... ................................ 8.2
198 .......................................... 8.2.1
199 .................................................................. 8.2.2
199 ............................................. Right of Way 8.2.3
201 ...................................... 8.2.4
203 ......................... ................................ : 8.3
203 ..................................................... : Suspension Towers 8.3.1
204 ............................................................. : Tension Towers 8.3.2
204 ................................................: Transposition Towers 8.3.3
205 ..... ................................ : 8.4
206 ....................................... 8.4.1
207 ................... 8.5
(207 ..................................... : )Stranded Conductors 8.5.1
208 ................................................................. 8.5.2
208 ................................................................... : 8.5.3
209 .................................................................... 8.5.4
209 ......................................................... 8.5.5
209 ........................................................... : 8.5.6
210 ............................................................................... 8.5.7
ACCESSORIES 210 .............. 8.6
210 .............................................................................. 8.6.1
211 ................................................................. Dampers 8.6.2
212 ......................................................................... 8.6.3
214 .................................................................................................................................9
215 ........................ ................................ : 9.1

215 ..... ................................ : 9.2

 215 .............................................................. 9.2.1
216 .................................................................. 9.2.2
217 ..... ................................: 9.3
217 ........................................................... : Porcelain: 9.3.1
218 ............................................................... Glasses: 9.3.2
218 ............................................................... rubber : 9.3.3
219 ..... ................................ : 9.4
219 .................................................................. 9.4.1
220 ............................................... Flashover 9.4.2
Creepage Distance 220 ..................................................... . 9.4.3
223 .................................................................................. 9.4.4
224 ........................... 9.5
224 .................................................... 9.5.1
225 ........................ ................................ 9.6
226 ....................................................................... : 9.6.1
227 .................................................................. : 9.6.2
228 .............................. : 9.7
229 ......................................................................... 9.7.1
231 ........................................................... 9.7.2
233 .................................................. Insulation Coordination 9.7.3
236 .............................................................................................................................. 10
236 . ................................ ................................ 10.1

236 ........................... ................................ 10.2

237 .................................................. Skin Effect 10.2.1
238 ................................................. Skin Effect 10.2.2
238 ...................Bundle Conductors 10.2.3
238 .......... ................................ 10.3
Inductance , L 238 ........................................................... 10.3.1
Inductance 240 .............................. 10.3.2
241 .............................................. 10.3.3
10.3.4 Inductance 242 ..........................................
243 CAPACITANCE ........................... 10.4
245 ............................................................Admittance, Y 10.4.1

245 ............... ................................ 10.5
245 .....................................................................: 10.5.1
247 .............................................................. 10.5.2
249 ...................................................................... : 10.5.3
CAPACITANCE 252 ..... 10.6
252 ................................................................... Ferranti Effect 10.6.1
253 .......................... 10.6.2
255 ............................................ Arcing Ground 10.6.3
258 .............................................................................................................................. 11
258 ........................ ................................ 11.1
258 ..................................................... 11.1.1
259 ..................................................... Power Factor 11.1.2
260 .............................. REACTIVE POWER 11.2
263 ............................................................ 11.2.1
264 .................................................. Reactive Power 11.2.2
SURGE IMPEDANCE LOADING, SIL 265 ....... 11.3
266 ...........................................................................SIL 11.3.1
267 ................................................... 11.3.2
269 ............. ................................ 11.4
P Q 270 ...................................... 11.4.1
271 ........................................................... : 11.4.2
271 .................................................................... 11.4.3
272 .................... 11.5
272 ........................................................................... : 11.5.1
272 ................. :Over-Excited Synchronous Motor 11.5.2
273 .............................................................. : Shunt Reactors 11.5.3
273 ...................................................... : Series Capacitors 11.5.4
274 ....................................................... : Shunt Capacitors 11.5.5
275 : FACTS ...................... 11.6
276 ............... Static VAR Compensators, SVC 11.6.1
278 .................................................................: STATCOM 11.6.2
279 ................... : Static Synchronous Series Compensators 11.6.3
280 .............. Unified Power Flow Controllers 11.6.4
283 .............................................................................................................................. 12
283 . ................................ ................................ 12.1
284 .................................................Transmission S/S 12.1.1
285 ...................................................................................... 12.1.2
288 ............................................................ 12.1.3
289 ..................................................................... 12.1.4
291 ........... ................................ 12.2
: 291 .............................................. 12.2.1
: 292 ............................................................ 12.2.2
: 292 ............................................... 12.2.3
: 292 ............................................................ DC 12.2.4
: 293 .............................................................. 12.2.5
: 293 ........................................................ 12.2.6
: 293 .................................. . 12.2.7
: 293 ............................................................ 12.2.8
295 .. ................................ 12.3

297 ........................... ................................ 12.4

299 .............................................................................................................................. 13
299 ................... ................................ 13.1
304 ....................................................................................
304 ........................................................... AIS

304 .............................. SURGE ARRESTOR 13.2

305 ...............................................(Valve Type Arrester) : 13.2.1
306 .................................... Metal-Oxide (ZnO) Arrester : 13.2.2
308 ........ ................................ ISOLATORS 13.3

311 ...................... (EARTHING SWITCHES) : 13.4

311 .......................... 13.5

( ) Feeder 311 ............................ : 13.5.1
312 ................................................... : 13.5.2
312 ................................................... 13.5.3
312 ............................ . 13.5.4
313 .......................CURRENT TRANSFORMER 13.6

314 ......................... ................................ 13.7

317 )................. (EARTHING TRANSFORMER 13.8

319 .... ................................ CIRCUIT BREAKERS 13.9

320 .................................................... : 13.9.1
321 ..................................................................... 13.9.2
321 ........................................................ : 13.9.3
323 ............... ................................ 13.10
323 ..................................................................... Oil CB : 13.10.1
325 .......................................................... -: Air Blast CB 13.10.2
: )326 ............................ : (Vacuum CB 13.10.3
: 326 .................................... SF6 13.10.4
328 .......................................................... :SF6 13.10.5
anti-pumping relay 329 ...................................... 13.10.6
330 ....................................................................... : 13.10.7
331 .................................................... :Circuit Breakers 13.10.8
332 ................. 13.11
332 ................................................................. 13.11.1
333 ............................................................... 13.11.2
334 ...................................... 13.11.3
335 ......................................... : 13.11.4
335 ................................................................... 13.11.5
337 ..................................................................................
337 ...................................................................... GIS

337 .......... ................................ GIS 13.12

338 ........................................................................... Bay 13.12.1
342 .................................................................... GIS 13.12.2
343 ........................................... GIS 13.12.3
346 ......................................................................................

346 ............. ( ................................ :) AIS 13.13

347 ...................... ................................ GIS 13.14

347 ....................... 13.15

347 ................................................................. : 13.15.1
348 ................................................................... : 13.15.2
348 ................................................................. :GIS 13.15.3
)349 ............................................................... :(GIS 13.15.4
 350 .......................................................... 13.15.5
352 .............................................................................................................................. 14
352 .............. ................................ 14.1
)355 ................................................... : (Rigid Bus 14.1.1
355 ................................ BB ARRANGEMENTS 14.2

357 . ................................ : SINGLE BUS BAR : 14.3

357 ............................................................. 14.3.1
357 ..................................... 14.3.2
: 359 ....... : DOUBLE BUS BAR 14.4
359 .......... Double BB with Single CB : 14.4.1
361 ....................................... Double BB with Double CB 14.4.2
362 ........................... Double BB with One and Half CB : 14.4.3
364 ...................................................... Main and Transfer 14.4.4
: RING SYSTEM 366 ......... MESH-SYSTEM 14.5

367 .......... ................................ 14.6

369 .............................................................................................................................. 15
369 ........................... ................................ 15.1
370 ................................................................................ 15.1.1
371 ...... ................................ 15.2
372 ...................................................................................... 15.2.1
373 ................................... 15.2.2
373 .................................................................................... 15.2.3
374 ............................................. 15.2.4
375 . ................................ 15.3
Ground mat 377 ................................................................ 15.3.1
378 ................................................................ Earthing Grid 15.3.2
379 ....................... ................................ 15.4
379 ....................................................................... 15.4.1
: 380 .......................................... 15.4.2
: 381 ...................... Surface Layer Derating Factor 15.4.3
: 383 .......................................... 15.4.4
: 387 ................ 15.4.5
: 388 ................. 15.4.6

 : 389 ........................................ 15.4.7
: 390 ........................ 15.4.8
: 392 ...................... GPR 15.4.9
: 392 ............. 15.4.10
: 393 ............................................................... 15.4.11
401 .............................................................................................................................. 16
402 ..................................................................................................

402 .... ................................ : AC SYSTEM 16.1

403 .... ................................ : DC SYSTEM 16.2

404 ........................................................ )Battery Chargers( : 16.2.1
404 ...................................................................... : 16.2.2
405 .............................................. 16.2.3
405 ........................................................ 16.2.4
406 ............................................................. 16.2.5
406 .................. : 16.2.6
407 ............................................................................ : 16.2.7
407 ......................................................... : 16.2.8
408 ....................................................................................................

410 .................................................................................................
411 .......................................................... SAS 16.2.9
413 ......................... 16.2.10
415 ............................................................SAS 16.2.11
417 ..............................................................
418 ..................................................... 16.2.12
419 ............................................................ 16.2.13
420 ...................................................................................
420 ................................... PLC : 16.2.14
421 ................................... Line Trap 16.2.15
422 ................................................. Pilot Cable : 16.2.16
422 .............................. Fiber Optic , FO : 16.2.17
422 ....................................................... Wireless : 16.2.18
424 .................................................................................

424 .......... ................................ 16.3

424 .................................................................................. 16.3.1
425 ............ ................................ : 16.4
426 ..................................................................................... 16.4.1
427 ............. ................................ 16.5
427 ...................................................................... 16.5.1
428 ..................................................................... 16.5.2
428 ............................................... 16.5.3
429 ........................................... : 16.5.4
432 .............................................................................................................................. 17
432 . ................................ ................................ 17.1
433 ....................................... : 17.1.1
434 .......................................... :Load Stduies 17.1.2
435 ......................................................... : 17.1.3
436 ................................ 17.1.4
436 .............................. 17.1.5
437 ..................... OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES 17.2
437 .................................................................. 17.2.1
439 ...................... ................................ 17.3
441 .............................................................................................................................. 18
441 ............. ................................ 18.1
: 441 .............................................................. 18.1.1
: 443 .............................................. 18.1.2
: / 445 ................................ 18.1.3
: 446 ........................ 18.1.4
: Radial/Ring 447 ................... 18.1.5
449 ......................................... 18.1.6
: / 449 ............. 18.1.7
: 450 ......................................... 18.1.8
453 .............................................................................................................................. 19
454 ............... ................................ 19.1

456 : ...................... 19.2

456 .............................................. Distributor 19.2.1
( ) 456 .................................................................... 19.2.2
458 .......................................................................... 19.2.3
459 .................................................................................. 19.2.4

 460 ........................ Incoming Cubicle 19.2.5
461 ............................ Cubicle Outgoing : 19.2.6
461 ............................................................: 19.2.7
462 .......................................................................... 19.2.8
463 ............................... : 19.3
463 ..................................................................................... : 19.3.1
) ( 463 ............................................................................ 19.3.2
464 ..................................................... 19.3.3
: 465 ............. 19.4
468 ...................................................... 19.4.1
468 ................................................................ Fuse 19.4.2
469 .................................................................. 19.4.3
471 ................................................................................. 19.4.4
472 ........................................................ 19.4.5
473 ........................................................ 19.4.6
480 ................................................. : 19.4.7
486 ................................................ 19.4.8
: 487 ......... 19.5
487 ............................................. : 19.5.1
489 ....................................................................... 19.5.2
491 .............................................................................................................................. 20
491 ................. ................................ 20.1
491 ...................................................................... 20.1.1
Loop 492 ................................................................... 20.1.2
Loop 494 ..................................................................... 20.1.3
494 ......................................................................... 20.1.4
495 ................................................................................ 20.1.5
499 DG .................. 20.2
500 .............................................................. 20.2.1
501 ........................................................ Coordination 20.2.2
502 ........................................................ 20.2.3
503 ................................................................ 20.2.4
503 ................................................................. Islanding 20.2.5
506 .............................................................................................................................. 21
506 .............................. 21.1
 506 ........................................................... Radial 21.1.1
508 ................................................................. Ring 21.1.2
509 .......................... 21.2

509 ............. ................................ 21.3

512 .......................... 21.4

513 ........................... 21.5

513 .......................................................... Tension clamp 21.5.1
514 ......................................................................................... 21.5.2
: 514 ............................................................. 21.5.3
515 ................................................... Load Break Switch : 21.5.4
515 ........................... 21.6

518 .................. RECLOSER 21.7

520 ........................ ................................ 21.8

521 ................. ................................ 21.9

523 ............. ................................ 21.10

524 ........................................... Temporary Earthing 21.10.1
524 ............... 21.11
526 .............................................................................................................................. 22
526 ................ ................................ 22.1
526 .................................... "Reliability& Power Quality 22.1.1
529 ........ VOLTAGE REGULATION 22.2
529 ........................................................................ 22.2.1
531 ....................................................... AVR 22.2.2
535 .............. ................................ 22.3
535 .......................................... :Distribution Automation 22.3.1
535 ............................................................................... IED 22.3.2
536 ........................................................................ SCADA 22.3.3
539 ............................... 22.3.4
539 ..................................................... 22.3.5
540 ....................................................... 22.3.6
540 .................................................. : 22.3.7
542 ..................................................... : 22.3.8

 543 ...... COMMUNICATIONS : 22.4
543 ....................................................... 22.4.1
544 ........................ 22.5
553 .............................................................................................................................. 23
553 ....................... 23.1
554 .................................................... 23.1.1
555 .......................... 23.2
555 ..................................................................... 23.2.1
555 ..................................................... 23.2.2
556 .................. ................................ 23.3
557 ................................ Synthetic Polymer 23.3.1
: 557 ........................................... PVC 23.3.2
558 ....................................................... Thermo-sets-: 23.3.3
558 ....................................................................... RUBBER-: 23.3.4
559 ........................................................... -: XLPE 23.3.5
559 ................... ................................ 23.4
559 ........................................................................... Losses 23.4.1
560 ........................................................... 23.4.2
560 ............................................................... : WATER TREE 23.4.3
563 .............................................................................................................................. 24
563 ........... ................................ : 24.1
564 ....................................................................... Conductor 24.1.1
( )566 .................. Semiconductor Layer 24.1.2
567 .............................................................. INSULATION 24.1.3
( ) 567 ...................................................... 24.1.4
568 ....................................................... Metallic sheath 24.1.5
569 .................................................................. 24.1.6
( ) 569 ................................ :FILLING - BEDDING 24.1.7
( ) 569 ..................................................... : ARMOUR 24.1.8
570 ............................................ Sheath Effect 24.1.9
573 ........................................... :OUTER SHEATH 24.1.10
574 ................................................................ 24.1.11
577 .............................................................................................................................. 25
577 .................... CONDUCTOR RESISTANCE 25.1
 578 ................................................. Insulation resistance 25.1.1
578 ....................... INDUCTANCE OF CABLE 25.2

580 .............................. CABLE CAPACITANCE 25.3

581 ......... ................................ : 25.4

582 ............... ................................ 25.5

583 ...........................................Electrical field 25.5.1
583 ..................................................... : 25.5.2
584 ..............................: WATER TREE 25.5.3
586 .............................................................................................................................. 26
586 ......................................................................... : 26.1.1
( )587 ................................................... : 26.1.2
588 ........................................................................... : 26.1.3
588 .............. 26.2

589 .......................... PHASE CHECKING 26.3

589 ..................... ................................ 26.4

590 ........................... 26.5

591 .............................................................................. 26.5.1
592 ( ............... ) CABLE CAPACITANCE 26.6

592 ............... ................................ 26.7

595 ........................................................ Hipot 26.7.1
595 ................. Insulation Resistance Test 26.7.2
595 ............... Dielectric Breakdown Test 26.7.3
596 ............. Dielectric Withstanding Test 26.7.4
( )596 ............................................. ) Tan delta( 26.7.5
597 ....................................................................... : 26.7.6
598 ........................ DC SHEATH TEST 26.8

599 ............................ 26.9

599 ........................... 26.10

600 ........................... 26.11

601 )................ PARTIAL DISCHARGE TESTING: (PD 26.12

602 ........... ................................ 26.13

 132. 602 ..................................... 26.13.1
DC 604 ..................... : 26.13.2
605 ............................................................... HVAC 26.13.3
606 ......................... )Very Low Frequency(VLF 26.13.4
608 .............................................................................................................................. 27
608 .... ................................ : 27.1
608 .................................................................... 27.1.1
609 .............................................................. 27.1.2
609 ................................................................................ 27.1.3
609 ................................................................................. 27.1.4
610 ........................................................... 27.1.5
610 ..................................................................... 27.1.6
611 ................ ................................ 27.2

612 ........................... 27.3

() (613 .......................................... )Pulse Echo 27.3.1
613 ...................................... Pulse Echo 27.3.2
615 ...................................... Pulse Echo 27.3.3
618 ........................................................................... 27.3.4
619 ................................................................ :TDR 27.3.5
( )Bridge 619 ................................. 27.3.6
Murray Bridge 621 ......................... 27.3.7
622 ............ ................................ 27.4
Surge Generator : 622 .............. 27.4.1
624 ........................................................................... 27.4.2
Arc reflector 625 .......................... 27.4.3
625 ......................................... 27.4.4
626 ................. ................................ 27.5

629 ............ ................................ 27.6

635 .............................................................................................................................. 28
635 ......................... ................................ : 28.1
Transient Analysis SS- Analysis 636 .................... 28.1.1
636 ........................................................................... 28.1.2
Transient 637 ....................................... 28.1.3
Transients 638 ......................................... 28.1.4
 640 ........................................................................... 28.1.5
641 ................................................................. 28.1.6
641 ........................................................ 28.1.7
644 ......................................................................................... :
644 ................................................................................

DC SUPPLY 644 ....... 28.2

645 ....................................................... Time Constant, TC 28.2.1
DC SUPPLY 646 ........ 28.3

AC SUPPLY 647 ........ 28.4

650 .........................................................................................
650 .....................................................................................

650 .................... ................................ 28.5

651 ............................................................... Voltage surges 28.5.1
652 ........................................ (BIL) Basic Impulse level 28.5.2
: 654 ....... LIGHTNING 28.6
654 ................................................................................... 28.6.1
655 ................................................................... 28.6.2
657 ............................... : 28.6.3
( ) 659 ......... 28.7
662 ...................................... CB 28.7.1
/ CAPACITOR SWITCHING 28.8
664
664 .......................................................... 28.8.1
666 ............................................................. 28.8.2
667 ....................... 28.9

669 ........... FERRO RESONANCE 28.10

VOLTAGE SURGES 28.11

670
672 ........................................................................................
672 ...................................................................................

672 ..................... ................................ 28.12

672 .......................................... Under Voltage 28.12.1

 () 673 .............................................. Voltage Sag 28.12.2
674 ...................... Short Circuit 28.12.3
674 ...................................................................................................................................
675 ......................... 28.12.4
) 676 ....................... Voltage Fluctuation (flicker 28.12.5
677 ................................................. 28.12.6
678 ................................................ 28.12.7
678 ......................................... Power Conditioners 28.12.8
682 .............................................................................................................................. 29
682 ......... ................................ STABILITY 29.1

684 ................. ................................ 29.2

684 ............ ................................ 29.3

685 ......................................... Rotor Angle Stability 29.3.1
686 ............................................... Frequency Stability 29.3.2
686 ....................................................... Voltage Stability 29.3.3
687 ................................................... Stability 29.3.4
688 ................................................................................... :

688 ROTOR ANGLE STABILITY 29.4

688 .......................................................... Rotor Angle 29.4.1
689 .............................................................. Rotor Angle 29.4.2
689 .............................................. Rotor Angle 29.4.3
690 ................................. Rotor Angle 29.4.4
691 ............................. EQUAL AREA CRITERIA 29.5
691 ....................................................... Equal Area Criteria 29.5.1
693 ............. Stability 29.5.2
695 ........................................ 29.5.3
696 ........................................................................................... :

696 FREQUENCY STABILITY 29.6

696 INERTIA ........................ 29.7

697 .............................................................. 29.7.1
698 POWER DEFICIT .................... 29.8
699 .................................................................... : 29.8.1
700 ........................................................................................... :
 700 VOLTAGE STABILITY 29.9

701 .. ................................ VOLTAGE STABILITY 29.10

701 ........................................ Voltage Collapse 29.10.1
701 ......... ................................ 29.11

703 .... ................................ 29.12

706 ( ) ................... 29.13

707 ............................................................ 29.13.1
708 ............................... 29.14
708 ............................................................. : 29.14.1
: 709 ..................................................... 29.14.2
714 .............................................................................................................................. 30
714 ................................................................................................... HARMONICS
715 HARMONICS ................................ 30.1
716 ............................................................................... 30.1.1
Harmonics 717 ............. 30.1.2
718 .... ................................ : HARMONICS 30.2
719 .............................. : Power Electronics 30.2.1
720 .......................................................................... : 30.2.2
"726 ..................................... . "Arc furnaces 30.2.3
728 ................ ................................ . 30.3

730 ...... ................................ 30.4

731 ....... ................................ . 30.5

731 ........................................................... : 30.5.1

732 ........................................................................ K-Factor 30.5.2
K-Factor 733 .......................................................... 30.5.3
734 ................................................................... 30.5.4
738 ........................... ................................ 30.6
739 ........................................................................ 30.6.1
739 ................................................................................... 30.6.2
740 .................................................................................... 30.6.3
741 ..................... : 30.7
741 ............................................. IEEE 519-1992 30.7.1

744 ............................ 30.8
-:" 744 ..................................... "Passive Harmonic Filters 30.8.1
-: " 746 ....................................... . "Active Harmonic Filters 30.8.2
: "746 ................................. . "Compound Harmonic Filters 30.8.3
746 .................................................. Harmonic Cancellation 30.8.4
747 ............................................ Harmonic Cancellation 30.8.5
752 .... ................................ 30.9
752 ................................................................................. 30.9.1
753 ...................................................................................... 30.9.2


Energy Conversion

.
.

.

-1 : Fossil Fuel

. :
.
(
)

.

%90 .



.

( )
.

-2 : Renwable Energy
Geothermal Biomass .

( )

2

.

.

-3 : .

( )
.

.

!!
4

.
( ) Joule .

Work :
Work = Mechanical Energy (J) = Force (N) x Distance (mt) =Joules

( ) Power
:

Electrical Energy = Power (watt) time (sec) = Volt Amp Sec = Joules

kWatt-Hour
1 (kWH) = 1000 x 60 x 60 = 36x105 Joule

( Calorie ) BTU
Q .
Q
)( ) ( )( = =

1 Calorie = 4.18 Joule

:
.
(Absulute Temprature) Ko
273
( )
.

F = 32 + 1.8 times C

: .

Thermal Power Stations o

Gas Turbine & Combined cycle o
Diesel Power Stations o
Nuclear Power Stations o
Hydroelectric Power stations o
o

Wind Power stations

Solar Power stations
Tidal Power stations
Geothermal Power Stations
Biomass Power Stations
Wave Power stations
Ocian Thermal Energy Conversion
Fuel Cells Power Plants

6

: .
: ( -)
:
:
:
: (
) .
: .

6
8 ( )

1
1.1

1882
1863
1895 .

1964
.
DC AC ) )1-phase ( 3-
. )phase ) )40Hz ) . )50Hz
) )110 V .220V


.

1917
1928

1934
1951
( )11000 13
400 .

8
 9
:

1.1.1

.


.

65506 2014
( 50
%25 18 ) .

36000
( 33 66 132 220 400 500
) ( ).
.

1.1.2

. spinning reserve


.

.
.

1952 90
. .
10 ( )

.
220. .1979 220. .
400. .
.900 MW .2009

1-1
.

400. . .
.
.

Figure 1-1

(
33.
)
2-1 .

10
 11
:

Figure 1-2

1998 500 kV

18 13.3 850
400 kV (
Phase ) .
( . :
).

220 KV 28 1998
.
. 3-1
12 ( )

Figure 1-3

( Blackout )
( Restoration ) .

(
3 )
.1-1

Table 1-1

12
 13
:

1.1.3

(
) . 4-1 300kV 5-1
6-1
7-1 ( 500 220 )
.
14 ( )

Figure 1-4

14
 15
:

Figure 1-5
16 ( )

( )

HVDC .6-1

( : HVDC
). HVAC

16
 17
:

Figure 1-6

7-1 .
18 ( )

500 220 Figure 1-7

18
 19
:

8-1 .

Figure 1-8
20 ( )

( 34 )
7-1 ( 500kV
) ( 220kV ).

66kV

11kV
.

1.1.4

-1 (
) .
-2 ( ) Substation
.
-3

.

1.1.5

:

.
( 2%)
%11 %5
.9-1

Power Losses
(
) .
. % 40

20
 21
:

Figure 1-9

1.1.6

No Load
Hot Spinning Reserve in operation in
service
:

-1
( )
.
-2 kWH
Base Load 24
. Base Load
.
-3 ( )
Peak Load
.
22 ( )

3 4 15 30
(
) NCC National Control Center
( )
.
Unit Commitment
Optimization
Techniques .
. Economic Load Dispatch
-4 Power Loss
-5

.

10-1 11-1
( ) ( 26 ) 2015 .

22
 23
:

Figure 1-10

( ) Figure 1-11

12-1
. Peak load .
24 ( )

Figure 1-12

13-1 .

Photo courtesy U.S. Department of Energy

A breakdown of the major power plants in
the United States by type

Figure 1-13

24
 25
:

( )
2013 . 2014
.

Spinning Reserve 1.1.7

100 40
30
. Hot Spinning Reserve 50-40
( Inertia
).

Hot Spinning reserve in operation in service

. Cold Spinning Reserve
.

90 Reserve
. Load Shedding

( 10-1 11-1 Spinning reserve )

1.2
10-1 11-1
:

:
:

Load :
26 ( )

)P (mechanical) = T (mechanical) = P (Electrical

( ) .

Electric Torque Mechanical Torque
( )Management System ( Feed
)Water Control Valve ( Forced
)Draft Fan
( )Governor Valve Mechanical
Torque Electric torque .

Frequency :

=
120

f p n

1.2.1

Load Demand .Supplied Power

Table 1-2

Hz

49.2 %2

49.1 %3

49 %4
Governor
48.9 %7

48.8 %15
Load Shedding
48.7 %20

48.6 %22
.Blackout

26
 27
:

. 2-1 .

Blackout 1.2.2

Blackout

.

.
:
) P (MW ) Q(MVAR
.
.

.


) (over load

Blackout . Blackout

Restoration 1.2.3

Blackout

(
....) .
-:
28 ( )

blackstart -

Auxilaries .
-

.

Synchrounization .

1.3 :

1.3.1

.
( ) E = k f Auxilaries
( ) ( Constant Power
Devices )
Rotor Automatic Voltage
AVR Regulator Rotor
. Rotor .

50 60 1.3.2

= 200 .

60
:

shaft
shaft
.

28
 29
:

( )

= ,

skin effect , corona

50 60 . 60
50 .

Governor 1.3.3

. governor
governor Valve
governor
Governor Governor
.

Governor : 1.3.4

governor :

governor
governor Governor Valves
.
governor
. 14-1
Governor ( 2003
30 ( )

Figure 1-14 Governer

: Governor 1.3.5

.1 .

over load Flyball 15-1

steam valve
.

Flyball
.

30
 31
:

Figure 1-15

.2 :
.

.3
.

1.4

:

-1
Reliability
.
-2
.
-3

.
( 400 -4
%80 ( 320 )
800 ( 320 )
%40 .
-5
.
32 ( )

1.4.1



"" Synchronization
Phase Angle
. Phase Sequence

: 1.4.2

-1

N sta rot
Eo
2

.1
.2 Nsta Stator
rot .3 Rotor

rotor

Exciter Rotor
)Automatic Voltage Regulator( AVR Exciter
( 20 ) .
7-3 .

-2

Frequency :

32
 33
:

=
120

f p n

p
n rotor

Governor
.

-3 phase sequence

Phases
Phases R-Y-B R-B-Y
as magnitude and angle two phases
.

-4 phase shift

Phase
angle Phases .

Generator
( Synchronizer )16-1 CB (
) .
34 ( )

Figure 1-16 Automatic Synchronizer

Picture 1-1

1.5
:

: 1.5.1

)Ns( synchronous speed

120
=

P . .

. Synchrouscope

: 1.5.2

DC ( exciter )If rot flux

( . ):

N sta rot
Eo
2

34
 35
:

If .
.

: phase sequence 1.5.3

Phases ( )same phase sequence

Phases (
phase a phase b)
. Phases
(
) .

: phase shift 1.5.4

phase shift =0 .

Ns .
Field Poles
. Stator Phases


.

phase shift
.
( ) .

(Automatic method) : 1.5.5

( )synchronizer

breaker

( )synchronizer ) (governor ) (AVR
36 ( )

magnitude ) (phase angle

( )synchronizer Synchronizer switch .

) (synchro-check relay
.

17-1 .

Figure 1-17

18-1 .

Figure 1-18

1.5.6

induced Emf stator winding Rotor

36
 37
:

2400 RPM 40 Hz
50 Hz turbine shaft
shaft shaft
.stator

)(Reactive power
-
-
. Circulating current
.

1.6 LOAD SHARING

KW KVAR
over loading stability
.
Grid infinite Bus Bar, BB
( ) P or Q
.19-1 Q
P .

Figure 1-19
38 ( )

Q P
( )
Q
.

load sharing -:

Active power (KW) load sharing -1

Reactive power (KVAR) load sharing -2

1.6.1

Governer no-load Frequency

fn.l P-G Power
( Pload ) 20-1
.

Figure 1-20

Governer set point for Fn.l Power

Power (
Infinite Bus Bar ).

38
 39
:

Governer set point for Fn.l Power ( )21-1

Power .

Figure 1-21

Governer set point for Fn.l ( )22-1

.

Figure 1-22
40 ( )

Governor set point for Fn.l ( )23-1

P G power
reverse power relay.

Figure 1-23

1.6.2

Reactive Power KVAR

Field Excitation System
field excitation ) (KVAR ( Over
)Excitation power factors Active power D-
curve P and Q .24-1

40
 41
:

Figure 1-24 P-Q relation in D Curve

field excitation . .

:

Q .P .
42 ( A- )

.
.

( - )
( ( )25-1 - - - -
- )
.

42
 43
:

500kV
.220kV

66kV
500kV .220kV

.
.

Figure 1-25

.
44 ( A- )

1830kWH ( = 2014
164836 90 = . ) 1830kWH
2800 .

3-1 .

Table 1-3

44
 45
:

( )
:

: 1970 1952
. %3 12

: 1985 1970 (-)1970-1971

( )1974-1973 %4 4 ( -1974
)1985 %5 12


%4 11 .

1985 :
5361 1986-1985 9850
1998-1997 %2 5
30000 .2015

...

30000 .2015

28750 . )2015(. 26-1

.
2
.
46 ( A- )

( 2012 Figure 1-26 )2013

-1
%43
%27 ( -1
.)27

Figure 1-27

-2

( )

46
 47
:

8
235 24 .

-3 (
)

4 kWH 40
( )2030
!!!! .
.

( )
:4-1

Table 1-4
48 ( A- )

-1 12x175 MW

.
12 .175 MW

-2 : :

: 2 627
1254 .
: 1 2 250
1 250 750
.
: 2 2 250
1 250 750
.
: 20
120 .

-3 : 2 30
60 .
-4 : 4 110
440 .
-5 : . :

(1 : )2 2 ( 4
250 2 250
) 1500 .
: 3 2 ( 1
250 2 250
) 750

-6 : 105 ( )28-1 0.6

117 0.66 478
0.85 547.

48
 49
:

-1

6
%40 .

( )28-1 .
12 175 MW 15.75kV
500 kV .220 kV

Figure 1-28

Figure 1-28

10000 ...
3830 520
111
40.

-2

. 1956
46 40
.
50 ( A- )

1750 ...

-3 67.5 x 4

4 67.5 .
1800 ...

-4

.
6 14.28 85.68
1993.
643 ...

-5

4 16.
470 ...

-6

.2013

5-1 .

50
 51
:

Table 1-5
52 ( A- )

52
 53
:
54 ( )

2
:

.1
.2
.3
.4

()
( ) ( 17 : 14 :
)17 : 22 11
.

( ) .

( ).
(
).

().

54
 55
:

.

.
( 600
)

.

( 7-5) .

2.1

) ) BOILERS
( 540 160 )

.

Rotor Electric field -
) (STATOR
.

.

%50 59%
% 78 .
.
56 ( )

:
.
1 (
).
.
1 1041 .CO2

2.2
. 1-2

.

. .

Figure 2-1

56
 57
:

2.2.1

.1 .
.2 .
.
.3 .
.

2.2.2

:
2-2

.

Figure 2-2

:
2
= (1 ) 100
1
T1 T2 ( )
(
58 ( )

) 550
.%64

T2 = 20+273 = 293 K
T1 = 550 + 273 = 823 K
Efficiency = ((1-293/823)*100 = 64.4 %

2.2.3

:
.1
.
.2
.
.3 () .

.
.

58
 59
:

%99.5
()
.

.

distillation units

( )

: (Million Imperial Gallons) MIG

.

: 2.2.4

( ).

Filters .

.
60 ( )

PH 2.2.5

( )NH4 PH
( (99.2 .
.
.
NH4 + O2 NO + H2O

. PH
Na3PO4
.
Na3PO4 + H2O Na2HPO4 + NaOH

NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O

PH 2.2.6

) ) power of hydrogen or pH
.

7 ( ) 2.4
( ) 2.5 ( )2.9( . ) 6.5
.
7 . () 7.7
( . )9
7
25.

2.2.7

-1 :

60
 61
:

-2 :
.
62 ( )

.
.

:
.

:



.

2.3 )(BOILER

() 3-2
.
.

540
160 .
.

( 9-2 ).

62
 63
:

Figure 2-3

)(Furnace 2.3.1

.
1500 .
18
.

.
Draft Fans
.
64 ( )

.4-2
30
20 .
( ) .

Figure 2-4

)(Drum 2.3.2

5-2


.

(man-
.) hole
Figure 2-5 Drum

)(Economizer 2.3.3

. Drum and Economizer .6-2

64
 65
:

Figure 2-6

( ) Heaters 2.3.4

Heaters 7-2:

(Low Pressure Heaters) -1

( ) exhausted steam

) (deaerator . 7-2
(High Pressure Re-Heaters) -2
.
66 ( )

Figure 2-7

Dearator 2.3.5

( Dearator 8-2



.
. 7ppm

Figure 2-8 Dearator

Chimney 2.3.6

.
390

66
 67
:

Air Pre-heater
Economizer Filters
.
100 .

9-2 ( .
315 )

Figure 2-9

2.3.7

/

. Feeding Pumps 225-180
. 3
.
68 ( )

2.4 )) TURBINE


. 10-2

. Governor .

150:

RATED OUTPUT=== 150000 KW

STEAM PRESSURE 88 BAR
>=STEAM TEMPERATUER 799
RATED SPEED==== 3000 rpm
MANUFACTURED IN 1975 TOKYO JAPAN

.
.
.

160 540
40 .
800 .

68
 69
:

Figure 2-10

2.4.1

()
.



.

2.4.2

.
70 ( )

2.5 )(CONDENSER

/.

( ) 11-2
- -
.

Figure 2-11

( )
12-2
Shower

.

Figure 2-12

70
 71
:

.13-2

Figure 2-13

( 2600)
.
72 ( )

2.6

.14-2
Economizer ( )Drum
Burner
(.)Air/Fuel

() Superheaters
( 542 )

( 105/)2

Governer
Shaft
( 320)
( 30/)2

72
 73
:

( ) Exhaused
Reheater
.
.

Figure 2-14

3000
( 50) :
74 ( )

=
120

Rotor .

.
Diviator
270
( )Economizer
. .

2.6.1

( )

. By-pass
.

74
 75
:

Internal Combustion Engines

) (Fuel Oil


.

: ( )
:
76 ( )

1 250 ( 400
) .

( )
.
.

. ( ) 25 : 15 .

2.7 :
. 15-2
:

Figure2 -15

2.7.1

Air Compressor -
1 16

76
 77
:

10.5
( .)16-2

Figure 2-16

:


.

BLOW OFF VALVES 2.7.2

COMPRESSOR

. %30 surge
.
Back pressure
.

2.7.3

. .
78 ( )

Ignation system Diffusion
Permix
Burners
"MAIN FLAME

Diffusion
.
50 3000 RPM
470 Difusion
premix

Premix :
Diffusion 470 500
.

1050
10.5
.

2.7.4

( )17-2

.

78
 79
:

Figure 2-17 Figure 2-17

2.7.5

. shaft
.
.

2.7.6

-1
-2
-3
-4
-5 : -
80 ( )

2.7.7

Fire (
) Starting Motor
Power Electronics-based Circuit as motor 550
Fire .

:

Regasification
(
).

80
 81
:

Diesel Power Station

( )18-2 .

.

Figure 2-18

Figure 2-18

. .

3 5 .
.

.
.
(
).
82 ( )

.
. %35

82
 83
:

Combined Cycle
500
.

2.8 COMBINED CYCLE

( )19-2

HRSG Heat Recovery Steam Generator
.

.

Figure 2-19
84 ( )

( ).

HRSG
. %30
( . %52
) %61

: HRSG 2.8.1

HRSG Heat Recovery Steam Generator 20-2

:

Superheater and W ater preheater Evaporator Economizer

HRSG
Catalysts Heat Recovery Steam Generator
) (HRSG
.

Figure 2-19 Heat Recovery Steam Generator

84
 85
:

HRSG duct firing

.

: 2.8.2

( )18% ( )31% .
%49 21-2 HRSG
140 .

Figure 2-21

: 2.8.3

Steam power plants .
.
.
.
86 ( )

: 2.8.4

.1 750 :
o 250
250.
.2 158
o 4 25 + 58.
.3 1 : 2
o 2 250 + 250.

220
.

22-2

Figure 2 -20

Compined Cycle PP (500 MW) 61% effeccincy

86
 87
:
88 ( )

88
 89
:

3

.
:

-1 ()Generator
-2 ()Transformers
-3 ()Excitation System
-4 Power Circuits
-5
-6 ()Switch Gear 6.3 KV
-7 ( )Switch Yard
-8 ()Power Center
-9 () MCC Motor Control Center
() Ups Un Interruptable Power Supply -10
-11
()Battery & Battery charger -12
(MEASURMENT SYSTEM) :- -13
(COMMUNICATION SYSTEM) : -14
SCADA SYSTEM -15
(CONTROL SYSTEM): -16
(PROTECTION SYSTEM) : -17

. Substations
90 ( )

3.1
. Synchronous
. Generator Synchronous Generator Rotor and Stator
Field Rotor
Stator
.
( )field ( )dc voltage Excitation
System .

1-3 .

GSUT Generatot Step Up Transformer

UAT Unit Auxilary Transformer
.Excitation transformer
External Source


.

Figure 3-1 Generator SLD

90
 91
:

- Main generator : Turbo generator 19KV 0.85 pf 440 MVA 3000 rpm
50 Hz
- Main Step-Up Transformer : 19/500 KV 480 MVA two winding Shell
Type ONAF
- Auxiliary Transformer : 19/6.6/6.6 KV 40 MVA Three winding Core
Type ONAF
- Medium voltage switchgear : 6.6KV 2500 A 40KA short circuit capacity
- Isolated Phase Bus duct (IPB): that connecting Generator Aux Transformer
and Main Transformer 19KV 16000A.

Rotor Stator 3.1.1

stator
.2-3 slots
92 ( )

Figure 3-2 Stator

: Stator Windings
.

Rotor
Shaft .3-3

Figure 3-3 Rotor

92
 93
:

: Field Windings Excitation

System Bruches
Field Current .

3.1.2

. :
. Hydrogen Plant
Demi Water Stator Cooling

( %14 ) .

Vents
.

4-3 .

Figure 3-4
94 ( )

3.1.3

Generator ( Rotor and

) stator :
. Exciter ---- Permanent Magnet ---- Automatic Voltage Regulator

Exciter 3-phase generator

( 500) ( 5000)
Shaft . Field DC
Stator .

:
: DC Exciter 3-phase
: " " Exciter Field

Excitation 3.1.4

3-phase ( ) Exciter
Rectification .
Field Exciter
.
Exciter :
.
3-Phase Generator Exciter
( 100 ) Permanent Magnet
PMG PMG 3-
phase current Exciter
Field . Exciter

5-3 PMG Exciter

Field .
Field Exciter PMG .
.

94
 95
:

Rectifier
Permanent Unit for
Magnet exciter
Rotor

Stator of Exciter Main Field

Rectifier

Output
Unit for
Stator PMG

Stator of PMG Fioeld of Exciter Main Stator

Exciter Main
PMG
Generator
Figure 3-5

. 6-3

Figure 3-6

( Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR

.

3.1.5

Automatic Voltage Regulator

( AC
96 ( )

) ) (DC Excitation
.7-3 AVR
Excitation .

AVR
Firing angle
.7-3

Figure 3-7

3.1.6

20 kV (
690V) .

(High Voltage
) Generators .Powerformers

( )Powerformer 8-3 9-3

Powerformer ABB
.1998 Powerformer
400 .

96
 97
:

Powerformer ( Step-up
.)Transformer

Conventional Generator Step-up Transformer

Generator C.B. Transformer C.B.

)(a

Powerformer Powerformer
C.B.
)(b

Figure 3-8

B ()Powerformer

Figure 3-9

()Powerformer
98 ( )

( )Stator XLPE
10-3 ( )Rectangular Conductors
. ( )Rotor
.

Figure 3-10

XLPE Stator Powerformer

:Powerformer

.1 Powerformer ( 1.5
) .
.2 ( )Total Fixed Cost
Powerformer .
3200
. 4 4 12
( .)Single-phaseStep-upTransformer
4 Powerformers 24
.
.3 Powerformer
.
.4 Stator
Stator

.

98
 99
:

3.2

-1 step up transformer
-2 ( ) unit auxiliary
-3 ( ) start up transformer
-4 ( ) excitation transformer

(
)

step up transformer
.
15.75 23kV
15.75kV
.
220kV
( 500 kV 500 9 )
( )
. Generator-Transformer set

22 8 2 (
) off load
.tap changer

-2 Unit Auxilary Transformer

100 ( )

6.3 kV .
(.)C.B

-3 Start Up Transformer
220 kV
6.3 kV
( )C.B
220 kV .

-4 Excitation transformer
23 kV 900
Excitation
. (.)C.B

3.3

) : ( )
.

) ( 400 ) :
.

) (11 ) :
.

) :


.
.

100
 101
:

) 6.3

( )SF6 .
:
.

3.4

Power Center 3.4.1

250-100 MCC
Dry Transformer 400V /6.3kV
6.3 .
.

Motor Control Center 3.4.2

11-3
100
- Motor& Valve's
-
- ()PDP
- Battery Charger
- UPS
800
.
102 ( )

Figure 3-11

: 3.4.3

:
.

:
(110) ( 48).

:


.

DC system
Starting Blackout
. 15 MW.
.12-3

102
 103
:

Figure 3-12

.
104 ( )

3.5 AUXILILARY SYSTEMS

)(MEASURMENT SYSTEM


.
.
.
:

() V.T .1
() C.T .2
) (P.F V.T + C.T .3
( ) V.T + C.T .4
( ) V.T + C.T .5
( )Hz V.T .6

)(COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 3.5.1

.
.

)(CONTROL SYSTEM 3.5.2

. ( )
.

104
 105
:

(PROTECTION SYSTEM) :- 3.5.3

. 13-3
. .

Figure 3-13
106 ( )

( (Simple cycle
150 66kV 220kV
common service building
Single Line Diagram .

3.6 :
o
o
o
o bus duct
o 15.75 KV (MV TR.) 6.3 KV
o ) (excitation bus bar
) (exciters
o ) (3 winding ) (static starter bus bar

o )UEL - (3-phase Motor 550KW
USG - Fire fighting pump 200KW o
o 6.3KV 400 )(LV TR.
o MV bus bar
( )excitation motors oil pumps
motor fire fighting pump
o LV bus bar Rectifiers
UPS
o UPS DC bus bar inverters
UPS
o

106
 107
:

: 3.6.1

compressor turbine
shaft turbine turbine compressor
( 28MKA01 :)14-3

o C.B 2XBAC01GS001
2XBAT01
o C.B 2XBAC01GS004
2XMBJ01
o 2XBAT01 ( 2XBBT01
) 2XMBJ01
) (motor shaft turbine compressor
compassion room turbine

XBAC01GS0042 C.B turbine shaft rated
speed excitation 2XMKC10
2XMKC01GT001 & 2XBBT01GT001 C.B
synchronous speed
.
o black out Power XJ*0120
.2XBAT01
108 ( )

Figure 3-14

28MKA01

108
 109
:
110 ( )

110
 111
:

4


.

Reactor

.

( :







( ))6 .


.

Reactor

.
1954 5
. .

4.1

:1-4
112 ( )

Figure 4-1

4.0015 .
1.0073 .
1.0087 .

:
= 1.0073 2 = 1.0087 2
= 2.0146 = 2.0174

= 2.0174 + 2.0146
= 4.0320

-4
:2

Figure 4-2

0.0305
( )Albert Einstein 1879-1955 1907

112
 113
:

( )energy
( )mass
.

E = m C2

.BINDING ENERGY

85
BTU 25
.

:
-1 235
999
.
-2 235
( ) .
( 18 30
) 3
.

4.1.1

( ) (.)
235 3-4
2 3

114 ( )

Figure 4-3

.
235
()1 MeV = 106 1.6 1019 J

114
 115
:

.

( . : 1
1041 (.CO2

4.1.2

1932 J.D.Cockcroft E.T.S.Walton

. 0.0186 .

4.1.3

Uranium ( 235
)235 )Plotonium 239( 239 238
)Uranium 233( 233 )Thorium( 232
(. )nuclear fission
235
.
116 ( )

235

235 ( enrichment
.)process

:
235
.
()compact nuclear reactors

%3 %5
.

235 238 .

92
U238 238 92
U235 235
.

%5
%90 150 .
( depleted
)Uranium 235
.
% 5 .

4.2

4-4 :

116
 117
:

.1
.
.2 moderator

.
.3 :

..
.4 400 450

.

.
.5

Figure 4-4

( )5-4 3
5 . 235
118 ( )

.
.235

()pellets
.
( )fuel assemblies 200 300
. 150 250 50
150 .

Figure 4-5

4.2.1

1200
.

118
 119
:

2200 .
.

.
3 ) ( 3mg/kWh 700

.

4.2.2

.
.

4.2.1

()
) ) H2O ) (deuterium atoms (D2O).

.
.%10
120 ( )

- -
. .
.

4.2.2

.
. CANDU
Canada Deuterium Uranium reactor

235- .

238-
. 235- 238- 1 .
238-
.
-
235 .
.
.

120
 121
:

1934
.

.

1939 Albert Einstein

Franklin D . Roosevelt

( .
) .

( )200
.
del Jornada
Muerto . Manhattan Project

.
.

1939
( )2
1945
5:30
( )
( )150

1945 Harry Truman

.
122 ( )

.

.

Dwight Eisenhower

.

2:45 B-29
Tinian Island .
8:15 580
.

122
 123
:
124 ( )

Hydropower Power Stations

.
.

.
.

.
.
.
.

( ) 1-5 .3-5

124
 125
:

Figure 5-1

Figure 5-2
126 ( )

Figure 5-3

5.1

(
20MW 150 MW)

.

5.1.1

.4-5

126
 127
:

Figure 5-4

.1
.2
.3 :
.
.4 :Turbine
.5-5
.5 .

.
128 ( )

Figure 5-5

.6 :Pen stoke
.
.7 : .

5.1.2

.
:

( ).

()= () x (/3) x ( 9.81/ x )2

(1000/ x )3

%85 .

128
 129
:

.
18.000 .

5.1.3

( . )Cavitation
( )
130 ( )

( )
.

5.1.4

6-5
( )
.

.
Pumping Storage

Figure 5-6

130
 131
:
132
( )

6

2015 4 (
) ( 2015
EDF 250 ).

Geothermal

1-6

132
 133
:

Figure 6-1
134
( )

1000 1300 .

6.1

. :

6.1.1

.
.
.

( 24 )
( 365 ) .
23 . 2-6
.
.

( ) 2-6

.


.
( )
.

134
 135
:

Figure 6 -2

6.1.2

. :

90 .
( )
.

()
.3-6
136
( )

Figure 6-3

.
.

( : 15 - ) =

( : ) =

( : 15 + ) = .

4-6

Figure 6 -4

136
 137
:

6.2

-1 : PV Cells

%15-10 .

-2


.

6.2.1

-1
(( )Agua Caliente Solar Project )5-6
( PV
)Photovoltaic solar cell 9.7
400 ( )First Solar
5 ( )thin film 77-75 .
138
( )

Figure 6-5 Agua Caliente Solar Project

-2
(( )Charanka Solar Park )6-6
19.8 2014
300 280 .

Figure 6-6 Charanka Solar Park

138
 139
:

-3
( Huanghe Hydropower Golmud Solar Park )7-6
( )Qinghai 5.64 .
( )PV Photovoltaic solar cell 2011 200 .

Figure 6-7 Huanghe Hydropower Golmud Solar Park

6.2.2

-1 ( stand alone or off-Grid system )8-6

Figure 6-8
140
( )

-2 ( Grid- connected system )9-6

Figure 6-9

(
. ) ( .
).

Sun Tracer Max Power

.10-6

140
 141
:

Figure 6-10
142
( )

solar
.thermal electricity

.
.
.

6.3

6.3.1

11-6
( ).
parabolic
trough solar thermal 2009 150

540 .

Figure 6-11 parabolic trough solar thermal

142
 143
:

( ) ( 12-6
)


220



Figure 6-12

20 400
( )
.

1 2013
258000 2.5 100.

6.3.2

( )13-6
( ).
144
( )

Figure 6-13

( ) Molten Salt
.

( )Hybrid System .

6.3.3

.14-6
Collector
.

144
 145
:

Figure 6-14
146
( )

70-30
20-10 20-15.

100
3
20 ( 100 ) 2.7 .
50









1800 - 1200 .

( . )15-6

.

Figure 6-15

146
 147
:

6.3.4

.


6700
.

6.3.5

Injection Well
Production Well

( 1000)

( )16-6

Figure 6-16
148
( )

6.4 GEOTHERMAL

: 6.4.1

1904



. ( Injection Well .)17-6

Figure 6-17

: 6.4.2

( 200)
( 100)
( ) . .

. ( )18-6

148
 149
:

Figure 6-18
150
( )

Tidal Power Stations

.
.


.
. .

.

400 .
. (
).

6.5 TIDAL POWER STATIONS

( )19-6


.

.
.

.
() .
. .

150
 151
:

Figure 6-19

11 .

6.5.1

. ()
.
.
. 20-6
.
152
( )

Figure 6-20

. . .
.
.
.

.

.21-6
.

152
 153
:

Figure 6-21
154
( )

6.6

.
.

" "Wind Mills

1750 8000 10000
" "Water Pumping
"" .

6.6.1

" "Solar Radiation

( )
( ) .

6.6.2

154
 155
:

3 (
) .

( ) 12
.

" "Off-Shore Wind Farms
( .)22-6

Figure 6-22

6.6.3

23-6:

-1 2 3 Rotor Blades 20
5 130.
156
( )

-2 Gear Box :

.a 30
.b 1500
-3 Nacelle Housing

/
5 . 30/.

Figure 6-23

-4 500 1500 3 5
6 7 .

-5 ( )kv 24
.

-6 Tower 40 60
140 5 .
Nacelle .

156
 157
:

Induction Generator
( 50 ) ( )%0.5
( 27
/) .

" "Yawing
25/ " "Brakes
"."Nacelle

6.6.4

. :

P = 0.5 x x A x Cp V3

where:
)P = power in watts (746 watts = 1 hp
= air density (about 1.225 kg/m3 at sea level
)A = rotor area exposed to the wind (m2
V = upstream wind speed in meters/sec
v 0 v 0
2

1 1
v v
= Cp
2
)V0 (downstream wind velocity of the exit of the rotor blades

6.7
-1 :
5/
125 - 6/
216 .
1/
158
( )

" "Wake Effect .
-2 " :"Swept Area

.
-3 ":"Tip-Speed Ratio "
"Tip Blade 60
.80

: 6.7.1

Rotor
( )
.

24-6
.

Figure 6-24

: 6.7.2

.
.

158
 159
:

-6
25 .

Figure 6-25

: 6.7.3

( )26-6
.

Figure 6-26 cut-in and cut-off speed

Cut in Speed Cut out Speed

.

.
160
( )

: 6.7.4

.
95%
- - .


.


.

.
.

6.7.5

( )5-9 D
( )3-5 D D Diameter
.27-6

160
 161
:

Figure 6-27

5D ( ) 3D
( ) . :

-1 Natural distribution

: 28-6

Figure 6-28

5D
3D .5D*3D

)2

5D :29-6
162
( )

Figure 6-29

5D
10D .3D
.

6.8
( 10 )
.

9/ 25
10.5/ .

125
.
2014 200

2003 ( )30-6
2006 .
2014 500
%12 .2020

162
 163
:

Figure 6-30
164
( )

6.9

Figure 6-31 off-shore wind station

16 ( 7 ) %50
14 ( 6 )

:

(
)31-6 .
-1 :

164
 165
:

-2
.

( 2.5 3.5)


.
 ( )

Free energy generator

Rotor + Stator
Permenent magnet
Rotor Stator Rotor and stator
Air gap ( )
(
) .
( )



.
 167
:
 ( )

.2013

:



.
!!!.

.
:
-4 ( )
-5
( ) .
-6
-7
-8 kWh
-9

:
 169
:

-1 :
.

.

.


.

-2 (
).
(

) .
. .

:
= Fuel cost 30 to 40%
= Fixed charges for the plant 50 to 60%
= Operation and maintenance cost 5 to 10%

Rate of Interst



.
1000 %3 5
150 (
1000) . ()
() .
170 - ( )

Depreciation
( ) (
)


.

.

Tariff
kWH
( )
.
:

-1

(
) . .

-2
.1-A

Figure 0 -1

170
 171
:

1 1
1MVA 0.5
Apparent Poawer . 2MVA KWH



( ) 0.9 .

-3
Max Demand
. 2-A
720MWH Max Demand 1000kW
.

Figure A0 -2

Load Factor

. ( )
( Max
) Demand
172 - ( )

(.) Demand Mangment

-4
(
)

Blackout
(
) .

.

Tariff:
(1) Flat demand rate
(2) Straight line meter rate
(3) Step meter rate
(4) Block rate tariff
(5) Two part tariff
(6) Three part tariff.

1-A ( :) 2016

Table 0-1

172
 173
:

450kWH
:

100kWH 34 = 100x0.34 = 650-351

150kWH 36 = 150x0.24 = 350-201
200kWH 32 = 200x0.16 = 200-0

102
!.

2-A :

Table A-0-2

: 3-A

Table 0-3

kW kWH
.
174 - ( )

( ):

-1
(
) .

.
-2 .
-3
Load Curve
.

174
 175
:

kWH
Overall Effeciency.

( ) . .
3-A ( ) $/kW

Figure A-0-3

4-A kWH ( ):
176 - ( )

Table A 0-4

5-A 2015
.

Table 0-5

176
 177
:

5500
$/kW 8000$/kW 9-6 (
).

1200-1500 $/kW
. 6-A
.2008

Table 0-6
178 - ( )

178
 179
:

 7

.

:
DC AC

7.1

66 kV 400 kV

Table 7-1
500 kV
750 kV .

1-7

. ANSI Code

66

 181
:

132 220

500 950
.
.

:
-1
.
-2

:
( ) PLoss = 3 I2 R

.

7.1.1

:
.
.
2-7 .

Table 7-2
182 - ( )

7.2

( ) DC Station )(February 11, 1847 October 18, 1931
1882
( ) .



.

(October 6,
) ) 1846 March 12, 1914 )10 July 1856 7 January 1943

(
) AC Station



.


(
) .

AC 7.2.1

-1 AC
( ( XL and XC Inductive and Capacitive Reactance
R DC
.

182
 183
:

-2 Limits
Max power transmitted
V1 , V2 X
Power angle, :

1 2
= sin

DC
(
.) X

-3 AC
( .
)
AC DC Reactive Power
.

-4 Ferranti Effect Arcing Ground AC

AC
Bundle conductors
.DC

HVDC
.

7.3 HV-AC HV-DC

HVDC HV-AC :
184 - ( )

HV-DC 7.3.1

-1
) (Rectifier ) (Inverter
1-7 .

Figure 7-1

-2 Inverters and Rectifiers DC

Harmonics harmonic filter
2-7
1-7 .

Figure 7-2 DC Converter Station

184
 185
:

-3 (
).

-4 HV DC Arc
SCRs
Gate Turn Off, GTO Commutation circuts
HV AC cycle
.

-5 . AC

HV-DC 7.3.2

HVDC :

-1 Synchronized
AC Stability
-
( ) Grids HVDC
. 6-1
. HVDC

-2 DC Bipolar system 3-7 DC

) ) three phase AC
4-7 DC Monoplar
. DC
.
186 - ( )

Figure 7-4 Three-phase system Figure 7-3 HVDC system

XL . XC
-3 DC
Reactive Power ( )

DC .AC

-4 skin effect


AC ( DC )
) (I2 R DC.

-5 DC AC
skin effect .

-6 ) (I*R
) (I * (R+jX Voltage Regulation
.

-7 DC DC (
) AC
.

-8 DC Compensators Shunt or Series

capacitors Shunt reactors . AC

186
 187
:

-9 Corona Losses
.
-10 S.C Current DC
AC
.

HVDC 7.3.3

HVDC Transmission
:
( 50 Hz 60Hz )
( ) ( static
) var compensators .
45 2000 HVDC .
HV-AC Capacitance
.

synchronization .

:
AC.

7.3.4

( Inverters and
Rectifiers )
( . : /
).

. DC
5-7 .
:

-1 .
188 - ( )

-2
.
-3 Break even distance
. 800
(
800) 800.

Figure 7-5

7.4
:

.1 Over Head Transmission Lines

.2 .Underground Cables
.3 Gas-Insulated Lines SF6

700 .
6-7
.

188
 189
:

Figure7-6 Gas Insulated Lines

5 10 .
( )


.
.

30.000 /
.
190 - ( )

. -
.

Composite Overhead-Underground Lines

U/G Cable + OHTL : :
. U/G Cable + OHTL + U/G Cable

Charactraistic Impeadance
Distance realy . Travelling Waves

7.5


.

-1 :
( ) :
Transmission towers
conductors

Damping devices
.

( ) Insulators
.

-2 TL Parameters ( )

190
 191
:

Parameters
:

Inductance

Capacitance .

Parameters Arcing Ground

Ferrandi Effect .

-3 Reactive Power Compensators

Flexibale AC Transmission systems FACTs
( ).
192 - ( )

192
 193
:
194 ( )

8
8.1
.
.
- -
30 kV/cm
.
.

:
-1
-2 .
-3 .
-4 ( . )..............
-5 .
-6 ( )

Tower Pylons
(
) .

50
( 370 ) .

( 221 )
.

194
 195
:

Tower Year Country Town Pinnacle Remarks

Zhoushan
Island Tallest
2009
Overhead China Damao Island 370 m pylons in
2010
Powerline the world
Tie

Tallest
Nanjing
reinforced
Yangtze
1992 China Nanjing 257 m concrete
River
pylons in
Crossing
the world

HVDC Tallest
Yangtze electricity
River 2003 China Wuhu 229 m pylons
Crossing used
Wuhu for HVDC

Tallest
Elbe 1976 electricity
Germany Stade 227 m
Crossing 2 1978 pylons in
Europe

Tallest
Chushi
electricity
Powerline 1962 Japan Takehara 226 m
pylons in
Crossing
Japan

Overhead
line crossing 1998 Egypt 221 m
Suez Canal

Bosporus
overhead
1999 Turkey Istanbul 160 m
line crossing
III
196 ) (

Tower Year Country Town Pinnacle Remarks

One pylon
Pylons of
standing on
Ghesm 1984 Iran Strait of Ghesm 130 m
a caisson
Crossing
in the sea

World's first
Carquinez
powerline
Strait United
1901 Benicia 68 m + 20 m crossing of
Powerline States
a larger
Crossing
waterway

8.1.1

:) 1-8 (

. Tower -1
insulators -2
-3

:
Shield condctors Earthing Line
Dampers
Bundel Conductors Spacer
. Guarding Rings

196
 197
:

Figure 8-1

(
).

.
.
Simulation
( ) Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance
Parameters
Ferrenti Effect Arcting Ground .
198 ( )

8.2
( ) three phases
.
.
:

-1
-2
-3 Right of Way
-4

8.2.1

55 15 ( )
.

CLEARANCE ABOVE GROUNDS:

(Clause 77 of Indian Electricity Rules)--m.

33 KV -------------------------------------------5.100
66 KV ------------------------------------------ 5.490
132 KV----------------------------------------- 6.100
220 KV ---------------------------------------- 7.015
400 KV----------------------------------------- 8.840

Sag .
. 1-8 Formulas
:

198
 199
:

Table 8-1

8.2.2

) (Span
. ) (



.

100 500
.
.

Right of Way 8.2.3

Right of Way ( -8
. )2
.
200 ( )

Figure 8-2 Right of Way

.3-8

Figure 8-3

( 4-8 )
500
( .
) .

200
 201
:

Figure 8-4

.
10
Step Voltage .

.5-8

Figure 8-5

8.2.4

( 6-8 .) 7-8
.
202 ( )

Figure 8-7 Figure 8-6

400
8-8 15 T 1T
60 .

Figure 8-8

7kV/m .0.3kV/m

100
10 100

10 .

202
 203
:

( )
.

8.3 :
.Galvanized Steel


.

: Suspension Towers 8.3.1

% 80 .
. ( )9-8

.

. .

Figure 8-9
204 ( )

: Tension Towers 8.3.2

.
( )10-8

.

-


.
Figure 8-10

: Transposition Towers 8.3.3

( )11-8
Inductance Capacitance

Inductance and Capacitance

Phase Indactance
Phase Phase-
A .

150
50 . Phase-R
150 .
.

204
 205
:

Figure 8-11

8.4 :
.

250
". " Span
. % 99.5

.

206 ( )

:
.1 .
.2 .
.3 .
.4 .
.5 .
.6 .
.7 .

8.4.1

-1Conductivity :

.

-2 Mechanical Strength :

.

-3 Modulus of Elasticity :

.

-4 Heat expansion coefficient :

40 50


.

206
 207
:

-5Cost :

.

%60
.
.

8.5

( : ) Stranded Conductors 8.5.1

( )12-8
.

Figure 8-12 ACSR

skin effect
208 ( )

.


.

:

.
Electric Field
.

:
Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR),
All-Aluminum Conductor (AAC),
All-Aluminum Alloy Conductor (AAAC),
Aluminum Conductor Steel Supported (ACSS),
Aluminum Aonductor Composite Core (ACCC),
Aluminum Conductor Composite Reinforced (ACCR), and

8.5.2

All Aluminum Conductor, AAC

.

: 8.5.3

Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced ACSR

13-8
. 7 / 30
30 ( ) 7
.

208
 209
:

Figure 8-13 ACSR

8.5.4

All Aluminum Alloy Conductor , AAAC :

AAC ACSR

.
.

8.5.5

Aluminum Conductor Alloy Reinforced ACAR : ACSR

.

: 8.5.6

Aluminum Alloy Conductor Steel Reinforced AACSR ACSR

.
210 ( )

8.5.7

() 1 ( ) Moose or Zebra
2 Panther
14-8
. .

Figure 8-14

8.6 ACCESSORIES

Dampers ( )spacers
.Bundles Conductors

8.6.1

Bundle Conductors 15-8

.

Figure 8-15 Bundle conductors

210
 211
:

Spacer .16-8
.

Figure 8-16 Spacer

Dampers 8.6.2

( ) Stockbridge dampers 17-8

Figure 8-17 Dampers

18-8 6 11
( ) 12
. .

Figure 8-18 Damper in detailed

212 ( )

spiral vibration damper

.19-8 .

Figure 8-19 Spiral Damper

8.6.3

20-8

.
LEDs Flashing 60.

Figure 8-20 Warning Ball and Falsh

50
.

212
 213
:
214 ( )

9
Insulators


.

. Disc Insulators
.
.
Discs .
1-9 ( ( .

Table 9-1

. .

214
 215
:

9.1 :
:
-1 : ()
.

.

-2 :
.

9.2 :

9.2.1

Cap &Pin type insulator ( -9

1 )2 .

500 .

( )1-9 .

Figure 9-1 Cap and Pin

216 ( )

Figure 9-2 Cap and Pin

9.2.2

Long rod type insulator ( )3-9

Bushings .

Figure 9-3 Long Rod Insulator

Pin type ( )4-9 33

. .
11 .
.
.

216
 217
:

Figure 9-4 Pin Type Insulator

:




Equi-Potential lines
( )5-9
.
.
Figure 9-5

9.3 :

: Porcelain: 9.3.1

.

60kV/cm Compressive Strength
5,000 Kg / cm2 Tensile Strength .500 Kg / cm2

Cap &Pin Type Long rod Type .

218 ( )

Glasses: 9.3.2

( )6-9 .140 kV/cm

(
Compressive Strength 10,000 Kg / cm2 Tensile
Strength )500 Kg / cm2 .

Figure 9-6

( ) .
. & Cap
pin.

.

rubber : 9.3.3

()
.
( ( )7-9
) .

218
 219
:

( )30
. .
Long rod.

Figure 9-7

9.4 :

-1 : ()
.

-2 :Breakdown :

.1
( . . . )
.2 Switching.
.3 Leakage Current .

9.4.1

Flashover

.
220 ( )

Flashover 9.4.2

(
) .

Flashover
Over-voltages 150 % .

. Flashover
Short circuit
.
Flash over
.

8-9 Flashover
D+B+C A+B+C .
Creepage distance Clearance Distance .

Figure 9-8

Creepage Distance . 9.4.3

220
 221
:

( )
Clearance Distance
arc ( 9-9
) .

Figure 9-9

2-9 .
222 ( )

Table 9-2

222
 223
:

9.4.4

. .

( ) .

.

.10-9

Figure 9-10
224 ( )

9.5
Over Voltage
(
) .
Over Voltage . :

-1
-2 CB Switching
-3
-4 Open Circuit Ferro Resonance
-5 Ferranti Effect

( )
TL Parameters
.

9.5.1

Surge
Rod Gap 11-9
Gap
Gap . Gap
.

Figure 9-11 Rod Gap

224
 225
:

9.6
Partial Discharge

( ) .

electric field
disruptive potential gradient ( 30 kV/cm

)
a conductive plasma .
.

kV/cm .

.
( / / )
.

( ) Partial Discharge
CB


.

( 12-9
Partial Discharge
.Breakdown
226 ( )

Figure 9-12 corona

Corona Losses.

Radio Interference.

: 9.6.1

:
.
: .

.
: .
:
( )
.

226
 227
:

: 9.6.2

-1
(


) .
bundled
conductors Phase
short circuit
Figure 9-13 Bundle Conductors
( )13-9
.
-2
.
-3

Voltage Gradient
rounded rather than sharp edges Spacers
( ).
-4 .

-5 Corona Rings



.

( )14-9 Lightening Arrestor

CB
Voltage gradient , kV/cm
.
228 ( )

Figure 9-14 Partial Flashover on corona rings

. Gradient, kV/cm
.

9.7 :

Disc String
500
20 25 kV/disc
.15-9
Series Capacitors
.
Disc
Shunt
Capacitors, C1 .15-9

228
 229
:

Figure 9-15

.

Disc

Flashover .

9.7.1

String Efficiency
String
.

: n

=

230 ( )

Flashover Voltage 78 5 1015
Flashover Voltage
685 490 280 ( )
4 7 9 .

.

:
:

][S.O.V. = Spark-over Voltage

No. in S.O.V., String Effic., S.O.V., String Effic.,

)series. Dry (kV.). Dry. (Per cent.) Wet (kV.). Wet. (Per cent.

1 75 100 48 100

2 140 93.4 90 92

3 195 86.7 128 89

4 245 81.8 166 86.5

5 295 78.8 205 85.5

6 345 76.7 245 85.1

7 395 75.4 280 83.4

8 445 74.2 320 83.4

9 490 72.8 355 82.2

10 535 71.4 385 80.3

230
 231
:

9.7.2

Shunt Capacitors
.

16-9 Guard
Rings 17-9
Shunt Capacitors .
232 ( )

Figure 9-16 guad ring

Figure 9-17

232
 233
:

Insulation Coordination 9.7.3

Capacitance
Self Capacitance
Self Capacitance

. . Insulation Coordination
234 ( )

234
 235
:
236
( )

10
TL Parameters

10.1

Voltage Regulation
Transmission Efficiency Short circuit analysis .
. Parameters

R
Inductance, L
Impedance, Z Capacitance, C
Conductance . Admittance, Y

R, L and Z (Y) :
.

10.2

(I2R loss).
Sag

thermal limit of conductor
.

236
 237
:

=

is the resistivity of the conductor.

ACSR
%2
.

Skin Effect
RAC RDC

Skin Effect 10.2.1

( )1-10




Flux Linkage
Inductance
Figure 10-1 Flux Linkage

.
238
( )

Skin Effect 10.2.2

-1 : Inductive reactance
XL

-2 : ( )
( ) XL
.

Bundle Conductors 10.2.3

Bundle Conductors
( )
Skin Effect
. Bundle

10.3

Inductance
Inductance, L Coils
. Inductance

Inductance , L 10.3.1

Inductance, L
Inductive Reactance, XL XL = L
. R AC Current . XL

emf
XL
( R )
XL .

238
 239
:

Inductance .

Self Inductance .
. L = /I1 Inductance
Mutual Inductance , M = /I2 . 2-10
.
Inductance, L ()
Phase Phases
Inductance L
.

L Self Inductance
Mutual Inductance Henery, H .

Figure 10-2 Self and Mutual Inductance

Inductance
240
( )

Indactance
.

: Indactance = 1 :
1 Ind
. Ind
Capacitance .

:


Inductance :

1
= 2
2

W Ind Henery, H

Inductance 10.3.2

P
V1 and V2 . 3-10

Figure 10-3

. V2 and V1
X 12
Power Angle Transfer Power Capacity :

240
 241
:

4-10


90

90


.
Figure 10-4 Stability margin

:

-1
Power Losses


-2
Stability limit 90 .
-3 X
X Bundle conductors
.
FACTs . X

10.3.3

X
:
Lossless
.

.Thermal Stability
242
( )

( )I2 R t

Stability limit X
Thermal Limit . 5-10
( P12 ( . Surge Impeadance Load
SIL ).

Figure 10-5

Inductance 10.3.4

. Active Power, P
.

Reactive Power, Q
(
) .

( . ).

Phase Angles VSend VReciving

242
 243
:

( 90 )
Phase angle
( ).

Inductance

Voltage drop
.

10.4 CAPACITANCE

Inductance

( ) Q
Q = CV
Q V
Capacitance, C

Permability o .

r 7 8 .

.
244
( )

Capacitance

0.0121
= /

log10

Self Capacitance
Two Phases Phase
Stay Capacitance
Stray Current . Capacitive Currents

Capacitance
.
(

.

244
 245
:

) W (Joule
:

W = 0.5 CV2

. Admittance, Y

Admittance, Y 10.4.1

Z
Z
Admittance mho siemens

or

where
Y is the admittance, measured in siemens (1/ohm).
G is the conductance, measured in siemens. Real part of admittance Y.
B is the susceptance , , measured in siemens , Imaginary part of admittance Y.

10.5

:

: 10.5.1

Short TL 80 Lumped
Parameters R + j X 6-10 R
246
( )

X
.

Figure 10-6 Short TL

( )R and L (
).

246
 247
:

10.5.2

Medium TL 80 160 :
-1 Pi-Section T-Section Capacitance
T-model .7-10

Figure 10-7 T-modle for Medium length TL

-2 ( )
. 8-10

Figure 10-8 Pi-Modle

))R and L and C

248
( )

248
 249
:

: 10.5.3

Long TL 160 Distributed parameters

.9-10

Figure 10-9
250
( )

Series Impedance, Z and Shunt Admittance,Y -10
.9

Integration

Differential Equation
- Sinh and Cosh Sin and Cos -
(
Supply End (VS, IS Z, Y ( Receiving End, (IR, VR
:

250
 251
:
252
( )

10.6 CAPACITANCE

:
Ferranti Effect
Over Voltages
Arcing Ground
Stray Currents

Ferranti Effect 10.6.1

. Stray Capacitance

Sir S.Z. Ferranti, in the year 1890

Ferranti Effect

252
 253
:

) Leading Voltage 90
.10-10

Figure 10-10 Ferranti Effect

Voltage drops
Inductance .10-10 VS VR Ferranti
. Effect
Stray Capacitance.

( Inductance
).

Capacitance .

10.6.2

Healthy Phases
Faulty Phase . 11-10

Figure 10-11
254
( )

Phase Voltage Phasor Diagram
12-10
.

Figure 10-12

Healthy Phases
11-10
( Phase Voltage -10
)13 Phase-a . .

Other two phases

Line voltage
( )Vbn = Vb-Vn = Vb (-Va) = Bba = Vline
Phases
Figure 10-13 .

14-10 N G Phase-A
VA- VG .

254
 255
:

Figure 10-14

.Arcing Ground

Arcing Ground 10.6.3

( )
phase closed circuit
capacitance 11-10 .

Healthy Phases

.

system floating

CB
.
256
( )

5 .

over voltage



.

Phases.

256
 257
:
258
( )

11
Reactive Power Compensators

Static VAR
Compensators

Reactive Power
Q
Powe factor
P-Q curve 9-11
. STATCOM

11.1

( ).

11.1.1

( )..
:
-1 ) (ACTIVE POWER ) (kW
) (R (
) .

258
 259
:

-2 ) (REACTIVE POWER ) (KVAR

.

-3 (S) Apparent Power

) (KVA .1-11

Figure 11-1

electric load
Multi-meter
Apparent
Power VA

P Q .Power Factor

Power Factor 11.1.2

P Q Power Angle Cos

) (P ) (S
. POWER FACTOR

Q
. Q

260
( )

S . PF
2-11
90
.

Figure 11-2

( ( 1000kVA
) (P.F=0.8
) (P=0.8X1000=800 KW .

) (P.F=0.5
(P=500KW).

11.2 REACTIVE POWER

Active Power
. Real Power
Resistive Loads In-phase 3-11
( )P = VxI .

260
 261
:

Figure 11-3

Active
.

Phase Shift 90 ( Lead
Lag ).

Phase Shift
.4-11
. 5-11
/
. P
.
262
( )

Figure 11-4 Figure 11-5

P

Reactive Power, Q
( )
Voltage drop

(
).

Q
Active Power, P Q
11-4 11-5
.

Coils
Q
P Q . 6-11
.

262
 263
:

Figure 11-6

11.2.1

( ) P (
) Q ( . )7-11
Q (
)
.

Figure 11-7
264
( )

. 8-11


(
)
.
Figure 11-8

Reactive Power 11.2.2

Q .

: Synchronous Generators
Q
.
Q Over Excited
Q ( . Under excited )9-11
/ Q Loaded
Surge Impedance Load, SIL Q SIL
. :

264
 265
:

Figure 11-9 Generator P-Q curve with different PF

11.3 SURGE IMPEDANCE LOADING, SIL

Reactive Power Self Capacitance
Q

2
= )(

Reactive Power
Self Inductance . 2

) Q (used) = Q (Supplied
2
2
=

266
( )

2
= 2

= = Surge Impedance=Zo

) Q (used) = Q (Supplied Zo
C/C Impedance 600 - 400 60-40
.

Pure resistance
C/C Impedance
.

3 SIL

|V| in kVs

SIL 11.3.1

SIL
L and C .SIL

. 10-11
SIL Shunt Capacitor Q
SIL Shunt Reactor .

266
 267
:

10-11 SIL = 450MW 450 MW

Q (
) .

Figure 11-10 Power Limits according to SIL

C/C Impedance 400
110 kV SIL = 30MW Operator
SIL .

11.3.2

Receiving end

.
X1 reactance of the transmission line

Reactive Power :
268
( )

Qr = Q1 (Demand) - Q2 (supplied).

3:

) Q2 (supplied) = Q1 (Demand Vs = Vr :
.

) Q1 (Demand) < Q2 (supplied Vs > Vr :

.

) Q1 (Demand) > Q2 (supplied Vs < Vr :

Shunt
Reactors .

11-11 Q .

268
 269
:

Figure 11-11

2014 9635 800
220 %92
. %94

11.4
Q
Q
.
Q S = P .

Flexible AC Transmission System, FACTs

()
high Power SCR
270
( )

X Phase Angle
.

P Q 11.4.1

12-11

Figure 11-12

:
-1 ( )
-2 QR << QS
-3 Q X/R
" " Big Sink Q I2 X
.

-4
.

270
 271
:

: 11.4.2

-1
.
.
-2 .
Phase Shifting .
-3

Parameters
Phase Angle
//
Facts
Flexible Ac Transmission Systems .

11.4.3

-1 :
Generator Synchronous .1
Synchronous Motors .2
Shunt Reactors .3
Series Capacitors .4
Shunt Capacitors .5

- -2 FACTs:
Static VAR Compensator, SVC .6
Static Synchronous Compensator, STATCOM .7
Static Synchronous Series Compensator, SSSC .8
Unified Power Flow Controller, UPFC .9
272
( )

- - :

-1
-2 Phase angle
-3

:
" " . Reactive Power Compensators

( 1 )5 ( 6 )9
.

11.5

: 11.5.1

Field
Field

circle diagram

: Over-Excited Synchronous Motor 11.5.2

Synchrounous Motors . Unloaded

% 20-10
.

Synchronous :
: P

272
 273
:

VAR
Shunt Cap/Ind CBs
Contactors / .

P Q
. P and Q

: Shunt Reactors 11.5.3

Reactors
Reactive Capacitive
Shunt
Reactors
CBs
( Shunt Reactors
)13-11 .
.

Figure 11-13 Shunt Reactors

: Series Capacitors 11.5.4

( )14-11 X
.

.
274
( )

Shunt
Reactors .
Resonance .

Figure 11-14 Series Compensation

: Shunt Capacitors 11.5.5

( )15-11
. 17-11
Switching
.16-11

Figure 11-15 Capacitors

( )

Q
.

274
 275
:

Figure 11-16

Figure 11-17

11.6 : FACTS

Capacitive/ Inductive Reactive Power
Q
SCR Control Circuits Switched Capacitors
.

FACTs .
:
276
( )

Static VAR Compensators, SVC 11.6.1

Facts Shunt Capacitors

Inductors
.
SVC :

1- Thyristor-Controlled Reactors (TCR).

2- Thyristor-Switched Capacitors (TSC).
3- Thyristor-Switched Reactors (TSR).
. 18-11

Figure 11-18 SVC

Reactance . SCR

SVC
SCR .

19-11 .

276
 277
:

Figure 11-19 HV Capacitors

:SVC

-1
-2 CB
-3 Thyristor Switched Capacitor, TSC
Thyristor Controlled Reactor, TCR
-4 X ( ) Flexible

:

Inductors
Capacitive .
278
( )

Figure 11-20 : SVC 250 MVAR in Brazil

: STATCOM 11.6.2

Static Synchronous Compensator SVC

Inverters Gate Turn Off , GTO
Reactors
.

Inverter (
) Phase angle 90 Lead 90
Lag 21-11 Capacitive or Inductive
. STATCOM
( %12
SVC
) Inverter

278
 279
:

Figure 11-21 STATCOM

Capacitive Reactive Power

.

: Static Synchronous Series Compensators 11.6.3

SSSC STATCOM
( )22-11 X
/ .
Series Capacitors .

Figure 11-22 SSSC

280
( )

Unified Power Flow Controllers 11.6.4

( )23-11
.

Figure 11-23 UPFC

280


)(Substations
 ( )

12
12.1

.
. Substations

( )
.

Step Up S/S
( ) Step Up S/S
.
.
.

500/220 kV (
500 220 ) Transmission
Substations -
.

Distribution Substations

.

Distribution Substations

.1-12
284
( )

Figure 12-1

Transmission S/S 12.1.1

500 kV
220 kV
.
( )Transmission substations
.

Phase Shifting Transformers Power

Flow . :

12 Power Angle Phase Shifting
. Transformers .

284
 285
:

12.1.2

" " 500

( )7-1
500/220 kV 500 :
500

220 -6 ( )
500 kV 220 kV
.

66
( )2-12 66
.
286
( )

Figure 12-2

66

3-12 132 ARDY C

ARDY E ARDY AW SBNR C
132 kV
.

286
 287
:

Figure 12-3

132

( )4-12
66kV
11kV 66/11kV
30 ( K1 ) K31 Distributors
.
288
( )

Figure 12-4

12.1.3

-1 .

-2 ( Losses )
.

-3
( )
.
.

288
 289
:

-4

.

.
.

-1 Transformer Tap Changer

Voltage Regulators Capacitors or Inductors
FACTs
.
- Facts:
: .

-2


.
.
: .

12.1.4

( ):

Air Insulated Substation, AIS

Gas Insulated Substation, GIS
290
( )

( ) SF6 / ()
.
.

( ) :

66/220/500. .
0.4/22. 0.4/11. .

)(outdoor type
)(intdoor type

) (control & protection Equipment ).(Control Building

) (Busbar:
1. )(Single Bus-Bar
2. )(Single Bus-Bar with Sectionalizer
3. )(Double Bus-Bar with Single Circuit Breaker
4. )(Double Bus-Bar with Double Circuit Breaker
5. )(Breaker and half with Two Main Buses
6. )(Main and Transfer Bus-Bar
7. )(Mesh or Ring Scheme
.

290
 291
:

12.2

( ) :

-1 H. V. Switchgear

-2 Power Transformer

-3 M. V. Switchgear

-4 ( DC )DC

-5 Control system

-6 .

-7 .

-8

: 12.2.1

( AIS ) HV
Switchyard HV-BB

( ) Elements
HV Switchgear :
Lighting Arrestor, HVCB, VT, CT, Isolators, Earthing Switches, etc
HV-BB .

GIS High Voltage

Switchgear
AIS Bay
( . Bay
BB )
292
( )

( ).

: 12.2.2

.
:
.

: 12.2.3

Incomming Cells
MV-BB .

MV-BB Single/Double BB
Outging cells MV- BB
( /).

( ) .

: DC 12.2.4

.
DC Voltage :

.1 ( )
.2

. :

.a Control circuits
220 110
.
.b 110 48.

292
 293
:

: 12.2.5

( . )16
( ) 22 .

: 12.2.6

Load
Dispatch Center Inter Trip
Tele
.Protection

: . 12.2.7

Fire Fighting, FF
Compressor .

() ( )
. 5-12 220/66/11
kV

: 12.2.8

.
294
( )

Figure 12-5 Substation Plan

294
 295
:

12.3

. / / :

() step up or step down transformers

Bus Bar arrangement

()Isolators and grounding switch

)Instrument transformers (CT & VT

)Protection transformers (CT & VT
Circuit Breaker
Lightning arrestors
Power transformers
Protective relaying schemes
Voltage regulating equipment

Control System
Earthing System
Illumination System
Fire Protection system Fire Alarm and
Communication Systems
Auxiliary supply
( ) Interlocks
( DC Supplu )

:
1- Primary System Characteristics
Local Utility
Nominal Voltage
296
( )

Maximum Operating Voltage

System Frequency
System Grounding
System Impedance Data

2- Secondary System Characteristics

Nominal Voltage
Maximum Operating Voltage
System Grounding

:
3- Insulation Requirements
(Basic Insulation Level) , BIL
Insulator and Bushing Creep
Minimum Clearances
Phase Spacing

Impulse voltage
// /
( )
( .
Surge Voltages
.

:
Short-Circuit Studies
Protective Device Coordination
Arc-Flash Risk Assessment
Motor Starting

296
 297
:

Transient Stability
Insulation Coordination
Harmonic Analysis

Manned or Unmanned
Fault Recording
Local & Remote Control
Automation
Communication Protocol

12.4

( )13 ()
( )
. ( ) (
).
( )14
.
( )15 .
( )16 (
) DC ( ) ()
( ).
 ( )
 299
:

13
Elements/Equipment (
) Single Line Diagram, SLD .

SLD

. SLDs .

13.1

1-13 11/66 / 66
11 /66 30
.

SLD

.SLD

Incoming/Outgoing Feeders

Incomming
Outgoing
.
300
( )

Figure 13-1

66kV
( )
( )

.

2-13 .SLD

300
 301
:

66
.

Figure 13-2
302
( )

SLD :

Busbar, A and B -1 66.

Potential Transformers .

Earth Switches .

Busbar Isolators QL1 and QL2 -2

Earth Switches QE1 -3

)Circuit Breaker (QF -4

)Current Transformer (C.T -5

Earth Switches QE2 -6

) Potential Transformer ( P.T -7

Earth Switches QE3 -8

Wave Trap -9

Surge Arrestor -10

3-13 Equipment
/ .

302
 303
:

Figure 13-3 AIS

. . GIS
304
( )

AIS
() :

13.2 SURGE ARRESTOR

Overhead
Transmission line
. SLD




Surge Arrestor
(Lightning Arrestor, LA) .


Impulse
( Voltgaes )

.

4-13 .

Figure 13-4 LA

5-13 .
( )normal operationg region ( lightening
)surge region

5-13 .

304
 305
:

Figure 13-5 Charactristic of LA

:
Conventional Gapped Arrester (Valve Type Arrester) -1
Metal-Oxide (ZnO) Arrester -2

(Valve Type Arrester) : 13.2.1

Non Linear
Resistor Element Spark Gap
.6-13

Non-linear Resistance
.

Gap Unit Gap

Arrestor .

Figure 13-6 Valve Type LA

Gap .
306
( )

Metal-Oxide Arresters
.

Metal-Oxide (ZnO) Arrester : 13.2.2

Non-linear Resistance
Silicon-Carbide Metal-Oxide Non-linearity
characteristics . Series Gap
breakdown spark gaps
breakdown voltage spark gaps
.

( )Zinc Oxide
.arrestor

7-13

.LA

(
)


Figure 13-7 .

.

SS
.

LA

( ) (
) LA .8-13

306
 307
:

Figure 13-8
308
( )

13.3 ISOLATORS

Isolator Disconnecting Switch

CB
CB . BB

QLine
BB 9-13 ( ) QL1 and QL2
BB Earthing Switch
QE2 and QE3
. Earthing Switch

Figure 13-9

. CB

short circuit current

.CB

308
 309
:

Isolators .

Isolator CB ) (Interlock

CB Isolator Isolator CB
Isolator
CB CB
CB .

(
) :
Vertical Break
Double End Break
Center Break
Double End Break Vee Type

Vertical Break

.10-13
500 .

Figure 13-10 Vertical Break

Double End Break

( )11-13
310
( )

( ).

vertical switch
.

Figure 13-11 Double end break

Center Break



( .)12-13

( vertical
)break & double end break
" two
"insulator/phase
( three insulator/phase

) .
phase
Figure 13-12 Center break
.

310
 311
:

Double End Break Vee Type

Double End Break
Pantograph Type .Knee Type

13.4 (EARTHING SWITCHES) :

Isolators ( )13-13 QE1 QE2

9-13 ( )
QE3 .

2
.

Figure 13-13

13.5

( ) Feeder : 13.5.1

.1 CB .3-Phases

.2 .

.3 .
312
( )

1 ()
capacitance
.

: 13.5.2

.1 .

.2 .

.3 .

.4 .

13.5.3

.1 .
.2 .
.3 .
.4 .
.5 .
.6 .
.7 .
.8 .
.9 .

. 13.5.4

" " ( ) Feeder " " :

312
 313
:

. CB (
) .
Relay
Autorecloser
.
. ( ) Feeder CB (
) .
.

Realy

.

(
).

13.6 CURRENT TRANSFORMER

1 5
. ( )Classes ( ).

CT .14-13
314
( )

Figure 13-14 CT

) Bushing Current Transformer, (BCT

CT Bushing .

. CB CT
CT () CB CB BB .

. :

Oil Insulated Type -1

SF6 Insulated Type -2

Dry Insulated Type -3

13.7

( 110)
.

)(VAR meter Wattmeter Voltmeter

314
 315
:

)(Protection Equipment

) (Fault Recorder

.

) (Synchronizers
:
Phases and Sequences

.

( )


.

(
Figure 13-15 VT ) 15-13
(
120 )
.

.1 ( Inductive .)I.V.T
VT .15-13

.2 ()C.V.T
.Capacitive VT .16-13

Figure 13-16 CVT

316
( )

CVT EHV .

CVT two capacitors in series

( )16-13
.
.EHV & UHV

CVT:

: .

: Capacitor
Coupling Capacitor Power Line Carrier
PLC
.Tele Protection
.

.
17-13 .

316
 317
:

Figure 13-17

13.8 )(EARTHING TRANSFORMER

) (SOLID EARTHING


.

18-13 SLD

. .
318
( )

Figure 13-18

/
Zero Sequence Impedance



.

( .19-13

).
Ratings

Figure 13-19
.

318
 319
:

13.9 CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Protective
Relay

Relay .

(Moving
) Contact ( )Fixed Contact
. CB .

Contacts ( )

Arc Contacts
( ) ( )
.

Contacts
:

( ) = ( ) MVA () 0.1

( )Short circuit capacity 500 MVA

0.04 sec
500 x 0.04 x 0.1 = 2000 k Joule
.
320
( )

: 13.9.1

: :
Main Contacts
Auxilary Contacts
. 20-13 :

Figure 13-20

( ) ( )2
( .)3 2 3

( )4 ( )5
.Auxilary Contacts

2( Main Contacts )3
.

Auxilary Contacts
( )
.20-13

320
 321
:

13.9.2

.1 ( :)Extinguishing Chamber .

.2 : :

()SF6

.3 ( :)Mechanism
50 ms
.100 ms

: 13.9.3

( Spring Operated C.B ):

. D.C
.

Pneumatic C.B

( 66/220. )
17 ()Compressor
( )Piston
.

Hydraulic C.B
322
( )

( SF6)
. spring .

322
 323
:

13.10

CBs :

. )3.6 - 12( kV Oil C.B

.12 kV Air break C.B
.36 kV Vacuum C.B
. )36-420( kV SF6 C.B
. )245-1000( kV Air blast C.B

13.10.1 Oil CB :

.
.

(
) . -
- ( )
) (Pump .

( )21-13 :
)Bulk Oil C.B (Dead Tank
)Minimum Oil C.B (Live Tank
324
( )

Bulk Oil
( dead tank
. )breakers



.
.22-13

Figure 13-21

Bulk Oil Bushing

21-12
Live Tank .
.

Figure 13-22 Dead Tank

324
 325
:

13.10.2 - : Air Blast CB

Air Compressor

( . )23-13

(
)





Figure 13-23 Air CB
.
.

.
.
.
:

Air Compressor
.
.
326
( )

13.10.3 : ): (Vacuum CB

( )24-13
.

.

Arc chamber


.

33
.

50
180 "
Figure 13-24 VCB
" 10000
. 75 40 60
.

13.10.4 : SF6

)( (SF6 ) :

326
 327
:

2.5


5-3

.

) (SF6
) (SF6 ) (SF6 .
SF6

.

.1 SF6 6 Cable
Ducts .
.
.2
.
SF6 .
3200
.
.3 SF6 CBs SF6

Circuit Breaker .
SF6 40
.
328
( )

: SF6 13.10.5

.1 : 7

.2 6.2 :

.3 5 : Blocking

( )5 Circuit Breaker
Blocked ( )
.
.

SF6 Switch yard

SF6
.

( )
" " .

Dead Tank 26-13

SF6 500 kV Live Tank
.

Figure 13-26 SF6 CB

328
 329
:

: . ( AIS
) Bay GIS
.

( )SF6 :

compressor .

2 2.5 ( )cycles (.)EHV

SF6 Arc (5000 -1500

) . Arc

25 .

CBs SF6 CBs Vacuum CBs

Contacts faults
"
. "Maintenance free CBs

13.10.6 anti-pumping relay

short
circuit .
.

anti-pumping relay
.
330
( )

13.10.7 :

-1 220/66 kV SF6 66 kV
220 kV
( ) Pole Pool SF6
66 kV 3-Phases .

-2 Short circuit capacity -:

40 KA 220 kV
31.5 KA 66 kV
26.3 KA 11 kV
.

-3
.
Rolling .27-13

Figure 13-27

330
 331
:

: -4

SF6 rated pressure 7 bar

Sf6 pressure first alarm 6.2 bar

Sf6 pressure second alarm 5 bar

Oil rate pressure 336 bar

Oil low pressure 316 bar

Oil locking pressure 264 bar

Oil locking trip 250 bar

Disconnectors & Earth switches

SF6 rate pressure 4 bar

Sf6 low pressure first alarm 3.2bar

SF6 locking pressure second alarm 3 bar

: Circuit Breakers 13.10.8

: CB
Rated Voltage -1
. System Voltage
: ) kV (
3.6 7.2 12 17.5 24 36 52 72.5 100 123 145
170 245 300 362 420 550 800

Rated Normal Current -2

R.M.S Current
.
According to IEC60059 the standard values of rated normal currents
are:
630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500 3150 4000 A
332
( )

Rated Short Circuit Breaking Current (Isc) -3

short circuit
( . .) IBreaking

Rated Short Circuit Making Current (Im) -4

( )Imaking short circuit
Short Circuit .
Imaking = 2.55 IBreaking :

Rated short circuit current -5

3 .

Restiking Voltage
( )28
.

13.11

. :

13.11.1

-1 Contacts
.
-2 .
-3 . Charging Limit Switch
-4 .
-5 .
-6

332
 333
:

Operation Tests


.

Mechanical Interlock

Interlock
.

Electrical Interlock

. OFF/ON Local and
Remote. .

13.11.2

.
ON . OFF

Moving and fixed parts

.

500 (
)
Phase R-R 10 .
500

OFF-position
500 .

28-13 .
334
( )

Figure 13-28

13.11.3

- Contacts

phase 11 60-12

33kV . (25-100)

) (
.

29-13 -
100
.

334
 335
:

Figure 13-29

: 13.11.4

.

.

.

:
%80 D.C 60%
D.C
: 100 %
D.C .

13.11.5

. :

O 0.3s CO 3min - CO

O Open

C Close

CO
336
( )

0.3 sec

: 0.3 sec
3 .

336
 337
:

GIS

) (Circuit Breakers ) (Bus-Bars ) (Isolators ) (CT
) (VT ) (SF6 ). (Metal Housing
.

30-13 . GIS
SLD . SF6
SF6- CB .

Figure 13-30 GIS

13.12 GIS

) (H.V switch gear High Voltage Bus Bar :

Bays :

Incoming Bays -1 Switchgear

338
( )

.
Outgoing Bays -2 Switchgear
.

31-13 .

Figure 13-31 GIS outline

13.12.1 Bay

Bay Switchgear Incomming /outgoing

feeders BB CB CT VT
ES DS
32-13 Bay . (
35-13 )
.

338
 339
:

Figure 13-32 GIS Bay

33-13 .
340
( )

Figure 13-33

CT and VT shielding
Induced currents .

34-13 Plan HV Switchgear 66 .

3 / 12 Bays
.

340
 341
:

Figure 13-34 GIS Plan

342
( )

GIS 13.12.2

( ) 35-13 Outdoor
Termination Module

Figure 13-35 Outdoor Termination Module

( )37-13 Cable
Termination Module

Figure 13-37 Cable Termination Module

342
 343
:

Transformer Termination Module 38-13

Figure 13-38 Transformer Termination Module

GIS 13.12.3

SF6

.GIS GIS
GIS .
SF6-to-Air
.Bushing SF6-to-Air Bushing
GIS .SF6
344
( )

.
39-13
.

Figure 13-39 Transformers

( )
).
 345
:

MV Switchgear

BB CBs . 40-13
/
.

( )40-13
( )
.

.

LV BB .

Figure 13-40

.
346
( )

13.13 ( :) AIS

Phases
Phase
. 41-13 .

Figure 13-41 AIS

-1 :Outdoor .

-2 :Indoor
.

.42-13
Figure 13-42 indoor AIS

346
 347
:

43-13

Figure 13-43 Outdoor GIS

13.14 GIS

.
.

) (GIS
GIS %80
.

13.15

13.15.1 :

o GIS
switchgear.
348
( )

o .
o .
o .

13.15.2 :

o ) .(GIS
30 kV/cm
.
.
o

.
o AIS GIS


.

13.15.3 : GIS

o
.
o

Installers
.
o .
o AIS
AIS
AIS breaker 8-4 ( ).
o

348
 349
:

.
.
o ( % 30 ).
o 400 AIS
( )GIS 2
= 199*236 =46765
43*12 = 522 2.
o :44-13

Figure 13-44 AIS vs GIS

): (GIS 13.15.4

SF6
350
( )

13.15.5

GIS
. .
.
.
" " " " .

GIS
( )
GIS . GIS


. GIS AIS % 10 . %40

GIS .

. .GIS

" " " "

SF6
. GIS
.

350
 351
:
 14
Bus Bars
BB
. BB
() (
) .

14.1

:
-1 . Rigid bus
-2 .Strain bus

rigid
.1-14
 353
:

Figure 14-1 Rigid Bus Bar

strain
ACSR Strain type insulators
.2-14
354
( )

Figure 14-2 Strain Bus bar

BB SF6 .3-14

Figure 14-3

)SF6 gas insulating bus-duct (GIB

354
 355
:

): (Rigid Bus 14.1.1

:
-3 .
-4 .
-5 .
-6 .

.
Strain bus
).(strain bus

1-14

Table 14-1

14.2 BB ARRANGEMENTS

BBs :

1-Single BB
2-Double BB
3-Ring System

:
356
( )

Substation : BBs .

BB / /
/
.

BB
.

BB
.

: BB

)1 .
)2 .
)3 .
)4 .
)5
.

356
 357
:

14.3 : SINGLE BUS BAR :

14.3.1

BB
-14
.4
BB .BB

BB

BB .

Figure 14-4 Single BB

14.3.2

sectionalized Single BB
5-14



(
) Sections
.

Figure 14-5 Sectionalized single BB

358
( )

6-14 Single BB with 3-Sections 132 .

Figure 14-6 Sectionalized single BB

.
.

single bus system ( CB

) Bay .Bay

358
 359
:

14.4 : : DOUBLE BUS BAR

Double BB with Single CB -1

Double BB with Double CB -2

Double BB with One and Half CB -3

Double BB ( Main and Transfer) -4

Two-BBs
BB Bus Coupler, BC .

.

Double BB with Single CB : 14.4.1

( )7-14 M-1
M-2 :

Bus Coupler,
BC
CB ( BC
2-BBs )

( M-2

)
M-1
Figure 14-7 Double BB with Single CB
CB BC

BC
360
( )

BB
.

CB
CB
BB
.

) (Isolators
.Bus Coupler

Bus Section Bus Coupler :

Bus Section BB

.

Bus Coupler BB

.

360
 361
:

Double BB with Double CB 14.4.2

( )8-14 CBs .

CB
BB (
) CB
CB.

(
)

2-CBs
. Breaker Failure
Figure 14-8 Double BB with Double CB
362
( )

Double BB with One and Half CB : 14.4.3

( )9-14 2-BB
.
.
.

Figure 14-9 One and Half BB

3-CBs (
Bay ) 9-14 BBs
Main-BB CB
. Tie-Breaker

CBs
(
)

Feeder-8
CBs . Bay11 and Bay12

T1 10-14
CBA 1 and CBA 2
T3
Figure 14-10
S CBA 5

362
 363
:

T2 S 5 6 3 .10-14

CBs
Bay
11-14
CBA 5 S
T1 4
1 T2
4 1 2 T3
4 1 2 3 6 .
.CBA 5

4
.
Figure 14-11

Two-
BBs
12-14 Bus 1
.
BB

(
)

.

Figure 14-12
364
( )

13-14 BB .

Figure 14-13 Seven Bays in a generation station

Main and Transfer 14.4.4

2-BBs ( )14-14
) Main ( BB CB
Bus Coupler ) bus coupler (Bus Tie
BBs
Transfer Bus CB
.

364
 365
:

Figure 14-14-14 Main and Transfer BB

Transfer Bus CB
BC
Double BB with Single CB .

) (Line Circuit Breaker )(Supply

).(Double Bus-Bar with Single Breaker

) (Main Bus ) (Transfer Bus

) (Main Bus Main BB
BB CB
. Disconnecting Switch

( )Main and Transfer & Double BB with Single CB

single BB Bus Coupler, BC
. Single-BB
366
( )

14.5 : RING SYSTEM MESH-SYSTEM

15-14

.
) (Circuits ) (Circuit Breakers .
(Main Bus-
).Bar

CB
Power flow


One and Half



Mesh
System
Figure 14-15 Ring System

One and Half 1.5 CBs
.

Ring System 2-CBs

.

) (Circuit Breakers
).(Fault

) (Voltage Transformer
Directional OC Protection .

. One and
Half Bay .

366
 367
:

14.6

.
:

-1 :

Table 14-2

-2

Table 14-3
 15

( ) .
( )

.

Neutral earthed
(
)

Frames
Cable sheath 1-15
.
Figure 15-1
.
.

15.1

Return Path .
370
( )

( ) 0.5 1 .
5 ( ) . 1-15
.

Table 15-1

Ground
Potentioal Rise
.

15.1.1

.

.
d L
:

8L
R ln
2 L d

h
a a L b h
:
L

370
 371
:

8L2 a 2 a b h h2
R ln 1 2
4 L ah 2a b
2
L 4L

R A
( ) IEEE-80-1986

R


2A 2A

15.2

Cable sheath
Ground
.Potentioal Rise

1
- Remote earth
- .
IF 10 kA 8
Ground Potential Rise, GPR 80 kV
( ) IF x RE . 2-15 :

Figure 15-2 GPR

372
( )

.2-15

6-4
1300 .
.

15.2.1

:
.3-15
Touch
Voltage Potential
Distribution . 2-15

Figure 15 -153

372
 373
:

15.2.2

IB

RB )Foot Resistace) RF
RE

.
10
. Safety Shoes
.

15.2.3

-


4-15


.

Figure 15-4

) (x1 x2
IF Step Voltage
( ) :
374
( )

I f 1 1
Vstep
IF 2 x1 x2

x1

x2

( ) X2 >> X1 .

ground Potential Rise, GPR

.GPR

15.2.4

. 5-15
:

-1 .
-2 Grid .

374
 375
:

Figure 15-5 Grid and Rod Earthing

Surface Potential Distribution

.

15.3

Grid
Meshed Electrodes .

100 100 ( )
( 6-15 11-15) .
.
376
( )

Figure 15 -6 Earthing Grid

Earthing mat 7-15

Meshed Electrodes
Equi-potential
(
).

Figure 15-7 Earthing Mat

8-15
.ETAP

376
 377
:

Figure 15-8

Ground mat 15.3.1

Grounf mat
Ground Grid


(
)9-15 (
)10-15

Figure 15-9 Earthing Mat .

.
Earthing
Rods .

Figure 15-10 External Earthing Mat

378
( )

Earthing Grid 15.3.2

( .)11-15

Figure 15-11 Earthing Grid

12-15
(
).

. Ground mat

Figure 15-3 :
.

Greound Grid .

378
 379
:

15.4

:
Step Voltage and Touch Voltage .

.
) IEEE STD 80 (2000 "Guide for safety in AC substation :
grounding". .

1. Measurements of Soil Resistivity

2. Determine Surface Layer Derating Factor
3. Determine Minimum Earthing Conductor Size
4. Calculate Tolerable Step and Touch Potential
5. Layout Preliminary Substation Grid,
6. Determine Preliminary Resistance of Grounding System
7. Determine Grid Current
8. Determine GPR. If Less than Tolerable Touch Voltage, Done.
9. Otherwise: Calculate Actual Mesh and Step Voltages.
10. If Mesh and Step Voltage are Below Tolerable values, Done.
11. Otherwise: Revise Grid.

15.4.1

Short circuit Study
Protective
Coordination Study
.

Soil Resistivity .
Resistivity ( )
380
( )

: 15.4.2

( Soil Resistivity
)
. Wenner four-pin method
. 2-15 (
).

Table 15-2

Four Electrode method 100-50
(
).

( )
( )
.

380
 381
:

: Surface Layer Derating Factor 15.4.3

5 15
. Touch and Step Voltage
3-15
.
Table 15-3

Cs
Cs
:
382
( )

Where is the surface layer derating factor

)is the soil resistivity (.m

)is the resistivity of the surface layer material (.m

)is the thickness of the surface layer (m

Touch and Step Voltage

Cs
.

382
 383
:

: 15.4.4

melting
( melting
) 3-15
1000
500 800 .

: .
.

IEEE-80 3
.

GPR
.

: IEEE:
384
( )

4-15
For example. commercial hard-drawn copper has material constants:
Tm = 1084 C

r = 0.00381 C - 1

r = 1.78 .cm

TCAP = 3.42 Jcm 3 C - 1.

Tc = duration = 0.5 sec

K0 = 234

= ) (
1973 +

+

d .

( ) = 8.832 I

IEEE-665-1995
( %60 )
.

384
 385
:

.1 .
.2
( )
1000 200
.
.
.3 1202
.4 IGF
. .
386
( )

Table 15-4

.5

386
 387
:

: 15.4.5

Ground Potential Rises GPR
Step Voltage
.Touch Volt

GPR

.
GPR .

(
) .
.

50kg person

70kg person:

50kg person:

70kg person:

Where )is the touch voltage limit (V

)is the step voltage limit (V

388
( )

)is the surface layer derating factor (as calculated in Step 2

)is the soil resistivity (.m
)is the maximum fault clearing time (s
:

) = ( + 2
) = ( + 2

1000 .

Touch volt RFoot RF

2 Step Volt 2 .

: 15.4.6

,
Surface Potential Distribution
. ( )
.

6-3
10 20 .

.13-15



Figure 15-4
.

388
 389
:

: 15.4.7

Where )is the earthing grid resistance with respect to remote earth (
)is the soil resistivitiy (.m

)is the total length of buried conductors (m

)is the total area occupied by the earthing grid (m2

)is the depth of the earthing grid (m

-1 ( )
-2 ( )
-3
-4 ()
-5 ( )1-

.
390
( )

: 15.4.8

. Short Circuit
3-phase short circuit current

Single phase

Sf :Df

( Surface factor, Sf
)
. Sf =1
.

14-15 .
2720 :

875 ( Cable Sheath
) . GPR
.

1121 .11-15
. GPR:
GPR = IG RG
IG .

390
 391
:

Figure 15-5

magnetic coupling
DC component Time Constant
. Decrement factor Df

)is the duration of the fault (s

)is the dc time offset constant (see below

' Df = 1.25
392
( )

: GPR 15.4.9

Where )is the maximum ground potential rise (V

)is the maximum grid current found earlier in Step 7 (A

)is the earthing grid resistance found earlier in Step 6 (

:

GPR < Vstep-4

GPR > Vstep-4
.

GPR .

: 15.4.10

( ) Mesh Voltage

Where :: )is the surface soil resistivity (.m

)is the maximum grid current (A

)is the geometric spacing factor (see below

)is the irregularity factor (see below

)is the effective buried length of the grid (see below

392
 393
:

Where :: )is the soil resistivity (.m

)is the maximum grid current (A
)is the geometric spacing factor (see below
)is the irregularity factor (as derived above in the mesh voltage calculation
is the effective buried length of the grid

. .

ETAP
.

: 15.4.11

(
) . :

-1 .
-2 Current Limitter
-3
-4
394
( )

Example
:

-1 50 90
-2 3.15 kA
-3 0.5 sec
-4 0.15 sec
-5 40
-6 300 .m
-7 3000 .m 10

300 .m.

: Surface Layer Derating Factor

3000 .m 10

( Cs
:

394
 395
:

: :

Tm = 1084 C

r = 0.00381 C - 1

r = 1.78 .cm

TCAP = 3.42 Jcm - 3C - 1.

Tc = duration = 0.5 sec

K0 = 242

Ta = 40 C

= ) (
1973 +
+

100 2 1202
396
( )

70kg person:

70kg person:

is the surface layer derating factor (as calculated in Step 2) = 0.7207

is the surface soil resistivity (.m) 3000
is the maximum shock time (s) = 0.150 s

396
 397
:

90x50 ( 6 7).

60
( 3)

22 .
120

)= 300 (.m
) = 956 (m + 22x3 + 50x7 LT = 90x6
)= 0.6 (m
A = 50 x 90 = 4500 m2
398
( )

( division
) factor is 1 X/R 15 150
Decrement Factor, Df

The decrement factor is then:

IG

IG = Ig Df = 3.15 x 1.14 = 3.559 kA

Df= 1.25

: GPR

398
 399
:

ETAP
1661 1720
.

ETAP 723
728 .

.
 ( )

16
Auxilary System
:

.1 AC Supply DC Supply.

.2 : .

.3 :

.

.4 .

.5 .
402
( )

: Auxilaries

16.1 : AC SYSTEM

) (Auxiliary Transformer + Distribution Board

compressors .
11kV 380 volt Main
Distribution Board .

AC Auxiliary System :

-1 Protection Panels
-2 GIS Control Panels
-3 Buildings Power Distribution Boards
-4 Building HVAC Distribution Board
-5 Building HVAC Lighting Board
MV Switchgear -6
UPS AC Loads -7
-8

402
 ( )

16.2 : DC SYSTEM

). (Chargers + Batteries

(
) ( 110 / 220) (48
).

. 1-16
.

Figure 16-1 Batteries

Battery Charger
.

220V DC :

.a Emergency Lighting
.b Cables Protection Panels
.c Transformer Protection Panels
.d Bus Coupler Protection Panels
.e Bus bar Protection Panels
404
( )

.f Remote Control Panels

.g Incoming Protection Panels
.h Outgoing Protection Panels
11 KV Switchgear .i

:


.
8 .

) Battery Chargers ( : 16.2.1

battery charger (
)2-16:
-1
.
-2 .

( )DC Panel

. () DC Panel
.

Figure 16-2

: 16.2.2

-1 )Floating( : (

).
-2 ( )Equalizing

. ) (high rate
.

404
 405
:

16.2.3

( .
).

16.2.4

:



( sulphation )

%14 .

:
cell ( ) 2.4 - 2.2 - 2
.


60
1.
.

.
406
( )

16.2.5

:
cell 1.2


.

: 16.2.6

%14 :

(
) .

406
 407
:

: 16.2.7

-1
( )
-2

-3
-4

: 16.2.8

-1
. .

.
-2
.

-3 :
-
.

- .

- .
408
( )

. :

.
Distribution Control Center, DCC
. Substation Automation System, SAS .

: 3-16

SLD (
) ( 132
) BB Double
. BB

Figure 16-3

408
 409
:

( )4-16
( . 11kV 2005
)

Figure 16-4

Contactors Bush Button

.
Feeder (

)
/ .
. .

/ .
.
410
( )

)(Substation Automation System

(
Pushbuttons Contactors )
. Substation Automation
).Systems (SAS

SAS
).Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System (SCADA

SAS

. 5-16 (
)

Figure 16-5

410
 411
:

.SAS

SAS 16.2.9

( SAS )6-16 :

Bay Control Intelligent Electronic

).Device (IED
Bay Protection Intelligent Electronic Device
Software Electrical Interlocking .
Human
).Machine Interface (HMI
HMI )Operators Workstation (OWS Engineering
).Workstation (EWS
) (Ethernet Redundant Local Area Network
) .(LAN LAN Ethernet Switches, Routers, Gateways, Optical-Fiber
.Cables, and Modems
Terminal devices .
) Global Positioning System (GPS
.
) Sequential Event Recorder (SER
.
.
Annunciation
.
) Transient Fault Recorder (TFR
.
.
SAS .SCADA
412
( )

Figure 16-16-6 SAS

7-16 .SAS

Figure 16-7 SAS

412
 413
:

16.2.10

( - - )
:

-1
-2
-3

Remote Terminal Unit RTU

RTU
field contact
contact & transducer
.

IED

.
.

AIS GIS

( ) (
).

(Auxiliary
) contacts ( )
Contacts ) (Interlock
Contacts .
Contacts

.
414
( )

. .

:

:


.

SAS
.IEDs

.

414
 415
:

16.2.11 SAS

SAS :

OFF Mode

Emergency Mode

.
.SAS

Local (BCU) Mode

Bay Control Intelligent Electronic

).Device (IED

Remote (Station Level) Mode

Operators Workstations
) (OWS ) .Engineering Workstations (EWS
OWS EWS ( )LAN Bay Control Intelligent
) Electronic Device (IED
.

Remote (Supervisory Level) Mode

SCADA
. OWS EWS
( )WAN and LAN Bay Control Intelligent Electronic Device
.)(IED 8-16 .SAS
416
( )

Energy Control Center

SCADA Control

Control Room

HMI Control

Local Supervisory

Local Control Panel

Conventional Control
)(PBs, Switches, etc.

Bay Control Unit

Control

Off

Local Emergency

Remote

Figure 16-8

SAS

SAS
) (IEC
SAS .IEC-61850

416
 417
:

Protective Schemes

Reactors.

CT and VT .
.9-16

Figure 16-9 Digital Relays

( )7-16
( )8-16
. .
418
) (

16.2.12
The F35 feeder protection system provides feeder protection, control, monitoring and
metering in an integrated, economical, and compact package.

Figure 16-7 Feeder Protective Scheme

418
 419
:

16.2.13
The T60 transformer protection system is a comprehensive three-phase transformer
relay designed to protect medium and large power transformers.

Dual-slope, dual-breakpoint Loss-of-life, aging factor, hottest

differential restraint characteristic, spot
restrained and unrestrained differential
Five zones backup distance
2nd harmonic inrush and protection with power swing
overexcitation inhibit detection and load encroachment
function
Transformer overexcitation protection
Synchrocheck, ROCOF, over and
Restricted ground fault
under frequency

Figure 16-8 Transformer Protective Scheme

420
( )

Load Dispatch
Center, LDC .

PLC : 16.2.14

Power Line Carrier, PLC

PLC RTU
) (Digital Modem )(Analog
) ( Voice Frequency, VF
(Intermidiate PLC
) Frequency, IF ) (HF
.

Power Amplifier
( 500. 220. )

( 50) ( 20 500) .

LDC
Wave Trap
PLC
) (HF ) (IF ) (VF
Modem Analog Digital
TCI .

420
 421
:

.
.

16.2.15 Line Trap

Inductor 2000 Inductance 0.1-
2 mH

50

.Receiver .9-16
.

()

4 11
Figure 16-10 Wave Traps

.

) (RLC circuits Resonance Frequncy Line

Trap
50 Hz

Hz 50-

Coupling

Figure 16-11
Capacitor

422
( )

Line Tuner .10-16

16.2.16 Pilot Cable :

.LDC
Modem RTU
Analog Pilot Cable Modem
Analog Digital Tag Control Information, TCI

16.2.17 Fiber Optic , FO :

.
) (FO RTU Analog

Digital Analog TCI .

16.2.18 Wireless :

-1Towers :

.
Line of Sight
. . Repeaters

-2 Repeater .
( )
.
( )6

422
 423
:

. AC DC
.

.
424
( )

.
(
)11-16 .

() .

Figure 16-12
16.3

16.3.1

-1 ) (
) ) 10 %
.
.

424
 425
:

-2
.

16.4 :

.
:

.
.

( )sprinklers valves ( )deluge valves
( ) CO2/
.12-16
426
( )

.

.

Figure 16-13 :

) ) sprinklers valves ( . ) Deluge valves

) (sensors
.

16.4.1

( )


.

426
 427
:

5%

.

16.5

16.5.1

Sprinklers .
.

()

.
.
428
( )

16.5.2

.


.
CO2

2 .

13-16
Figure 16-14

.

CO2
( ) .

( 24-1)
.
.

16.5.3

.
,
.

428
 429
:

,
.

: 16.5.4

( )14-16




.

.

Figure 16-15 .

(
15-10 )
).
 ( )
 431
:

)(DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
 - ()

17
17.1
" " .
3.3 kV - 6.6 kV - 11 kV - 22 kV - 33 kV :
400 220.

(PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION
66/11 ( )
. :

()
.


RMU

.

. .

.
 433
:

: 17.1.1

C.B switches . feeders

Electric Saftey .

.
Power Losses
Voltgae profile .Voltage Drop
( )

.
distributed generators DGs cross connection, CCs
( CC ( )feeders
feeder fault feeder) .
.
.
( Reliability Index
) .

.



.

:

:

434 ( )

: Load Stduies 17.1.2

Load Estimation
Load Forcasting
Load Charactraristics

:
.
. ( )
. ( ).

Demand Factor ( )
Diversity Factor
( )
.

.

Load Forcasting .1-17

" " load forecasting
.

load forecasting :
1. Short term load forecasting : up to 1 day
2. Medium term load forecasting : from 1 day to 1 year
3. Long term load forecasting : from 1 year to 10 years

434
 435
:

Figure 17-1

: 17.1.3

.
:
Distributors

Ring Main Unit
:
436 ( )

( )
( UPS ATS
) .
( SCADA RTU).

17.1.4

.
. :

Radial / Ring
Over Head/Cables
( /)
11/22 kV
AIS/GIS
CB / Fuse
Bus Duct
BB Single/ Double/etc
Voltage regulators/Capacitors/ Tap changer
Distribted Generation //.

17.1.5

:
Short Circuit Studies
Voltage Drop
Thermal capacity
Relay Coordination
Load flow Study

436
 437
:

Harmonics Studis

ETAP EasyPower
( .
.

17.2 OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES

.

) (Feeders .

( )Feeders ( )Losses
( )Reliability ( )voltage drop
.

Loss
Optimization

.Optimization

17.2.1

Objective Functions Objective Function
Stability Margin
. .Single Objective Function
Multi-Objective Functions

Stability Limit :

Optimization Techniques .
Objective Function Function
438 ( )

( ) Constrains
%3

Optimization Technique .

Optimization Technique

.
:
Particle Swarm Optimization, PSO .1
Genetic Algorithms .2
Cuckoo Search .3
.

IEEE
BBs . 2-17
.33-BBs

Figure 17-2 IEEE 33-bus

438
 439
:

17.3

.
.

:
-1 . Distributors
-2 .
-3 RMU

Distributed Generation .

.
 - ()
 ( )

18
.

18.1

: 18.1.1

(
) . .


.
.
1-18 .

Table 18-1

.
442 ( )

Demand Factor
Diversity Factor .
.

1-18
Demand Factor, Fdm
Diversity Factor, Fdv Max
Demand, D
( )

.

Figure 18-1

442
 443
:

: 18.1.2

Distribution Substtations :
-1 11/132 11/33 11 /66 11/33
.

.
. SLD
11/66 2-18
.

Figure 18-2 Substation SLD

-2 ) ( 11/0.4
( ) 22/0.4 (
6 ) .

Sectionlized Single BB Single BB RMU
.

1MVA
.
444 ( )

-3 Distributors
Incomming Feeders Outgoing Feeders
(
)

:
66/11 or 66/22 or 33/11
11/0.4 kV 22/0.4 kV
11/0.4 kV .
( ) KW .

22 kV
( )
( ) ( )
11kV .

:
100 kW 5MW 11 kV
15MVA 22 kV 5MVA
15MVA 30MVA 33 kV

:
30MVA 75MVA 66 kV
75MVA 200MVA 132 kV
200MVA 500 kV .220 kV

.


.

444
 445
:

22 MVA 25
11 kV 1157A
33 kV .

P
L :

= 5.5 +
100

:
66 kV 33kV 400

:
33 kV 11 kV 66 kV 11 kV
11kV (400
) .

: / 18.1.3

33 kV
11 kV




.3-18
Figure 18-183

446 ( )

11/33 11/66:
o
.
o
.
o
.
.
o

: 18.1.4

.
30 .


.

15MVA
33 kV
15000
= = 262
3 33

De-ratings
400 2 . XLPE

446
 447
:

.
.
Short Circuit
Capacity .

( )

Ring . 4-18

Figure 18-4

: Radial/Ring 18.1.5

11/33
11/0.4

1.5 MVA

1500
= = 78
3 11

De-rating
95 2 .
448 ( )

Radial Feeding 5-18

:

Figure 18-5 Radial feeders

-1 11 kV
.
-2 50
50
.
-3 .

Ring System


Ring Main Unit, RMU
.

.6-18
.

Figure 18-6 Ring System

448
 449
:

18.1.6

Radial System
.

.

300 2 400
7 = 3 11000 400
1MVA % 70
7 0.7 = 10
De-rating 7 .

: 18.1.7

/
:
-1
Gas
Insulated Subststions
) (GIS



Figure 18-7 GIS building -18
(7 )

( Bays ).

-2 (Air Insulated
) .Subststions (AIS
.
( ) .
450 ( )

: 18.1.8

.
:

-1 Single BB

( SLD
)8-18

.

Figure 18-8 Single BB
.

-2
70 % Double BB
( .)9-18

.
. . BBs

.

450
 451
:

Figure 18-9 Double BB in HV side

 19
:
-1 . Distributors
-2 .
-3 RMU
-4

.
.

-1 . Distributors
(
)
( ).
-2 kVA
10MVA ( 3.3
)kV - 6.6 kV - 11 kV - 22 kV - 33 kV 400.
(
10 MVA )MVA .

.
.
454 ( )

-3 RMU
.
.
-4
.

19.1

%50


.

()
. 20
.
).

1-19 (
) 53 2500
2800 . .

( 53 2500 ) :

3 ( ) 11/66/220 :
.
8 11/66 ( ) :
.

( )2500 ( )
361 .

454
 455
:

Figure 19-1

.
456 ( )

19.2 :

Distributor 19.2.1

. 25 kVA

2-19
.

:
-1 ( ).
-2
-3 ( )
-4

( ) 19.2.2

2 -19
.

456
 457
:

.


.

Figure 19-2

-1 ) )
-2 ) )
-3 Bus Riser Bus section, BS
-4 ( :)Bus Metering and Bus Earthing
VT VT
Outgoing . Voltmeter
.
-5 ( :)Auxiliary Transformer Cubical

auxiliary/lockout relays .
-6 kV11
Capacitor Bank Cubical .
458 ( )

19.2.3

-1 Automatic Capacitor Control System, ACCS

Reactive Power
. Setting
-2 Automatic Bus Transfer Scheme, ABTS
Automatic Transfer Switch, ATS . ABTS
( )Bus-Couplers.

3 33/11kV
Sections 11kV ( ) 2
Bus-Sections Sections
( BS ) Section
Short-circuit Level . 11kV

.A
ABTS Bus-Section
Sections 3 .

.B
ABTS Bus-Section Short-circuit Level
.kV11

:
( ) BB
.

.

458
 459
:

.
Bus Coupler
Coupling CB
Bus Riser CB

3-19
( Interlock /) ( /)
.Bus Section

Figure 19-3

19.2.4

- -
:4-19
460 ( )

:
( 110 )

:







.

Figure 19-4 :

.

Incoming Cubicle 19.2.5

(: )

-1 MV-CB . 1250A
-2 .
-3 .
-4 )400*1(*3 300*3
-5 " " 3 ) )5/5/400 Phase 3-phases
.
-6 " " 3
-7 " " 3
11000 110 110
/ /
3 3 3
-8
-9 .
-10

460
 461
:

: -11
Over current Relay
Earth Fault Relay
Directional Over Current Relay
Directional Earth Fault Relay
.

Cubicle Outgoing : 19.2.6

:
-1 630 1250
-2
-3
-4 150*3 240*32
-5 " " 3
-6 3 5/5/200
-7 .
-8
-9 :
Over current Relay
Earth Fault Relay

CT VT Directional relay
( VT ) .

: 19.2.7

:
1250

.
462 ( )

19.2.8

SLD 5-19
14 ( ) K1-K14 (
) K5,K6,K9,K10 K8, K7
. .
5 6
9 10 .
.

). (11KV / 400V

Figure 19-5 Ring system

Ring
Switch
( )
.

462
 463
:

19.3 :

: 19.3.1

.
:

: 5
12 .
:
. 1.2 V

: ( ) .

) ( 19.3.2

.

.6-19
Figure 19-6

( 7-19 . )
464 ( )

Figure 19-7

19.3.3

:
-1
.
-2
( ).

.


.
-3
11 kV
.

464
 465
:

19.4 :

( Kiosk . )8-19

Figure 19-8

3 ( :)9-19
-1 Ring main unit
-2
-3 MLVS

RMU
RMU
RMU
11kV 400 volt
MLVS .
Figure 19-9

25 kVA, 50 kVA, 100 kVA, 250 kVA, 400 kVA, 500 kVA, 630 kVA, 800 kVA,
1000 kVA, 1250 kVA, 1600 kVA, 2000 kVA

10-19 SLD RMU

.
466 ( )

Figure 19-10 Transformer SLD

single phase :

-1
-2 socket .
-3 ( )fan & hood

Power Factor
.

466
 467
:

11-19

Figure 19-11
468 ( )

19.4.1

( ) . CB
. :

Fuse 19.4.2

.


.

:
.High Rupturing Capacity, HRC

CB ( )12-19

Energy
) let through (I2t




.

Figure 19-12 Fuse vs CB

3-phase 1-phase
.

Overcurrent Protection
.

468
 469
:

.

.

19.4.3

Rated value .

Fusing current
( 1.5-4 .) Fusing Factor
10A 30A .

1-19 Rated current

min breaking Current 63 200
.

Rated breaking current

. 40kA .
470 ( )

Table 19-1

" -" 13-19

16 100 0.2 sec .

pre-aring time Melting time

.
. arcing time

470
 471
:

Figure 19-13 Fuse time-current curves

19.4.4

-1

( ) .


.

.
.
14-19 .
472 ( )

Figure 19-14

-2 " "
RMU
.
15-19

.

Figure 19-15

19.4.5

-7 .
( .
Type K and T %150
).
-8 .
-9 Short circuiy capacity (
)Short Circuit .

472
 473
:

-10
Inrush .
-11 Coordinated
.

19.4.6

Coordination
Protective Fuse Backup Fuse
.
( %75 ).

.
16-19 .
Recloser
transient faults
( )
( ) .
474 ( )

Figure 19-16

( )
( ) .

1 ( )
( ) . 2 (
) . 3
6 ..

-3 :
ETAP.
-4 : Load Flow ETAP
.

474
 475
:

ETAP
17-19 ( )
( ).

Figure 19-17

:
/ .13-19
( ).
3-19 K 6A 140A
K 8A . 200A

476 ( )

Table 19-2 Type-K fuse coordination

( 20K K Type )
30K
500 ( )
40K 1100 .

K
T
4-19 ( 20T 20 ) T
30T 990 . 20K 30K
500 .

476
 477
:

Table 19-3 Type- T Fuse coordination

17-19
40T ( 36)
80T 3800
1630 .

65T 40T 1700

( 1630 ) .

: /
/ . 18-19
( SC ) Load Flow
. :

-5 : :

-1 ANSI

:

= 0.58

3.75 sec
4 .

478 ( )

(
).

Damage Curve
.

-2 Inrush current
10


.
Log-
Log .

( Reference Voltage ) Turns Ratio
.

-6 :
.

-7 :
.
(
)
.
( )
Damage curve
.
.

478
 479
:

18-19 .

Figure 19-18 coordination curves

480 ( )

: 19.4.7

( :) CB
-1
-2

:
o ( )
Inrush current /
. ( CB )
6
CBs .
o ( ) 1.2-1.5
(

) . 5-19 .
Table 19-4

480
 481
:

o CB
:

( )

400 MCCB 250KVA

800 MCCB 500KVA

1600 ACB 1000KVA

2500 ACB 1500 kVA

3200 ACB 3200 kVA

:

. CB 6-19
( Starting Current )

12kV 100 224 5

180 20 .
482 ( )

Table 19-5 Fusing times

:
( 1000 MVA ) 11/0.4 .

:
= 52 A = 1443A
63
1600 CB

482
 483
:

:
-1

=
3

-2 ICU ( ) :

=

-3 ICU ICM
(
. )ICU

ICM = n ICU

n 7-19 ICM

.
Table 19-6

8-19
.

Table 19-7
484 ( )

Source Impedance
Infinit bus
.

. 11kV 15 kV
500 kVA 40 .

: 9-19 ABB .

Table 19-8 Fuses for different transformers sizes

19-19 1000
.

484
 485
:

Figure 19-19
486 ( )

19.4.8

Surge




Rod Gap
20-19
21-19
Figure 19-20 Rod Gap

Gap Bushing Gap .
.10-19

Table 19-9

Figure 19-21

486
 487
:

19.5 :

Ring Main Unit, RMU 11

kV
()



.19-22



Figure 19-22 RMU


.

: 19.5.1

Secondary .
:
( ) ( ) .

.

) )23-19







Figure 19-23

488 ( )

. 0.4

.

Feeder Piller
24-19

.

Figure 19-24

6-4 ( ).

25-19
3-Phase
..

Figure 19-25 Feeder Piller

488
 489
:

19.5.2

26-19
( )
( .) Normally Open


.

Figure 19-191926 %100

27-19 %50.

Figure 19-27

.
 491
:

20
()
.
.

20.1

20.1.1

)(RADIAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Primary Feeder CB
1-20
. Secondary Feeders

) (FUSES


.
492 ( )

Figure 20-1 Radial system

Loop 20.1.2

()
( )2-20
Radial .

( 9105 )6
. BB Sectionalized Single BB
( 7 8 ).

Loop
( )
Short Circuit Loop
:
.

( Loop CB )
()

492
 493
:

.
.

Figure 20-2 Open Ring System

Radial
. .
2-20 1 12 Open Loop

.

( ) Radial
kVA . Loop
.RMU

( 9 )10 ( 5
) 6 .
494 ( )

Loop 20.1.3

. 3-20
Loop
(Distribution S/S
)
Sub Transmission



.

Figure 20-3 Closed Loop system

Radial
Sections I2 R
.

Radial system

. . Synchronization

Closed Loop 33kV

.

20.1.4

( )2 out of 3 : 4-20

494
 495
:

(
)3 . 2 3
. .

Figure 20-4 two out of three

20.1.5

Radial
Open Loop . 5-20 SLD
.

11 two Sections
( )
.
496 ( )

Figure 20-5

496
 497
:

IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power (

) Distribution

Expanded radial system

498 ( )

Primary selective system

Primary loop system

498
 499
:

Secondary selective system

Sparing transformer scheme

20.2 DG

.6-20






7-20

( )
Figure 20-6 Traditional Power Distribution

( ) .
500 ( )

( )

( ) .

Figure 20-7

20.2.1

8-20 Distrubuted
.Generation, DG
. .

500
 501
:

Figure 20-8

Coordination 20.2.2

DG
DG

502 ( )

.9-20

Figure 20-9

.DG

20.2.3

DG
DG ( DG
)10-20
.

Figure 20-10

502
 503
:

20.2.4

DG
DG
Short circuit Capacity
.

Islanding 20.2.5

Islanding
( Breaker A )11-20
DG
.

Figure 20-11 Islanding Problem

DG :

-1 DG
Weak Source
-2 Breaker A
DG
.
.

504 ( )

.
Islanding . DG
-3 DG Islanding
Synchronization
.

DG .
.

504
506 ( )

21

.
.
.

. .

21.1

. Radial and Ring (Loop) :

Radial 21.1.1

1-21 Radial
66/11 ( )

506
 507
:

Figure 21-1

120 ( ) )
Main Feeder
Tap-off
50 250 .
508 ( )

.RMU

Ring 21.1.2

Radial
Ring

.

2-21 RMU
1

:

Figure 21-2 RMU in OHD

-1 1
-2 2
.
-3 . 3

508
 509
:

21.2

-1
-2 ( )
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7

21.3

-1 ( )3-21







.
Figure 21-3
-2 :
1000/750/500/350
11kV
510 ( )

-3 :
( )
0.25 11kV

-4 : STEEL STRUCTURE TOWER

.

-1 ( )

( )4-21 %80 .
80 .
.

Figure 21-4

510
 511
:

-2

5-21

Figure 21-5

.6-21
512 ( )

Figure 21-6

21.4

.
() .

: .

( )7-21

.

Figure 21-7 Pin type insulator

512
 513
:

suspension insulators

.8-21


11kv 22kv
.

Figure 21-8

.9-21
.
.

Figure 21-9

21.5

Tension clamp 21.5.1

3 4 3 4 .

.
514 ( )

10-21
.

Figure 21-10

21.5.2

Disconnecting Switch Circuit Breaker

.

: 21.5.3

3
.

( : )11-21

-1
-2
-3 6

.
Figure 21-11

514
 515
:

200

400

630

Load Break Switch : 21.5.4

. Load Break Switch
12-21 SF6
( ).

Figure 21-2112 LBS

21.6

( )ALL Aluminum Conductor,AAC

)Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR
)All-Aluminum Alloy Conductor (AAAC
Aluminum Conductor Aluminum Reinforced
)(ACAR
)Aluminum Conductor Steel Supported (ACSS
516 ( )

.
. :

6/35 8/50 2 12/70 2 15/95 2 21/ 120 2 25/150 22

6/35 DIN :

352
62

1-21 (
) .

516
 517
:

Table 21-1

- :

-1 6/35 12/70 2 2 5 15 .
-2 25/150 2 20 .

100 Sag . -21
.12
518 ( )

Figure 21-12

11 kV
6 8 .

21.7 RECLOSER


.
.

.


.

Recloser 13-21
)
( . 14-21
.
: . Recloser

518
 519
:

Figure 21-13 Reclosers

( 0.3 0.5
) (
1 3 10 )
Reset . 15-21
Recloser .

Figure 21-14 recloser timing

520 ( )

Figure 21-15 Transformer and Recloser

21.8

.

recloser

AVR

.

(
Figure 21-16
) .
3 ( )16-21
.

520
 521
:

21.9

50



1-21
.
300 400
.
( )17-21 .

Figure 21-17 Fault indicator :

.

Two Phases
. .

High-
. Impeadance faults

18-21 SLG
.
.
522 ( )

Figure 21-18

( -21
)19

.

Figure 21-19

522
 523
:

21.10

.
.

70 2

1 .

70
2
5 .

50 2
.20-21

Figure 21-20 Earting poles

524 ( )

Temporary Earthing 21.10.1

( )
.

21.11
-1 "Jumbers
.
-2 .
-3 .
-4 .
-5 ( )
.
-6 .
-7 ( ) .
-8
voltage drop
-9 voltage drop
-10
contact resistance voltage
drop

:
scada .
:
.
( )
.

524
 525
:

.

.

.
.
 22
:
-1
-2
-3
-4

22.1

.

.
Reliability

:

"Reliability& Power Quality 22.1.1

Reliability Power Quality

:
" Power Quality "
ideal sinewave voltage fluctuations
harmonics .
" reliability
.
: Power
Quality .
 527
:

)System Average Interruption Duration Index (SAIDI

.sustained interruption
. SAIDI
.

: 1 :
.1 10 90
.2 1000 20
.3 3 175

30000 SAIDI
( 0.714= 30000 ) 175*3 + 20*1000 + 90*10

Interruption Frequency Index (SAIFI) System Average

. = =30000 1013
0.0337 1 .

Average Interruption Duration Index (CAIDI) - Customer

30000 1013
CAIDI 21.15
:
CAIDI = SAIDI/ SAIFI

Customer Average Interruption Frequency Index (CAIFI) -

( )
0.00296 = 1013 3
528
( )

Customer Interrupted per Interruption Index (CIII) -

.

.
337.66 = 3 1013


.
.

major
events . major events

.

.

-:
circuit length
.
Circuit configuration
Ring .Radial

528
 529
:

22.2 VOLTAGE REGULATION

) Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR

.
auto Transformer .

22.2.1

AUTO TRANSFORMER
.
AVR
.
. AVR
.
AVR .

AVR
Boost Buck
1000/100 1100
900
%10 . 1-22

)Step-up Autotransformer (Boost

530
( )

Figure 22-1

)Step-down Autotransformer (Buck

Taps
.

/
Microprocessor
. AVR Motor 2-22
.

.
10%
32 ( 16 16 ) 10% 16
5/8% . Single and Three :
. phase Voltage regulators

15
( . :
).

530
 531
:

Figure 22-2

Step Voltage Regulator Schematic Diagram

AVR 22.2.2

KVA AVR
System 10%

. Max Load current phase voltage

. AVR per Phase

Example:
Compute for the step-voltage regulator size needed by a 3-phase, 4-wire
multigrounded feeder with a system voltage of 13800Y/7970 V. The required
voltage regulation is 10% and the peak connected load is 6.0 MVA.

Solution:
Voltage regulation = 10%
Phase voltage is the line-to-neutral voltage = 7.97 kV (since it is a 4-wire
multigrounded wye feeder)
Load current = 6.0 MVA / (1.732 x 13.8 kV) = 251 A
Voltage Regulator kVA Size = 10% x 7.97 kV x 251 A = 200 kVA
Use three 32-step voltage regulators, each with a standard rating of 250
kVA, 7970 V, 10% regulation
532
( )

3-22 AVR
.

Figure 22-3

AVR
4-22 .

Figure 22-4 Voltage Regulator with over head system

.5-22

532
 533
:

Figure 22-5 Voltage regulator with under ground system

Auto Transformer " ".

6-22 . AVR
534
( )

Figure 22-6

534
 535
:

22.3

: Distribution Automation 22.3.1

Distribution Automation
peak
.

:
.1 .
.
.2 .

. :

IED 22.3.2

( )Microprocessors
Intelligent Electronic Devices IEDs
.7-22

Figure 22 -22 IED usage

536
( )

. IEC
57 IEC 61850

.

SCADA 22.3.3

SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

.
Sensors
RTU





.






.

8-22 .SCADA

536
 537
:

Figure 22-8 SCADA System

SCADA :

-1 ) (Human-machine interface or HMI

.
-2 :
.
-3 communication .
-4 ) (Remote terminal Unit RTU

.

Load
Dispatch Center, LDC
( ) Load Dispatch
Center

.
538
( )

) (RTU Electronics Unit : Power Supply

. I/O Peripherals 9-22 RTU
.

Figure 22-9 Transformer control

) (RTU GPS


.

( )RTU :
-1 ()Alarms
-2 ()Status
-3 ):(Measurements
-4 ): (Commands

.
RTU
.

538
 539
:

:
Distribution Control System, DCS SCADA SCADA
DCS SCADA
.

22.3.4

( )



( ) D.C

( 11. )
-:
- - RTU RTU
- -
- 220 - RTU
- - RTU
- ) Local / Remot ( RTU
-

22.3.5

( )

.

( ) D.C

540
( )

( 11. )

-:
- - RTU RTU
- -
- 220 - RTU
- RTU
- . ) Local / Remote ( RTU

22.3.6

.
.
220 .RTU
.
.
.
.

: 22.3.7

() .
-1

-2

-3
-4
-5 :
()remote central location

540
 541
:

-6 : Load Schedding

-7 : Voltage Regulation
. off load tap changer
.
Capacitor control -8 .
-9


-10 :



-11
.
-12
.
-13
:
o .
o .
o .
o .
o .
-14

.

Redundant System

LAN
.Reliability
542
( )

: 22.3.8

Smart Meter :

:

-1 :

-2 :
Remote switching of meter register automatically
-3 :


.

542
 543
:

22.4 COMMUNICATIONS :
Load Dispatch
Center, LDC
. 10-22 .

Figure 22-10

22.4.1

. :

: :
) DLC (Distribution Line Carrier

)( Shield
) (Phase

: :

) (Radio Frequency . VHF
544
) (

22.5

ETAP
ETAP is a company specialising in electrical power system modeling,
design, analysis, optimization, and predictive real-time solutions.
Functions include arc flash analysis, load flow analysis, short circuit
analysis, motor starting, OPF, transient stability analysis, generator
start-up, parameter estimation, cable sizing, transformer tap
optimization, reliability assessment, transmission line constant
calculations, harmonic analysis, protection coordination, dc load
flow, battery discharge and sizing, earth grid design, cable pulling,
and GIS map integration.

PowerWorld
PowerWorld Corporation are a Champaign, Illinois based firm that
develop the PowerWorld Simulator suite of power systems analysis
tools for Windows. The software focuses on a visual approach to
power system simulation.
Functions include load flow, short circuit, contingency analysis,
sensitivity calculations, security constrained OPF, transient stability,
transmission line parameter calculations. Includes scripting support.

MathWorks (SimPowerSystems)
Mathworks, the makers of general purpose mathematical software
MATLAB, also develop an power systems simulation program.
SimPowerSystems is a tool that extends MATLAB's Simulink and
provides models of many components used in power systems,
including three-phase machines, electric drives, and libraries of
application-specific models such as Flexible AC Transmission
Systems (FACTS) and wind-power generation. Harmonic analysis,
calculation of Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), load flow, and other
key power system analyses are automated.

EasyPower
The flagship product, EasyPower, includes the following modules:
arc flash analysis, power flow, short circuit, OPF, protective device

544
 545
:

coordination, dynamic stability, transient motor starting, and

harmonic analysis.
Additional workflow enhancing modules include SmartPDC, which
automates protective device coordination, and SmartDesign which
automatically sizes feeders, breakers, switchgear, fuses, busway,
MCCs, panels, etc to NEC requirements. The ScenarioManager
feature allows the study of multiple system scenarios on the fly.
Oneline Designer is a cost effective solution for people who are
dedicated to creating onelines, as well as system data collection and
entry.

EMTP-RV
The ElectroMagnetic Transients Program (EMTP) was first developed
by Prof. Hermann Dommel in the 60s/70s for the analysis of
electromagnetic transients. It was commercialised in 1987 and
released as DCG EMTP and later EMTP96. EMTP-RV is the latest
commercial released of the program, created by Jean
Mahseredjian and currently being developed byPOWERSYS.
ATP-EMTP
The Alternative Transients Program (ATP) is a free (closed source)
program for the digital simulation of electromagnetic (and
electromechanical) transient phenomena. ATP-EMTP was first
developed in 1984.

ASPEN
ASPEN (Advanced Systems for Power Engineering) are a California
based company that develops the following separate Windows
platform products:

OneLiner - short circuit and relay coordination program

(and the Breaker Rating Module add-on checks the rating
of circuit breakers against the short circuit currents they
need to interrupt)
DistriView - integrated suite of voltage drop, short circuit,
relay coordination, and harmonics and reliability calculation
software for utility distribution systems
Power Flow Program - power flow program designed for the
planning, design and operating studies of transmission,
546
) (

sub-transmission and distribution networks (includes a

BASIC-style scripting language)
Line Constants Program - calculates electrical parameters
of overhead transmission lines and underground cables
Relay Database - a repository of relay information for
electric utilities and industrial facilities
Line Database - an electronic depository of data related to
power lines and cables

546
548

548
 549
:

.
.
.

.
10 20

. .
.

:



.

: ( 1 ) ) 1 33 )
( 66 ) .

( ).

PVC XLPE
.
.
550

Single Core Multi-Core

.

Multicore


.Single Core ( )
Loss
Induced currents Cupper Losses
.

Multicore
Single Core .

(
) .
:

.1 :
.a
.b
.2 :
.3 :
.4 :
.5 :

550
 551
:
552

552
 23
23.1
.
: ( ) .
. .

.
70% 80%
.
. 99% 1-23
.

Table 23-1

554
( )

% 10 % 27 .
Copper-Clad-Aluminum Conductors, ACAC .

Copper Clad
BB

.

Pi-metal
glands
.1-23

Figure 23-1 Pi metal glands

23.1.1

554
 555
:

23.2
:
.
. PVC

23.2.1

" " dielectric :

. . " "insulator
.

.
.
.

.

Polarization
( )
( ) - . Polarization

23.2.2

:
-1 .
-2 .
-3 .
-4 .
-5 .
-6
.
556
( )

-7 .
-8 .

23.3

( ) : poly mer
polymer .
) (macromolecule ( 10000
10) .
) . (covalent bond

.
.

" "pitch " "resin " " gum " "rubber
.

.



.

( )
.

556
 557
:

Synthetic Polymer 23.3.1

.
.

Plastics
Rubber Leather Synthetic Nylons
.Polyesters
. : Fibers
(-10
)%50 .

.
PVC

.

.

-1 thermo-plastices-:
-2 thermo-sets-:

: PVC 23.3.2

. PVC
.
558
( )

PVC ( )
.
.
) (P.V.C .
.

PVC
. PVC
.

PVC :
-1 .
-2 1000 .
-3 .
-4 " " .
-5 .
-6 .
-7 .
-8 .

Thermo-sets - : 23.3.3

" "
.cross-linking
:

RUBBER - : 23.3.4

bntyl rubber

corona
.

558
 559
:

-: XLPE 23.3.5

XLPE
PVC . EXTRUSION

.
XLPE 90 .

90 250
Corona
.

23.4

.:

Losses 23.4.1

Loss
( ) .
.

Insulation Loss :

Pins V 2 C tan

( ) Loss angle
Power Factor . Load (
)
Power loss .
560
( )

23.4.2

Charging Current
. Leakage Current :

I C V C

V .Volt
( ) f (.)= 2f
C ( ) Capacitance . Farad

Capacitance
13A .220 kV

( ) Critical Length
. Power
.

132 kV 64 Km 400 KV
24 Km .
.

: WATER TREE 23.4.3

( - ) Water Treeing
-




.
Figure 23-2 Water tree

560
 561
:

( . )2-23
.
562
( )

562
 24


.

.

(
)
XLPE
.

24.1 :
( )1-24 :
.1 .
.2 ( ) .Semiconductor Layer
.3 Insulation
.4 ( ) . Semiconductor Layer
.5 ( ) Metallic Sheath
.6 ( )Filling .
.7 .Armoring
.8 ()
.9 Outer Sheath .
.
564
( )

Figure 24-1

Conductor 24.1.1

Ampacity
Flexibility .

stranded
( ).

Size
American Wire Gauge, AWG .
.
.

564
 565
:

.
.
566
( )

( ) Semiconductor Layer 24.1.2

%20

/
.2-24
.
water
tree

Figure 24-2

.

( )3-24
( (Conductor Shield
stranded effect

.

Figure 24-3
.

(
)
.

( )
.
.

566
 567
:

INSULATION 24.1.3

.
. " XLPE
.

( ) 24.1.4

semi - conductor
.
( )4-24 .
( ) Phase
.

Figure 24-4

Auxiliarty Shield

( Primary Shield Metalic sheath)

568
( )

semi - conductor



.5-24
Figure 24-5

Metallic sheath 24.1.5

( )6-24 :

( : )


- -

.

.
Figure 24-6

Metalic Sheath :
/ .
.
Extruded-
lead sheath


.

.
.

568
 569
:

.
corrugted
.

() : .

24.1.6

-1 . " "
.
-2 .
-3

-4 .
-5 .
-6 .

( ) : FILLING - BEDDING 24.1.7

.
PVC . :
.
.

( ) : ARMOUR 24.1.8

:
.
570
( )

( )

.
Earth Faults
.

0.5 0.8 mm .
.

.24-7

.

Figure 24-7

Sheath Effect 24.1.9

Induced EMF
:

-1
( )Inducted Currents )(Eddy Currents

. Loss
.

570
 571
:

8-24 () ( )

( ) .

() (

Figure 24-8

).
%2
.

:

.
Single Phase .

.

-2 Cross Bonding
Cross Bonding

Cross Bonded

9-24
120

.

Cross Bonding

Figure 24-9 Cross Bonding box ).(Link Boxes

100 3 %3
( ).
572
( )

Trefoil
Flat
) (Transposition
Induced voltage (
10-24 ).

Figure 24-10

-3
Single phase
.
: .

.

Losses
.

Losses
Sheath Voltage Limmitter 24-
11 . -24
11 . Transpostion

572
 573
:

Figure 24-11

:

.
Single Phase .
.

: OUTER SHEATH 24.1.10

.

.
( P V C
)
.
()
.
.

Figure 24-12
574
( )

.12-24

24.1.11

.
Rain Shed
.13-24
11
2 22 3 33
4 . 14-24
.

Figure 24-13 Rain Shed

574
 575
:

Figure 24-14
 25
:

-1
-2 ) )Inductance
-3 )) capacitance
-4 .

25.1 CONDUCTOR RESISTANCE

R
.

.
:
.1 Skin effect

.

.2 Proximity effect
.

.
578
( )

Insulation resistance 25.1.1

( = )R
(
)

IC

1-25 IR
Figure 25-1
. I IC
(
( R )
.

.
:

) Rms = 2 ( 0 ohm

).(ohm.m =
).(m =l
. =R
. = r0

25.2 INDUCTANCE OF CABLE

Inductance
Skin and Proximity Effects
.
.

578
 579
:

Inductance .

Mutual Indctance
.

Inductance
( .)2-25
L= 0.2 ( + In ) mH/km
1
4

L1 = 0.2( + In
1 12 31
)
4 23

L2 = 0.2( + In
1 23 12
)
4 31

L3 = 0.2( + In
1 31 23
)
4 12

Figure 25-2

Inductance:

Lm = 0.2 (4 + In mH/km
1
)

= Dm .

Dm = 312 23 31

) L1 = L2 = L3 = 0.2 (4 + In mH/km
1

(L) Reactance
Inductance

Inductance
.
Inductance 0.08-0.24 /.
580
( )

25.3 CABLE CAPACITANCE

) (c=q/v
()
) )sheath .

C
:
=C F/m
20
) (/0

= 0 )(8.83 x 10-12 F/m
= .
= r0 .
= R .

) (Cc ) ( Cs
.3-25

Figure 25-3

:
0.111
=C 2 (32 2 )
F/m
2
) 0 (276 6

580
 581
:

= r0 ).(mm
= R ).(mm
= a ).(mm

25.4 :
"
" .

.

.

.
Single Phase .

4-25 .

Figure 25-4
582
( )

25.5

.
. :

: .
: (
Figure 25-5
) .
" " .

(

. 6-25

.
.
Figure 25-6

.
:

:
E /
V
x .

582
 583
:

Electrical field 25.5.1

= v/ m


.

7-25

.
Figure 25-7

:

=

ln

: 25.5.2

.

.

Gland

.
584
( )

Stress Control Tube
8-25 Stress Control
Tube

.
Stress Control
. Tube

Figure 25-8 Stress Control

(
.)9-25

Figure 25-9

: WATER TREE 25.5.3

( - ) Water Treeing
-
.
.
.

584
 26
.
:

Routine Tests. .
Special Tests. .
Type Tests. .
Electrical Tests after Installation. .

) International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC

.
.

IEC
60228 : IEC: 55-1, 141, 229, 230, 502, 840, 885

.

: 26.1.1

.
30 150 :IEC-840

).(Partial Discharge
.
.
 587
:

275 :IEC-141

.
.
. Tan
.

( ): 26.1.2

IEC .

30
150 ICE 840:

).(Conductor Examination
.
.
.
.
Hot St Test XLPE
.EPR
.
.HDPE

275 IEC-141:

( )Tan .
.

.Hot Impulse Voltage Test

588
( )

: 26.1.3

.

.
30
150 ):(IEC 840

.
) .(tan
.

10 .
.

26.2
.


.

( ) :
.1
.2
.3
.4 Cable Capacitance
.5 (
) Tan
.6 Sheath Test
.7 Cross Bonding
.8 Earth resistance measurement of link
boxes
.9 zero & positive impedance

588
 589
:

.10 ( )DC, AC, or Very low frequency, VLF

26.3 PHASE CHECKING

phase-R . Phase R

.

1-26
phase ) (Megger
Phases



.


Figure 26-1

.

26.4


Joints .
590
( )

R R Shield
R Shield
2-26

0 20

10
Figure 26-2

.

26.5
DC Conductor Resistance

( IEC ) Losses
) (Current Carrying Capacity
.

L A :
L
R
A
) (Resistivity m

Micro ohmmeter DC Current
:
V
R
I )(
Km 20 C
o

:
) R (measured
R 20
))L (1 20 (T 20
:

590
 591
:

)(Km :L
( / Km ) 20 C
o
: R20
)( :R

20 C
o
:
20
= 0.00393
: T

R20 . IEC -60228

AC Supply Z
. Reactance

26.5.1

) (Short



Figure 26-3 :3-26

R & Y
) (R&B Y&B :

) (R Y ) (Y B ) ( R B
R
2
Y (R Y ) R
B (R B ) R

(
) .
592
( )

26.6 ( ) CABLE CAPACITANCE

\
) (C :
C measured
C\
L
:
: C measured F

( .)capacitance meter
.4-26 ()F

Figure 26-4

( )Charging Current ( )VAR
( (Critical Length
of Cable .

26.7

) (R
) (Metallic Sheath )(Leakage
) (Radial
.

592
 593
:

:

.
11 11 .

( 5000)
(100 )
. (1 ).
.
Charging Capacitive Current 60
Capacitive Current
.


( ).

.
.
20
. ( )
.

-1

.
-2
-3
-4
-5
594
( )

.IEC 60840
( )5-26
5000 .
:

. 500 1000
1 2500
6.6 5000

Figure 26-5

Table 26-1

594
 595
:

Hipot 26.7.1

HiPot .

Hipot ( )High Potential .

Insulation Resistance Test 26.7.2

:


Phase
6-26
.
Figure 26-6 . two phases

.

(
) DC
.

Dielectric Breakdown Test 26.7.3

:
Hipot Open
Circuit ( )
.
.

)( (Hipot tester )7-26

. ( )overload protection
. 60 .
596
( )

Figure 26-7 Hi-pot Tester

Dielectric Withstanding Test 26.7.4

:
( ) .
.

( )) Tan delta( 26.7.5

( )loss angle( )Dissipation factor

.

90

90
loss angle
Figure 26-8
. 8-26
( )resistive current IR
.

596
 597
:

) (energized ( )tan delta controller

.

)normal line to ground voltage( Vo

tan delta
1.5 . Vo

VLF AC HIPOT Very Low Frequency

0.1Hz 50 Hz :

-1 50 Hz ( very high power

)supply 0.1Hz 500
.50 Hz
-2 tan delta

)Tan Delta () = IR/ IC = 1/(2fCR

.


.

Dielectric breakdown testing

.
Dielectric Withstanding Test .

: 26.7.6

2-26
598
( )

Table 26-2

26.8 DC SHEATH TEST

( )Armor
()PVC
()HDPF

10 kV ( metallic
)Sheath PVC PVC
Semi Conductor Material
SHEATH .

) (Leakage Current
) (No Breakdown 9-26 :

598
 599
:

Figure 26-9

26.9
Contact Resistance Test of Link Boxes

Micro-ohmmeter
) (Cross Bonding
Links .SLV . 20

26.10
Cross Bonding Verification Test of Metallic Sheath

( )Inducted Currents )(Eddy Currents

. Loss
.

( )AC Current ( )
%3
.
600
( )

( )%3
Live .

) (Non Linear Resistance
Sheath Voltage Limiter, SVL

1G .1000V

26.11
Earth resistance measurement of link boxes

( )fall of potential method

( )10-26 E P C
E C E P V V/I .
.Earth tester S ( )current source
. A V .

A
S

E P 5- 10 m C
5- 10 m

Figure 26-10

600
 601
:

.
.
.
.
.

( .)Average Value .10

.

26.12 )PARTIAL DISCHARGE TESTING: (PD

( )partial discharge
.
( splices and
. )termination PD .

IEC
50 ( )PD
. PD
.

PD tests :

Online PD test
offline test

.
:Offline PD test

fault
.
602
( )

26.13

( )11-26




.

Figure 26-11

.

132. 26.13.1

( )
15
11 44
.
.

-
.

602
 603
:

) (Variable Frequency

L
) (Reactor ) (Resonance :

1
f res
2 LC
:
.F :C
).(H) (Inductance :L

I test CV

two reactors 12-26

two Reactors
.

Figure 26-12

Reactor two reactors

13-26 .
604
( )

Figure 26-13

DC : 26.13.2

DC Supply
DC
Water Tree Break Down .

-1 ( ) Bubbles ()Scratching
HVDC
( ) Partial Discharge

.

-2 ( )
( ) ( )AC

.

604
 605
:

DC E1 / E2 = 1 / 2

AC E1 / E2 = 2 / 1

-3 ) ( Space Charge
( ) Accessories
( )AC ( )Stress
.

-4 ( Water & Electrical

) Treeing .

-5 ( )DC
8 ( )U0
( )U0 . .

HVAC 26.13.3

Supply AC
HVDC
. AC Supply
.

DC AC

606
( )

) Very Low Frequency ( VLF 26.13.4

DC supply AC supply
( . ) VLF( )Very Low Frequency AC
DC
I = C V

VLF
( )conductor
( )grounding shield .14-26

Figure 26-14

( IEEE 400.2
( )3Vo( )Normal line to ground voltage 30
60.

3-26 IEEE 400.2

606
 607
:

Table 26-3

.%95 0.1 HZ 0.05& 0.02
.

Table 26-4

2U0 - 2.5U0 . ()VLF

.
608
( )

27

- -

.

.
.

27.1 :

)
) .

27.1.1

.
.

608
 609
:

27.1.2

.
58 . :

.1
. Lightening and Switching
.2
.
.3
.
.4 .

27.1.3

.

.

27.1.4

.
.
( ) corrosion

.
610
( )

27.1.5

.

.

27.1.6

610
 611
:

27.2

:
VLF
. 3
11kV ( 35kV
) .
( ) 15
150
.
.

:
()Megger

( )
:

< Pulse Echo
< < 2
2 < <50
> ( )

500 10000
.1-27
612
( )

Figure 27-1

:
( )

.

:
Pulse Echo Bridge
( . ).

:

( .
).

27.3

.

612
 613
:

() ( ) Pulse Echo 27.3.1

( )2-27
Discountinutty
.

:
Figure 27-2 TDR


.

Pulse Echo 27.3.2

) (Time Domain Reflectometry

.
) (Traveling Waves


=

transition point
. .
:
614
( )

2 1
=
2 + 1

:Z1
:Z2

Rf 3-27

1
= 2
+ 1

Figure 27-3

1
=
2 + 1

short Z2 =Rf =0 :
= 1

Open Circuit = Z2
= +1

614
 615
:

Pulse Echo 27.3.3

) (short circuit
( (open circuit

Open ( : )4-27

Figure 27-4

( :)5-27

Figure 27-5
616
( )

( )6-27
.

Figure 27-6

7-27

Figure 27-7

T section .8-27

Figure 27-8

616
 617
:

T section .9-27

Figure 27-9

TDR Short



.

10-27
.

Figure 27-10
618
( )

( .11-27 ).

Figure 27-11

27.3.4

TDR

1
=
2
:x
:v
:t

2 .
:

.
.
.
.
.
.

618
 619
:

: TDR 27.3.5

200
.

:
TDR
200 .

) (megger
) (spark-over .

( ) Bridge 27.3.6

.
: 12-27

Figure 27-12

= =
2
100
:
= L
620
( )

= Lf

Reading .

%80 %100

620
 621
:

Murray Bridge 27.3.7

Wheatstone bridge .
.
( )1%
.

Figure 27-13

14-27
RB1 , RB2

Rx Lx

L Rg
.

622
( )

27.4

. :

Surge Generator : 27.4.1

( )14-27 1940
.




.
.

Figure 27-14 Surge Generator

Partial discharge

.

E = V2 C/2

E V C .

622
 623
:

Pulses 15 25

80 .

:
.

:
.

.Pulses
(
).
624
( )

Surge Generator
750 2
5.

E = (1/2) CV2
E = (1/2) (750x10-6) (2000)2 = 1500 Joules

P = E/t = (1500) / (5) = 300 watts

27.4.2

Surge Generator
( .)15-27

Figure 27-15

200
.

624
 625
:

Arc reflector 27.4.3

( )16-27 TDR ( ) surge generator

( )arc reflection filter TDR ( surge
.) generator

TDR

Surge Gen

Surge Gen fault
200
TDR

Figure 27-16 Arc Reflector
TDR
.
faults .

27.4.4

.






-27
Figure 27-17 17
626
( )

) )simple magnetic loop antenna
loop antenna
fault
antenna Loop.

27.5

. .
.

( )
:

-1 :


-2 +:

Figure 27-18

626
 627
:

.
-3 :
( +)

(
)

-4 : ( ) (
)

Figure 27-19

/ VLF ( (Burn unit 15 KV ) (Surge 3/6/12 KV

628
( )

Figure 27-20

Figure 27-21

628
 629
:

Figure 27-22

RMU

( )

27.6

-1 phases .

-2 .

-3 conductor

.

-4 .

-5 ( 100) trial
and error
630
( )

-6 ( 3 ) TDR
(
) .

-7

.

-8 Pilot Cable
.

630
 631
:
632
( )

632
 633
:

.
:

( )Transients
.

:
Transients.
Power System Stability

.

(
. )Harmonics
634

634
 28
Transients in Power System
28.1 :

DC or AC Supply
:

-1 R,L, and C .
-2 DC or AC
. Steady State, SS
Superposition, Norton, Thevenen, etc
.

Transient .

Transient Steady State, SS

Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance SS
Transient Transients
SS
.Transients
Transients Disturbance
- Sub cycle .
Transients .
636
( )

Transient
2ms 0.1 Hz 20kHz 50MHz
GIS substations Frequency response
.

Transient Analysis SS- Analysis 28.1.1

Transient Analysis
Transients
. Transient Analysis
(
RMS ) . Steady State Analysis

: transient .SS

28.1.2

(CIGRE ) International Council on High Voltage Electrical Systems

International Electro Technical Commission (IEC) and
:
;1. Low-frequency oscillations, from 0.1 Hz to 3 kHz
;2. Slow-front surges, from 50/60 Hz to 20 kHz
;3. Fast-front surges, from 10 kHz to 3 MHz
4. Very fast-front surges, from 100 kHz to 50 MHz.

636
 637
:

Origin --------------------------------------------Frequency Range

Ferroresonance--------------------------------------0.1 Hz to 1 kHz

Load rejection --------------------------------------0.1 Hz to 3 kHz

Fault clearing--------------------------------------- 50 Hz to 3 kHz

Line switching -------------------------------------50 Hz to 20 kHz

Transient recovery voltages --------------------------50 Hz to 100 kHz

Lightning overvoltages -------------------------------10 kHz to 3 MHz

Disconnector switching in GIS -----------------------100 kHz to 50 MHz

Transient 28.1.3

Transient
Transients :

-1
-2
-3
-4 reactors
-5 :
Impulse wave .a uni-direction wave
Transient waves .b
-6 ferro resonance

: .

Transients
.
638
( )

Transient

. CB
max. Impulse voltage .

( )Drives
.

Transients Impulse, Spike, surge, pulse

.Transients

Transient Power system

Inductance Damping

. Power System

Transients 28.1.4

1-28 power system

SS
.Transient

638
 639
:

Figure 28-1

transient
Transient . SS
640
( )

28.1.5

DC Supply AC Supply
. AC analysis and DC analysis

DC analysis
voltage source Switch
2 2-28
.

AC analysis Frequency
response
Figure 28-2
:
Magnitude
.

: DC AC

DC
AC Supply DC Signals :

-1 Capacitance and Inductance

: DC Component SS Current
DC . DC Source
-2 Inrush current
DC and AC circuit response
Super Position DC
( ) circuit response AC .
circuit response Inrush current .
. DC source
-3 DC Supply
. Transient

640
 641
:

28.1.6

Transient
( ) SS
Transient
Transient
.Condition L and C
Transient
.Transient

Transient L, R and C
Time Constant .

28.1.7

: AC or DC


.SS :

DC Supply
AC Supply

:

Voltage surges :

642
( )

: Over Voltages
Voltage Swell . Impulse surges

: Voltage
( drop ) . :

.i
.ii
.iii

.iv
.v Voltage Sags

Voltage Instability
Stability.

.
1-28 :IEEE 1159

Table 28-1

642
 643
:

.
644
( )

28.2 DC SUPPLY

( )3-28
V
V/R
Exponentially

Figure 28-3 .

(
)

RC=

4-28 :

SS

Exponentially . Transient

644
 645
:

Figure 28-4

Time Constant RC Transient

Exponential curve %36
( .) e-1 ( )t Time Constant
)e-2 ( %13 TC
. Transient
SS .V

Time Constant, TC 28.2.1

TC
.

-28
.5

Figure 28-5 Different Time constsnt

646
( )

28.3 DC SUPPLY

( )6-28 (
)

L/R=

Time Constant

Figure 28-6 R-L Circuit L/R

( R-C Circuit
) RC
.

X/R ratio
Time Constant

. SS

Figure 28-7 Transient
Time Constant
TC R and L .

2 8-28 source
SS Transient
.

Transient Source
Transient .

646
 647
:

Figure 28-8

28.4 AC SUPPLY

AC Source ) v = Vm sin (t +
R+L SS + Transient :

I = Is + It

SS Circuits
648
( )

Circuits tan-1 XL/R

Transient R-L
Exponentially . Io

Io AC t=0
t = 0 I = 0 Io :

Io Transient
90 .

Sinwave Transient .

648
 649
:

t=0 = = Io
Transient
9-28
Transient . - = /2

Figure 28-9 DC Component

650
( )

Transients .

( )Voltage Surges
.
" " .

28.5

-1 .
-2 Surges
kHz :

/ ( ) -
-
-
-

Voltage Surges .

-3 Surges

( 15 kV )
Discharge

650
 651
:

Anti static.
-4
Ferroresonance
.

Voltage surges 28.5.1

. Surge
V 200 kA 40 kA
.
Surges :

.1 Rise
Time


1-2s
( 1.2 -28
.)10

Figure 28-10 Impulse Wave

.2
50-100 s
50% 10-28
( Voltage surge/ Impulse Wave
. )1.2 x 50 s
Impulse voltage .
.3 Gradient kV .

Surge
. Basic Insulation Level, BIL
.
652
( )

(BIL) Basic Impulse level 28.5.2

Table 28-2
BIL
Surge





.

Surge Voltage
.
.
.

Surge
( )NEC article 280 Surge arrestor
Switching.

3-28
( ):

652
 653
:

Table 28-3

.1 .
.2 / ( )
.3
.4
.5 Ferroresonance
654
( )

28.6 : LIGHTNING

28.6.1

.










( )11-28

Figure 28-11

""
( ) 3x106 V/m = 30 kV/cm .

Leader
Streamer 12-28







Figure 28-12
Leader Streamer

.

654
 655
:

V
200 kA 40 kA
1-2s 50-100 s
50% 10-28 Voltage
surge/ Impulse Wave (. 1.2x50
. )s

28.6.2

. " "impulse transient
.

Travelling Wave
Figure 28-13 Traveling Wave (
)13-28

.

Direct Strokes
/ 200
.

Electric Arc


Arc Gaps ( ).
656
( )

Turns Ratio
XL = 2 f L
.
.

coupling

capacitor, C1 14-28

" turns

Figure 28-14 "ratio .

" ground conductor

"path
15-28 " . "dotted lines

Figure 28-15

.
.

656
 657
:

: 28.6.3

Lighting arrestor
.

Short
( ).
Over voltage
66 325 . IEC

4-28 surge arreter 220 .

.
658
( )

220 Table 28-4

658
 659
:

28.7 ( )

Power System

.
CB
Oscillatory Surges
Travelling Waves
( .)TOV Temporary Overvoltage,

16-28

Figure 28-16

Arcing Voltage .
Restrike
Voltage 17-28 Transient
Voltage
.
Figure 28-17

.

Oscillation
.
660
( )

Oscillation
Losses Overshoot
CB
.

Rate of Rise ( Restrike Voltage ) RRRV

.

Rate of Rise of Restrike Voltage, RRRV Dielectric strength

.

RRRV Recovery Voltage

. Oscillation

CB
Capacitance
( ) Inductance
.
Pure Inductive
90
Figure 28-18 18-28

CB Arc Arc Voltage

CB .

( ) Ind Cap

Restrike Voltage CB
Oscillation .

Restriking Voltage , :

660
 661
:

V ) L (series ind) and C (shunt Cap

( ) Restrike
Voltage .Restrike .
662
( )

CB 28.7.1

Capacitive switching

.19-28

Arc

Figure 28-19 .
arc
.

Restrike Voltage

662
 663
:

Recover Voltage
20-28 Critically
Damped
.
Figure 28-20
664
( )

28.8 / CAPACITOR SWITCHING

Power Quality . Power Conditioning
" "Reactive Power
" . "Power Factor Correction

Filters ( )
FACTs ( )
Converters.

Fixed Bank
Time Constant ( . TC ).

Reactive
Power Overvoltage
Switching .

28.8.1

Capacitor Switching
Oscillatory Transient :

-1 Steep Front Surge .

Short Circuit

Damping

(
)
Figure 28-21
Travelling Wave

664
 665
:

%170 .21-28
-2

.
-3

.

overvoltage switching
lightning lightning
switching
power factor
.

Overvoltages Switching
Overvoltages EHV & UHV System Voltages

300
.
Shunt Reactors .
666
( )

28.8.2

22-28 CB
Stray
Capacitance Unloaded
. .
CB
( 90
)
Figure 28-22

CB 1 ( B CB
Vgm (max of
) Vg
.
A
CB

.23-28

R
CB
2Vgm
Figure 28-23

))(Vgm-(- Vgm

CB Re-Strike
High Frequency Transient
L and C .

Re-strike Voltage
2Vgm Re-

666
 667
:

Strike Volatge 4 Vgm R 5Vgm Positive Peak

. Decaying Oscillatory
Surge Oscillatory Voltage
,
0.5 CV2
0.5 LI2 Resonance Frequency
Surge arrestors
.

:Capacitor switching

over-compensation
fixed reactor . pre-insertion resistor
Surge arrestors

28.9

Transient
Inrush currents .

Resonance
. . 10-15 cycle

24-28
cycles 2pu
.
668
( )

Figure 28-28-24

25-28 50

. BB

50 Figure 28-25

Transients Transient Voltages
.

668
 669
:

28.10 FERRO RESONANCE

Non linear Resonnance ) Non Linear Inductance (Iron core inductor
Disturbance ( Open circuit
) condition
Ferroresonance
.

Ferroresonnace
.

Open circuit
Inductance
.

: RLC 26-28
:

XL = Xc

Figure 28-26
670
( )

28.11 VOLTAGE SURGES

Faraday cage
.

( )
Filters
Voltage limiters Low Voltage
. Surge Arrestprs

Voltage Suges
:

Zener diode

.

670
 671
:

Isolation transformers Inductance

inductive reactance
.
. Turns ratio = 1

( )27-28
.

Figure 28-28-27

Varistor Zener
. (
).
Power Conditioners
672
( )

28.12

:

Sustained Voltage Drop/ Under Voltage : -1

() Voltage Sag/Dip : -2
Voltage Interruption -3
%100
planned outage forced
outage .
Voltage Flicker -4

Under Voltage 28.12.1

%10 %90
( . ) Sag
%10 Interruption .

Figure 28-28

Voltage Drop
%4 %8 (
.)%6-3 .

672
 673
:

Voltage drop
. VD = I.R :

-1
voltage drop .
-2 .voltage drop
-3 contact
resistance voltage drop

( ) Voltage Sag 28.12.2

%10 %90
.
.

Figure 28-29

-1 Voltage Drop

-2 Short Circuit

-3
674
( )

Short Circuit 28.12.3

SLG or 2LG, Phase to phase
.

SLG Sag Phase

two phases Directly Earthed,
. RE = 0
Phase
Phases . :30-28

Figure 28-28-30

N VG
Va Va Vg Phase
Two phases Vb- VG Two
. Different Phases

31-28

674
 675
:

Figure 28-31

28.12.4

6-5


voltage drop ) (R + j X Point of
( Comon Coupling, PCC )32-28 .

.

Power Factor
0,3
. (
)Soft Starting Delta/Star switch or
.
676
( )

Figure 28-32

-1
.
-2

) Voltage Fluctuation (flicker 28.12.5

( )33-28

% 10

.

Figure 28-33

:
-3 .
-4 ( ) .

.
()
.
.
-5 .

676
 677
:

-6 resistance welding
voltage fluctuation

28.12.6

Induction Motors :
-1
.
-2 Voltage Sag
-3
( Constant Power

incandescent lamp
( %90
%70 . )%80
(
) Constant Power

fluorescent lamp
Chock Coil
. ( )70%
Electronic Ballast
.
678
( )

high intensity discharge - metal halide

%80
10
.

Reactive Power . %90
Q ( %81 )
.

(P
) = V x I cos
. 10%
CB
.
.

28.12.7

.
:

.1 ()Power Conditioners
.2 ()voltage regulator
.3 ( )emergency power generators
.4 ( ) battery backup .UPS

Power Conditioners 28.12.8

678
 679
:

Power Conditioners ( )electric noise

( .)voltage regulation . 34-28

Figure 28-34 Power Conditioners

Power Conditioners:

-1 ( :)Isolation Transformer
Power Conditioners
. ( .)magnetic shielding
.

-2 ( )voltage regulator

. Power Conditioners .

:
-1 / Manual/Auto Tap switches regulator
-2 Ferroresonance Regulator
-3 Magnetic synthesizers

) (tap- switchers
80 145 110 125 .
.

)(Ferro resonant regulators

.
680
( )

Ferro resonant/Constant voltage transformer

500VA 1:1 Excitation
) (saturation curve ) (output voltage
))Constant-Voltage Transformers(CVTs

-3

) Uninterruptible power supply (UPS

UPS
. UPS :

On-line UPS
( )35-28 UPS
inverter .

Figure 28-35 On-Line UPS

Standby UPS (Off-line UPS

( )36-28
UPS ATS (Automatic
) . Transfer Switch ATS 4 ms .

680
 681
:

Figure 28-36 Off-Line UPS

 29
Power System Stability

Stability

Synchronization
Blackout .

29.1 STABILITY

IEEE CIGRE Stability

Disturbance . 1-29
 683
:

Figure 29-1

P and Q
. Stable

Power System :

Frequency
Rotor Angle/ Power Angle
Voltage



Islanding
.

Rotor angle
90 90
Stability margin .
684
( )

29.2

Interconnected
Networks
:

-1 = Loss +
-2 Synchronized

-3 Frequency ( ) 50/60 Hz
-4 BBs
-5
.

. Disturbance
. Short and long term disturbance

29.3

IEEE Stability
:

-1
-2
-3 Rotor angle

684
 685
:

. 2-29
.
Stability.

Figure 299-2 IEEE Stability Classification

Rotor Angle Stability 29.3.1

Rotor Angle Stability Synchronous Machines

Synchronism
Synchronous Generator
.

small disturbance Steady State Stability

large disturbance Transient Stability

Unstabilitity Out Of Step

Unsynchrounism
686
( )

Frequency Stability 29.3.2

Power Deficit

.

Voltage Stability 29.3.3

Disturbance .
Q (
Field .) Q

Steady-state voltage stability :

Dynamic Voltage Stability :

-1 Rotor Angle Stability

Electric- torque Mechanical Torque
-2 Frequency Stability Active Power
.
-3 Voltage Stability
.Reactive Power

686
 687
:

Stability 29.3.4

Power System Stable

Stable .
:

-1 Power system Non-Linear System

System Response

Linear System Non-Linear System
.Linear System

-2 Power System Disturbance

Short circuit
Circuit Breakers Power flow
BBs
Voltage Regulators
Frequency . Governors
. Stability

.
688
( )

ROTOR ANGLE STABILITY 29.4

-1 Rotor Magnetic Field -Rotor

- ( ).

-2 Stator Magnetic Field Three phase voltages

three phase windings
Three phase currents three phase windings
. Rotating field

- - Synchronous speed, N
P F

N = 120 F/P

Rotor ) T (Mechanical
Rotor magnetic field Stator

Stator magnetic Field
.

Rotor Angle 29.4.1

) T(Electric) = T (Mechanical :
Rotor magnetic field Stator magnetic Field Synchronous
speed, N Rotor field Stator field Rotor angle
Phase shift.

688
 689
:

Rotor Angle 29.4.2

Rotor Angle, Rotor

Rotor
Rotor and Stator Fields
.

)T(Electric) > T (Mechanical

Rotor Governor
Rotor Stator Field
" "Rotor
Stator Field
Power angle .

Rotor Angle 29.4.3

Rotor Angle
Power Angle

Transfer Power Capacity
V2 and Vt
Transmission Line .X

12 Power
Angle

Rotor angle

.

Figure 299-29-3
690
( )

90 ( )
.3-29

Rotor Angle 29.4.4

Rotor angles
Load shedding
. Transient Stability
Transient Stability .

Transient stability
.
( )
( )Steady State Stability Linear
.Equations

Rotor angle Stability

( )
Power Quality .

Transient Stability Equal Area

Criteria . Transient Stability

690
 691
:

29.5 EQUAL AREA CRITERIA

Equal Area Criteria 29.5.1

Pe = Pm 4-29
Rotor angle, 90
.

Initial Output, P0
a 0 .

Changed Output, Ps
.

Figure 29-4

a b
( ) de-acceleration ( E
) ( )I = V-E/X
692
( )

Pe 0 s
b .Pe = Pm

Oscillation b
b Spinning Energy of
heavy Rotor m .c

A1 and A2
. A1
A2 .

Equal Area Criteria

A1 A2 Oscillations
m 90 . Out of Step

b . b c Pe
Pm , E ( ( )I = V-E/X

b b
Damping .

5-29 Case-a A2=A1

A1=A2
Case-c . A1>A2

692
 693
:

Figure 299-29-4

Stability 29.5.2

:6-29

Figure 29-6

Power angle 0
s 90
. stability margin
694
( )

6-29 0 25
60
Oscillations
.

( Disturbance )
s Inertia
Oscillations
m 0 7-29
A1 and A2 .Oscillations

( )
A1>A2 7-29
.

Figure 29-7

(
).

694
 695
:

29.5.3

8-29
. 0 Pre-fault
During Fault

c Clearing . A1=A2
.

Figure 29-8

( c ) o
A1>>A2 .Out of step
696
( )

FREQUENCY STABILITY 29.6

Load output Power Generated input power

9-29



(
)
Figure 29-9 .

.

49.2 HZ
.50.3 HZ .10-29

Figure 29-10

29.7 INERTIA

Inertia Hz/MW Inertia

11-29
Inertia .
.

696
 697
:

Figure 29-11 Effect of Generator inertia on the Stability

29.7.1

Bands 12-29 :

Figure 29-12

DB: Dead Band -1

F.C: Frequency Correction -2

Governor

AGC: Automatic Generation Control -3

698
( )

UF: Under Frequency -4

Load shedding
.

OF: Over Frequency -5

Blackout
.

.
.

Hz

%2 49.2

%3 49.1

%4 49

%7 48.9

%20 48.8

%20 48.7

%22 48.6

29.8 POWER DEFICIT

Governor

698
 699
:

Load Shedding
.Blackout

: 29.8.1

: (1s to 15s) Primary control

primary control .governor

.

):Secondary control (15s to 3min

primary control
primary control
secondary control

: Tertiary control

secondary control
secondary control
.

:Time control

.
700
( )

VOLTAGE STABILITY 29.9

Stability
.
Stability Voltage Stability
:

Voltage Fluctuations
Voltage Flickers
Voltage Collapse
Voltage Stability
Stability .

. Demand and Load Supply

Rotor Angle Stability Voltage

Stability Loads
.

cascaded outage . Blackout

Stability Rotor angle instability

BBs.

700
 701
:

29.10 VOLTAGE STABILITY

1. Dynamic Voltage Stability

2. Static Voltage Stability

Fluctuation Fast acting devices

Induction Motors HVDC
20-10 .short term phenomenon

Tap Changing Transformers
Long term phenomenon

29.10.1 Voltage Collapse

BB .
Short Circuit
BB
Voltage Instability Voltage
Collapse .

29.11

.P-V and Q-V

.12-29

Figure 299-29-5 :
702
( )

= sin

2
= + cos

VR :

2 4
= 2 2 2
2 4

P-V 13-29
Nose curve . ( Load1
)or Load2
:

Figure 29-13

-1 ( )


Stability Margin Load1. Load2

702
 703
:

Stability
Margin
-1 ( ) Unstable
- -
Voltage Collapse
.
(
) Voltage drop
= .
-2 Short Circuit

Short Circuit

SC SC.

29.12

2 4
= 2 2 2
2 4

VR Q 14-29
704
( )

Figure 29-14 Q-V curve

Q
Voltage collapse..

15-29 Q
Q
P Q
Supply Q
. Voltage Collapse Active Power
. P

Q
P
Q .

704
 705
:

Figure 29-15 Q-V curves under different loads

Due to the power transmission over long transmission lines, there
will be increase in the voltage level, especially under no-loads conditions. This
increase may reach a higher value that could badly effect the equipments.
Thevoltage
L
increase is due Cto
the Ferranti of
effect the
Q transmission
16-line
29
(under no-load there is no complete consumption of the reactive power,
. V
therefore the voltage will increase). To reduce this capacitive reactive power
and hence reduce the voltage level, we would add Inductor banks to
compensate the capacitive power .

Figure 29-16

Qr = QS QL

Vs = Vr Qr = 0 QL = QS -1

Vs > Vr Qr = + QL > QS -2
706
( )

-3 QL < QS Qr = - Vs < Vr

Voltage Dip

Ferranti Effect .
Q

29.13 ( )

.
:

-1 Xline
Source
Load


X
P-V
( -29
) 17
Figure 29-17
Stability Limit
.

-2 Starting

. Voltage drop Constant Power Devices

706
 707
:

( ) P= V . I
.

-3 .
Stability Margin PF
. .

29.13.1

-2 Nose Curve 18-29

Stability
Limit Leading PF
.

Figure 29-18

-3
.
-4
Noze Curve
.
708
( )

29.14

: 29.14.1

.1 Exciter
.
.2 Reactors 500. (
165 / ) :
).
.3 ( 500. 3
65 / )
.4 66/220 220 /500.
.5 Tap Changer
11/66.
.6 Series Capacitive Compensation -29
.19

P-Q Curve Q P
.

Figure 29-19 Series Compensation

708
 709
:

.7 Dynamic Voltage support Dynamic

Reactive Power Support .20-29

Figure 29-20

: 29.14.2

-1 :

.

-2 :

.

: 15% QC
Sn
710
( )

: : 15% QC
Sn

( ) : QC

(..) : Sn

( 6 12)

:

()
""
( )HRC .
( )Regulator ..
.
( )CT
.

-3 DG
Distributed
Generation, DG (
)
. DG
( )
.

21-29
Nose Curve DG Stability Margin
.

710
 711
:

Figure 299-29-6

-4 .

Nose Curve Load Shedding

-5

Network Reconstruction Network
.Reconfiguration

-6
DG
.
712
( )

-1
-2 Stability Limit
Optimization Techniques

-3 VAR Compensators
( )
Dynamic
.Stability

712
714
()

30
HARMONICS
voltage signals sin wave .

.
.
sin wave Phase
. angle

Linear Load
.

non-linear loads
Power Electronocs, PE Speed Drives
switching power DC supply
. supplies

. Harmonocs

714
 715
:

30.1 HARMONICS

sin
wave Non-
linear . %50
non linear loads .

rectifier circuits pure sin

Bridge .SCR 1-30 Input
Output () Output Voltage
. Phasor Diagrams

Figure 300-30-1

Rectifier circuits SCR

2-30 Pure sin ( ) .

Figure 300-30-2 SCR Rectifier

716
()

.PE

30.1.1

Spectrum Analyzer
( Fourier Transform )3-30
50Hz
50Hz
- ( ) -
. Harmonics

( )H5 H7 H3
( .)H6H4H2
50
5 50 . 250Hz
Figure 300-30-3

Even harmonics
half symmetrical wave Sin
Full symmetrical waveforms .

4-30

Fundamental

)150 Hz (Third Harmonic

)250 Hz (Fifth Harmonic

)350 Hz (seventh Harmonic

Figure 300-30-4
Resultant
.

716
 717
:

Spectrum -30
.5

Figure 300-30-5

.6-30

Figure 300-6

Harmonics 30.1.2

Harmonics PE
( ) 50Hz


718
()

50Hz
.7-30

L3 Linear Load
BBs
. Voltage drop

L2
Non Linear
V2= I2 x Z2
Figure 300-7 . V1= I1 x Z1

BBs
Impedances, Z1, Z2 Z
.

-1 .
( )
.
-2 Short circuit Capacity ( Strong Grid
Xgrid) Harmonics ) ) Z times I
. 8-30

Figure 300-8
.

30.2 : HARMONICS

:
.1 PE LED

718
 719
:

.2
.3
.4

: Power Electronics 30.2.1

Rectifiers Inverters . Drives

.




.

6-Pulse Converter 12-Pulse converters

.UPS DC AC .
9-30 AC 6-pulse Inverter AC 12-pulse
. Inverter
.

Figure 300-9

Converter p-pulse .pk1 p

pulse K ( )....... 3 2 1
720
()

. 6-Pulse 6k1
5 711 ( 13 ).

12-Pulse 11 12k113 23 25 .
49 .
12-Pulse .6-Pulse

18-pulse ( ) 37 35 19 17
.

: 30.2.2

.
%30 .

. Compact Florescent Lamp CFL

.

720
 721
:

Table 30-1

Table 30-2
722
()

Table 30-3

.1 High Performance, HP
THD
. IEC 61000 -3-2
. THD
. %18
.2 ( )Low Performance, LP
THD %100 .

10-30 .

722
 723
:

Figure 30-10

CFL 25 ( low performance

) . :

( )power 22
( 0.158 )current
( )( 0.66 (lead) )total power factor
( 0.92 (lead) )displacement power factor

:
724
()

724
 725
:

:
726
()

". "Arc furnaces 30.2.3

. ""Short Circuit


" "Harmonics
.

:

( )B-H curve 11-30
non-linearity c/c

.

726
 727
:

Figure 300-11

Saturation .
.

4-30 .

Table 30-4
728
()

30.3 .

150
250
. Phase Sequence

three phases
Phase Sequence Zero Sequence
.Currents

three phases :

three phases
Negative
.Sequence Currents

Positive Sequence
Currents

728
 729
:

12-30

Figure 30-12

5-30 Phase Sequence .

Table 30-5
730
()

Phase Sequence .
Harmonic Cancellation
.

30.4

:
-1 Individual Harmonic Distortion
( )
-2 Total Harmonic Distortion
( )

Individual Harmonic Distortion

() .

Total Harmonic Distortion

() .

THD .

. IHD

Fundamental = V1 = 114 V
3rd harmonic = V3 = 4 V

730
 731
:

5th harmonic = V5 = 2 V
7th harmonic = V7 = 1.5 V
9th harmonic = V9 = 1 V

Individual Harmonic Distortion

30.5 .

. .

: 30.5.1

Losses .
732
()

Eddy current Losses

Hysteresis loss

- -
K-Factor
.

K-Factor 30.5.2

Hi Speed-
Electronic Switches Discharge Lamp
Non-Linear loads
Harmonics .

. K-4 Transformers
%50
. 6-30 K-Factor
.

732
 733
:

Table 30-6

K-Factor 30.5.3

.
Fundamental

= 12 + 32 + 52 +. .

1 3
= 1 = 3

= 12 12 + 32 32 + 52 52 + .
k-Factor
734
()

K-Factor :

200A of fundamental (60 Hz),

30A of 3rd harmonic,
48A of 5th harmonic
79A of 7th harmonic.

222 K-Factor .9

30.5.4

:

.

Skin
effect
) variable frequency drives (VFDs
Rotor
.

734
 735
:

Crawling and cogging are related to space harmonics. The above question is about
time harmonics.The speed of an IM with respect to nth harmonic is nNs where
Ns is the synchronous speed of the motor with respect to fundamental voltage
harmonic. Morover 3rd harmonic is destroyed in 3 phase windings of IM.5th
harmonic is negative sequence harmonic .hence it rotates at -5Ns with respect to
the rotor speed.7th is a positive sequence harmonic and rotates at 7Ns ,11th
negative and so on... For negative sequence harmonics ,slip is >1 where as for
positive sequence harmonics s<1
In this way the rotor gets the tendency to reverse its direction of rotation back
and forth .Also additional losses are attatched with these harmonics which all
together result in a pulsating nature of torque under non sinusoidal voltage
)supply(combination of harmonics

.
negative sequnce Reverse Torque
Breaking Torque

3-phase currents Rotating
Field Air gap
.neqative sequence torgues

Skin Effect

.

Skin Effect
Dielectric losses :

.
736
()

"."Neutral Cables

Neutral (
) " " Balanced " "Unbalanced
.

" "Harmonics Phase

Angle
" "Over heating

Full size neutral conductor
. Reduced neutral size
3*240+120 2 120 2 240*4 2
.

Neutral Earth
( . )IEEE1100-92

:
choke coils .

( ) )P.F = P/(V.I
50Hz True PF
:

736
 737
:

13-30
THD-i

Figure 300-30-13

7-30 .

Table 30-7

.
738
()

:

.Aveage

THD
%100 (
.) 50Hz

Power factor
. True PF :

displacement power factor

distortion power factor .

true PF
7-30.

= 2
1

30.6

. Resonance

SVC
) ( Inductive reactance
) ( Capacitive reactance
.

738
 739
:

30.6.1

fn L = 1/c

- - =
) Short circuit (Z= 0 Short .

Fn 800 1000 ( LS and CS

)Indactance and capacitance of the source
50 .

:
limitation
.

: .

30.6.2

Self
capacitance XCS XL Self capacitance
Equivalent reactance, XLS Short Circuit capacity, SCC
.14-30

Figure 300-14
740
()

Network
inductance . 15-30

Figure 300-15

30.6.3

16-30
. BB .

Short
. .

Figure 300-3016

740
 741
:

30.7 :

IEEE 519-1992 30.7.1

.Point of Common Coupling PCC

1- 2 3
. SCC/ILoad

) SCC (
BB
.
742
()

742
 743
:

4 :

Individual Voltage Distortion Total Harmonic

. Distortion %50
.

IEC 61000-3-2 16
. THD .individual harmonic distortion
.

2.3 order .THD

744
()

30.8

-1
BBs .
-2 non linearity
. magnitaization
-3 .
-4 %30
%15 .
-5
:

hr = resonant frequency as a multiple of the fundamental frequency
kVAsc = short circuit current as the point of study
kVARc = capacitor rating at the system voltage

Filters .
Filters :

"Passive Harmonic Filters ".

"Active Harmonic Filters " .
"Compound Harmonic Filters".

- : " . "Passive Harmonic Filters 30.8.1

" "filters : .

744
 745
:

17-30 L
C


" . "Harmonics
" . " 5th , 7th

Figure 300-17

5th 3rd 7th order

.

harmonic current
%30 electric drives
.
series

18-30 L
C
Figure 300-3018

Filters
Neutral .

Filters Filters
.
746
()

- : " . "Active Harmonic Filters 30.8.2

( -30
)19 Filters



(
)
.

Figure 300-19

" "Harmonic Wave + Pure
"" sinusoidal wave = " "distorted current wave
( ) .
.

: ". "Compound Harmonic Filters 30.8.3

" "active harmonic filter " "passive filter

" "Resonance
Filters ""passive & Active filter
Compound . Hybrid

" "5th ,7th harmonic order " "passive filter harmonic

" " orders " "Active filter " "coordination
Filters ". "power Quality performance

Harmonic Cancellation 30.8.4

. Harmonic Cancellation
Magnitude and Angle (

746
 747
:

) Balanced Three Phases Filters

. Resonance

-1 ( ) D/Y + Y.Y .
-2 Phase Shifting Transformer
Magnitude Turns Ratio
Magnitude Angle (
) .
-3
( )cancellation ()mitigation
.

Harmonic Cancellation 30.8.5

.
.

.1
.2 CFL
.3
.4

:
748
()

748
 749
:

:
750
()

cancellation

LED
. light dimmer

750
 751
:

.
752
()

30.9

variable speed drives

.

30.9.1

750
kVA BB B2
5 MVA

.20-30

Figure 30-20

Six Pulses Inverters
5 711
.
BB-B2

. 21-30

Power
Analyzer

Figure 300-21 .

5 7 11
%3 .

752
 753
:

30.9.2

Y/Y
/Y



phase shift 30
.22-30
phase shift
Cancellation .

Figure 300-22
754
()

Power
Analyzer
.

11

.

.

BB B2


.

23-30
. 11

Figure 300-23

754
 755
:

1 (Low Pressure
2 Absulute Temprature
3 Admittance

4 Arcing Ground
5 Arrestor

6 Automatic Voltage Regulator

7 Base Load

8 Blackout
9 blackstart

10 Boiler
11 Bruches

12 Bundle Conductors
13 Capacitance
14 Capacitive Reactance
15 Chimney
16 Circulating current

17 Combined cycle
18 common service building

19 COMMUNICATION
20 compressor

21 Condenser
22 Dampers
23 Demand Mangment

24 Digital Protection

25 Disc
26 Distance realy
27 Dry Transformer
756

28 Economizer
29 Electric Field

30 Excitation
31 Exciter

32 Field Current

33 fire fighting pump

34 Flashover
35 Flux Linkage

36 Frequency

37 Generator

38 Governor
39 Governor Valve

40 Guard Rings
41 Healthy Phases
Heat Recovery Steam
42 Generator, HRSG

43 Impedance

44 in operation

45 in service

46 Inductance
47 Inductive reactance

48 Infinite Bus Bar

49 inverters

50 Load Curve

51 Load Demand

52 Load Factor

53 Load sharing
54 Load Shedding

55 Max Demand

56 Mechanical Torque

57 off load tap changer

58 Open Circuit

756
 757
:

59 Parameters

60 Partial Discharge
61 Peak Load

62 phase sequence
63 phase shift

64 Phases

65 Power

66 Power Angle

67 power factors

68 Power Loss

69 Reactive Power

70 Reactor

71 Receiving End

72 Rectifiers

73 Reheater

74 Resistive Loads

75 reverse power relay

76 Rotor
77 Series Capacitors
78 Shunt Capacitors
79 Shunt reactors
80 Single Line Diagram

81 skin effect

82 Spacer
83 spark gap

84 spinning reserve

85 stability

86 Stability limit

87 Starting Motor

88 Stator
89 steam valve

90 String
758

91 Synchronized
92 synchronous speed

93 Tariff
94 thermal limit

95 Tidal
96 Transients

97 Travelling Waves
98 turbine shaft

99 Vents

100 Voltage drop

101 Voltage Gradient
102
103
104

758
 759
:

U

-1
-2
-3
-4 1998
-5 2005
-6
-7
-8
-9
-10
-11 ( )2016
-12 .
-13 .

1- Electric Power Substation Engineering, 2nd Eddition, Edited by John D.
McDonald, CRC press, 2007.
2- IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution for
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3- Power Plant Engineering, A.K.Raja, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers,
2006.
4- Principles of Power Systems, V.K. Mehta
5- Elements of Power System Analysis, William Stevenson, McGrow-Hill
Publishing, 4th edition
6- Electrical Technology, B. L. Theraja, 2005
7- SUBSTATION GROUNDING, Inna Baleva, MASTER OF SCIENCE,
2012
8- IEEE Definition and Classification of Power System Stability, IEEE
TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 19, NO. 2, MAY 2004
760

9- ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM BASICS For the Nonelectrical

Professional, Steven W. Blume, A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.,
PUBLICATION, 2007
10- Power quality / C. Sankaran, CRC Press, 2002.
11- ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM BASICS For the Nonelectrical
Professional, Steven W. Blume, A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.,
PUBLICATION, 2007
12- Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems, T. Wildi, 6th edition,
2008.
13- Electrical energy conversion and transport : an interactive computer-
based approach /George G. Karady, Keith E. Holbert. , IEEE press,
Second edition, 2013.
14- HV Substation Design: Applications and Considerations, Dominik
Pieniazek, P.E. Mike Furnish, P.E. IEEE CED, 2015

760
 761
: