Irrigation Methods

UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL PEDRO RUIZ GALLO
REPORT
IRRIGATION METHODS AND APPLICATION EXAMPLES OF THE CHAVIMOCHIC
PROJECT AND THE OLMOS PROJECT
FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, SYSTEMS AND ARCHITECTURE

PROFESSIONAL CIVIL ENGINEERING SCHOOL
APPLIED HYDRAULICS
LAMBAYEQUE 2017
Index
IRRIGATION METHODS ................................................................................................................. 1

SURFACE IRRIGATION............................................................................................................... 1
1. CONCEPT........................................................................................................................... 1
2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF SURFACE IRRIGATION. .................................... 1
3. SURFACE IRRIGATION METHODS. ............................................................................. 2
A. WATER IRRIGATION. ................................................................................................. 2
Concept........................................................................................................................ 2
Advantage.................................................................................................................... 2
Forms of the furrows. .................................................................................................. 2
Design of Furrow Irrigation ........................................................................................ 4
a. Section of the Furrows. ........................................................................................... 4
b. Separation of furrows .............................................................................................. 5
c. Slope of the Furrows. .............................................................................................. 7
d. Length of furrows .................................................................................................... 8
e. Irrigation Flow......................................................................................................... 8
B. CORRUGATION OR WHIPS. ....................................................................................... 9
Characteristics. ............................................................................................................ 9
Irrigation Design by Fajas. ........................................................................................ 10
a. Earring of the Girdles. ....................................................................................... 12
b. Width of the Girdles. ......................................................................................... 12
c. Length of the Girdles......................................................................................... 13
d. Flow................................................................................................................... 13
C. FLOODING BY FLOODING....................................................................................... 14
Characteristics. .......................................................................................................... 14
Design of Flood Irrigation. ........................................................................................ 15
a. Ways of performing irrigation by compartments: .......................................... 17
b. Sizes of compartments.................................................................................... 18
Subsurface Irrigation ..................................................................................................................... 20
1.1. Design ........................................................................................................................... 22
1.2. The KISSSTM wick system ........................................................................................... 24
1.3. Installation ..................................................................................................................... 25
1.4. Inspection ...................................................................................................................... 26
1.5. Operation ....................................................................................................................... 26
1.6. Common technical issues .............................................................................................. 26
1.7. Case study ..................................................................................................................... 27
METHODS OF PUMPED IRRIGATION .................................................................................... 31
3.1. WATER SOURCES ...................................................................................................... 33
a. Rivers and lakes ............................................................................................................ 33
b. Shallow groundwater..................................................................................................... 33
c. Deep groundwater ......................................................................................................... 33
3.2. PUMPS .......................................................................................................................... 33
a. Pump types .................................................................................................................... 33
b. Pump Characteristics ..................................................................................................... 36
c. Pump selection .............................................................................................................. 38
3.3. Methods of irrigation ..................................................................................................... 39
There are three methods of pumped irrigation commonly used. ............................................... 39
a. Surface irrigation ........................................................................................................... 39
b. Sprinkler irrigation ........................................................................................................ 40
c. Trickle irrigation ........................................................................................................... 40
TECHNICAL IRRIGATION SYSTEM ....................................................................................... 41
REFLECTIONS ........................................................................................................................ 41
WHAT IS WATERING TECHNIQUE? .................................................................................. 42
WHY TECHNIQUE IRRIGATION? ....................................................................................... 42
GRAVITY-TECNIFIED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS ................................................................ 42
A. IRRIGATION SYSTEM WITH SLEEVES ................................................................. 42
B. MULTICOMPUERTAS IRRIGATION SYSTEM ...................................................... 43
C. IMPULSE OR FLAMMABLE IRRIGATION SYSTEM ............................................ 43
MAIN PRESSURE TECHNIQUE IRRIGATION SYSTEMS. ............................................... 44
A. IRRIGATION SYSTEM BY ASPERSION .................................................................. 44
B. MICRO SPRAY IRRIGATION SYSTEM ................................................................... 45
C. DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM ..................................................................................... 46
D. EXHAUST IRRIGATION SYSTEM ........................................................................... 49
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................. 50
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................. 50
WEBOGRAPHY:.................................................................................................. 50
IRRIGATION METHODS APPLIED
CHAVIMOCHIC PROJECT AND THE OLMOS PROJECT HYDRAULICS
IRRIGATION METHODS
SURFACE IRRIGATION.
1. CONCEPT.
It includes the irrigation methods in which the conduction of water from the distribution
system (channels or pipes) to any point on the plot to be irrigated is carried out directly
on the soil surface.
All the methods of superficial irrigation have in common that the energy necessary for
the movement of the water is achieved by the use of the difference of height of the
ground, also for that reason they are called by gravity.
The water is applied to the ground in the highest zone and from there flows to the lower
ones, decreasing the flow as it infiltrates the ground.
Surface irrigation has been used since remote times by man, and today despite
technological advances is the one that occupies the largest surface irrigated in many
places on earth.
2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF SURFACE IRRIGATION.

The ground is required to have a uniform surface and smooth slopes, in order to
obtain an adequate and homogeneous distribution of water, as well as to avoid
excessive runoff and soil erosion.
Normally, prior to the implementation of the system, some kind of leveling and
systematization of the terrain is necessary, in order to achieve a smooth and
even slope.
This type of irrigation is best suited to deep soils with high water holding
capacity.
It is more complex to use in a few deep soils, with low water retention capacity
and higher infiltration velocity. For these soil characteristics, sprinkler or drip
irrigation systems are better suited.
Gravity irrigation is the least efficient in terms of water use, between 40 and
50%, which is not recommended when water is very scarce or very expensive.
In this method the irrigator controls less the irrigation depth (amount of water
applied), compared to the sprinkler or drip irrigation.
To be effective or efficient, large sheets should be applied, ie large volumes of
water per unit area (Ha) and therefore prolonged intervals between irrigations.
Irrigation by gravity compared to other systems is the cheapest, but also the one
that occupies more labor for its execution.
1 PROFESSIONAL CIVIL ENGINEERING SCHOOL - UNPRG

3. SURFACE IRRIGATION METHODS.

Different variants exist in the system of superficial irrigation, but in general they can be
summarized in three basic systems:
A. WATER IRRIGATION.
Concept.
It consists of the use of small channels or furrows parallel to the planting line,
during the time necessary for the water to infiltrate and moisten the root zone of the
crop. It is important in the system that, in addition to vertically infiltrating the
water, it is also done laterally, towards the sides of the groove, where the roots of
the plants are found.
Advantage.
Can be used in any crop that is watered in rows (cereals, oilseeds, fruit
vegetables, etc.).
The initial cost of the system is lower compared to spraying.
The maintenance cost is practically nil.
The labor required for operation is reduced.
It is applicable to furrows with lengths of 200 to 1,000 m.
Requires low energy consumption, the typical working pressure is 0.3 kg /
cm2, being lower if the dam is used as a water source.
You save between 30 and 50% of water compared to continuous flow
irrigation.
Up to 25% nitrogen fertilizer is saved, when fertirrigation is used.
Forms of the furrows.

Row irrigation is the usual of in-line crops, in the furrow the water runs at the
bottom and the plants generally occupy the loins of the same, as shown in Figure
1.1.
Figure 1.1. Shape of the Grooves

The number of rows that are irrigated simultaneously can be adjusted to the
available flow rate. The investment cost is very low and the furrow construction can
be carried out by the farmer himself. This type of surface irrigation has limitations
on the risk of erosion, high runoff at the end of the furrow and high infiltration in
sandy soils.
Linear grooves are the most frequent but when there is a steep slope, this is avoided
by the contour grooves as shown in Figure 1.2. In certain occasions to increase the
length of the grooves can be designed in zig-zag form, figure 1.3.
Figure 1.2. Types of rows a) Linear b) Contour
Figure 1.3. Furrows in Zig - Zag.

Design of Furrow Irrigation

Furrow irrigation is advisable for crops susceptible to excess moisture at the foot of
stems and for others that are grown in rows, such as corn, potato, sunflower, cotton,
beet, etc.
Irrigation usually takes place in two operations: wetting of the furrow and irrigation
proper. Wetting will be done as quickly as possible so that the difference in water
infiltrated at the ends of the groove is as low as possible, and this requires that as
much flow as possible is produced without soil erosion.
When the water reaches the end of the furrow, the irrigation itself begins, making a
modification of the flow according to the intensity of absorption of the soil. It is
necessary to take into account that the speed of infiltration decreases quickly when
the soil is saturated with water and, consequently, in this second stage the water
runs more in the first sections and infiltrates more in the last ones.
In the design of furrow irrigation, all the factors involved in the infiltration (shape,
width, slope and length of the groove and precise flow) must be combined in order
to make the water distribution as uniform as possible
a. Section of the Furrows.

The cross-section of the groove must be wide enough to drive the necessary flow.
The most common form is the open "V" section, with a height that varies, mainly,
with the type of crop: for crops in a single row by furrow and reduced frame a
height of 20 cm is usually given, while in crops with a larger frame, with one or two
rows of plants per groove, it can reach up to a height of 80 cm (figure 1.4).
In clay soils with low infiltration velocity, the wet perimeter can be increased by
making U-shaped grooves, with anchor width of 20-40 cm in vegetables and up to
60 cm in fruit trees. In these soils, the "U" section grooves have the advantage over
the "V" sections that the wet perimeter varies little with the height of the water and,
therefore, the infiltration is more uniform.

Figura 1.4. Dimensiones del surco. a) Suelo arenoso, b) Suelo arcilloso
b. Separation of furrows
The distance between the axis of the grooves depends on the following factors: type
of soil, type of crop and machinery to be used.
The main objective in determining the separation of the furrows is to ensure that the
lateral movement of water between two consecutive furrows wet the whole of the
root zone of the plant before it reaches depths higher than those foreseen in the
irrigation and there are water losses by deep percolation. The horizontal and vertical
movement of the water in the soil depends, fundamentally, on its texture (figure
1.5).
In sandy soils the water penetrates more deeply than laterally. In these soils
the maximum spacing of the furrows will be 50 cm.
In soils of medium texture there is an infiltration compensated vertically
and horizontally. The grooves can have a separation of 50 to 100 cm.
In clay soils, the water penetrates more quickly horizontally than in the
vertical direction, so that the furrows can have a separation of up to 1.50 m.

Figure 1.5. Moistening. a) Sandy soil; b) Free floor; c) Clay soil
If the spacing between furrows is greater than the recommendations set forth above,
adequate wetting will not be achieved as can be seen in Figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6 (a) Ideal moistening; b) Excessive furrow spacing
However, even if the spacing between grooves is correct if inadequate or very high
flow rates are used, the wetting achieved may be insufficient or excessive (Figure
1.7).

Figure 1.7. a) Small flow rate; (b) Excessive flow
Sometimes, in practice, it is not possible to accommodate the separation of the

furrows from the soil texture, since cultivation and machinery must be taken into
account.
c. Slope of the Furrows.
The uniformity of irrigation is achieved, apart from other considerations, when the
grooves have the same slope over its entire length, otherwise, areas with water
shortage and others with excess, can lead to flooding and water overflows of a
groove to another. In addition, in the areas of greater slope can cause erosion.
The velocity of the water in the groove is in direct ratio with the flow and with the
slope, and in inverse ratio of the roughness of the groove.
Increasing the slope of the furrows increases the speed of the water and there is
more danger of erosion. Sandy soils are more erodible than clay soils. The optimum
slope is between 0.2 and 0.5%, and can reach up to a maximum of 2%.

d. Length of furrows
The length of the grooves is conditioned by the following factors.
o Economy: as the length of the grooves decreases, the labor needs and the
costs of the installation increase.
o Soil texture: in sandy soils, the length of the furrows must be limited, to
avoid the long permanence of the water in the first sections of the furrow,
with the consequent losses by deep percolation.
o Cultivation: deep-rooted plants need more irrigation than shallow roots;
therefore, in those can increase the length of the grooves, in order to
increase the permanence of the water in them.
In view of these considerations, it will be necessary to find a balance between the

consequences that result from the long (cheaper) or shorter (greater irrigation
efficiency) furrows.
With gentle slopes (less than 0.3%) the length of the groove may increase as the
slope increases, but from that figure the length of the groove must be reduced as the
slope increases, since the slope must be reduced water flow to prevent erosion.
e. Irrigation Flow.
The flow of each groove must be adjusted to the length and slope of the groove and
to the nature of the soil. The higher flow rate corresponds to a faster advance of the
water in the groove. Generally, the greatest use of irrigation is achieved when
wetting the furrow is done with the fastest possible advance, and this requires using
the maximum flow rate that does not cause erosion (non-erosive maximum flow).
Once the water has reached the end of the groove, the flow rate is reduced so that it
meets only the infiltration rate requirements, and is maintained until the end of the
irrigation (permanent flow).
In long grooves the maximum non-erosive flow rate is calculated with the formula:
Q max = non-erosive maximum flow rate expressed in l / s
P = furrow slope expressed in percentage (%)

The values obtained with this formula are suitable for soils of medium texture and
slope of more than 0.15%. In clay soils can increase the flow, and in the sandy will
have to decrease.
The permanent flow rate is calculated according to the average infiltration velocity
in the groove. The infiltration velocity values for different types of soil are shown
in Table 1.1.
The irrigation time will be that necessary to supply the dose of irrigation. If this
irrigation dose is supplied with the permanent flow, it is assured that the plants at
the end of the furrow have the necessary amount of water, but surely there will be
significant deep percolation in the first sections when the furrow is too long. In
order to know more accurately the amount of water provided by each section, the
maximum flow and the permanent flow are used in the field.
Table 1.1. Infiltration speed according to the type of soil
B. CORRUGATION OR WHIPS.
Characteristics.
In this type of irrigation, the terrain is divided into narrow rectangular strips, called
strips or melgas, separated from each other by longitudinally arranged ridges.
Supply ditches are usually made on the upper exterior of the girdles, and drainage
channels at the lower end. The water runs along the strips forming a thin sheet that
gradually infiltrates as it advances, as shown in Figure 1.8.

Figure 1.8. Irrigation by strips.
The dimensions (width and length) and slope of the girdles will be conditioned by
the type of soil and the availability of flow, so that the water advance does not last
too long and avoid excessive losses through deep infiltration at the head, and
achieve a good uniformity.
This type of irrigation is often used in extensive crops such as alfalfa, grasses,
cereals, as well as tree crops.
It is used in little pronounced hills, where it would be very expensive to form

horizontal plots. The strips follow the direction of the slope, which for a correct
distribution of water, should be practically uniform.
Irrigation Design by Fajas.
In this method of irrigation the terrain is divided into narrow, rectangular portions,
called strips, amelgas or boards, separated from each other by longitudinally
arranged ridges.
Supply ditches are made at the upper end of the belts and drainage channels at the
lower end. The water runs along the strips forming a thin sheet that is gradually
infiltrating (Figure 1.9); the flow rate must be adequate so that the feed is complete
and there is no high percolation loss.
The ridges are constructed perpendicular to the contour lines and must be of
sufficient height to contain the water within the girdles without overflowing. It is
necessary to take into account that when doing the first irrigation low the height of
the horses, reason why initially they will have a height of 50 - 60 cm. The width of

its base will depend on the stability of the moist soil: in clay soils a width of 60 - 80
cm, while in sandy soils can reach 100 - 120 cm.
The length of the ridge is less than the length of the girdles: in long girdles, they
finish 10-20 m before reaching the end, and in short girdles 5-10 m before the end.
Figure 1.9. Effects of flow. a) Low flow; b) Excessive
This method of irrigation is used, above all, in extensive crops, such as alfalfa, grass
and cereals. The most suitable soils are of medium texture with good permeability,
but can also be used in clay and sandy soils. In clay, the water has to be distributed
slowly, to facilitate its penetration in all the depth of the roots, whereas in the sandy
soils the distribution of the water has to be fast, to avoid the loss of water by deep
percolation.
The water distribution velocity in the girdles is determined by the following factors:
length and width of the girdle, slope of the floor and water flow.

a. Earring of the Girdles.
The most recommended longitudinal slopes are between 0.2 and 0.5%. In clay soils
and deep root crops, slopes close to 0% can be used, and in sandy soils up to 2%
can be reached. With very small slopes there may be problems of watering in times
of rain, so it is advisable to have adequate drainage.
The transverse slope should be practically zero, although a height difference of 5 - 6

cm between the consecutive ridge can be accepted. These are constructed
perpendicular to the contour lines, whereby the transverse slope is reduced to a
minimum. Both the longitudinal and transverse slopes must be very uniform, in
order to achieve a good water distribution.
b. Width of the Girdles.
The width of the strips is conditioned by the slope of the floor and the width of the
machinery that is used. The recommended widths, depending on the slopes, are
shown in table 1.2.
Table 1.2. Width of the belt depending on the slope
Whenever possible, the width of the belt should be a multiple of the working width
of the less flexible machinery that is intended to be used.

c. Length of the Girdles.
The girdles should be as long as possible, provided that acceptable irrigation

efficiency is obtained. This is due to the fact that the expenses of irrigation
implantation and the losses of cultivated area invested in supply ditches and
drainage channels decrease as the length of the girdles increases.
The length of the girdles is determined by the following factors:
o The rate of infiltration, which, in turn, depends on the type of soil. The
higher infiltration rate corresponds to a shorter length. In clay soils, with
low infiltration velocity, they can exceed 500 m; in soils of average texture
the most reasonable length is between 80 and 200m; and in sandy soils
should not exceed 80 m.
o The flow of water. The greater the flow corresponds to a longer length.
When the flow is low, the surface of the strip must be reduced, either in
width or length, in order to cover it with water in a reasonable time and to
avoid excessive losses by percolation at the upper end. As a general rule, it
is cheaper to reduce the width than the length.
o The type of crop. Cultures that oppose less resistance to water circulation
limit the length of the girdle.
d. Flow.
The flow rate to be applied to each girdle depends on the nature of the floor and the
dimensions of the girdles. As a general rule should use the maximum flow that does
not cause erosion.
The recommended values can be established to select the variables of design length
and width of the belt and the variable of flow management according to the type of
soil and the slope of the same (table 1.3).
The time of application of the irrigation is given by the formula:
T = time expressed in hours.
H = height of water to be applied, expressed in mm.

S = area of the girdle, expressed in m2.
Q = flow rate expressed in l / s.
Table 1.3. Recommended Values for Flow, Length and Width of Belt
As a practical rule, for flow in strips, the flow rate and the time of application are
combined by tests, so that when the required volume of water is applied, it covers
approximately 3/4 of the length of the girdle Subsequently the water that is on the
surface flows towards the lower end completing the irrigation. With this practice is
usually achieved an acceptable irrigation uniformity.
C. FLOODING BY FLOODING.
Characteristics.
Flood irrigation consists of covering the soil with a layer or sheet of water of
greater or lesser thickness, the soil is moistened while the water is covering it. In
this method variants are presented if the flood is continuous as in the case of rice,
and if the same is intermittent as in the irrigation system in melgas. In order to
apply this system the land must be worked in such a way that the areas to be
irrigated, or some of them, must be practically horizontal, surrounded by small
water-bearing dikes.

In this irrigation system the land is divided into enclosed compartments by means
of dikes or horsemen of about 50 cm in height. These stonecutters are of square or
rectangular form (Figure 1.10), inside them a volume of water is poured that is
stagnant and is infiltrating in the ground. The flows used as well as irrigation by
girdles must be high, although their magnitude will depend on the dimensions of the
table and the risk of erosion
Figure 1.10. Flood Irrigation.
Ideally, the terrain should be completely level, with the dimensions of the board
depending on the available water flow rate and the type of soil. In this type of
irrigation there is no runoff.
This mode of irrigation by surface is advised for crops that resist temporary
flooding.
The efficiency and uniformity of this irrigation along with irrigation by belt, is
usually high if handled properly, and can exceed 90%.
Design of Flood Irrigation.
In the floodplain, the large volume of water applied to the head is stored, in addition
to being driven, in the stonecutter itself. Therefore, the spines of the stonecutter
must be sized so that in no case are they overflowed by water. The shape and
dimensions may vary depending on whether they are permanent or temporary
(Figure 1.11). When constructing the rills, it is necessary to make them a little
higher, to compensate for the loss of height that occurs when giving the first
irrigation.

Figure 1.11. Shape and dimensions of the back of the stonecutter. a) Permanent; b) Temporal
The effects that a poor leveling can have on the uniformity of irrigation are very
important in this type of irrigation (figure 1.12). Therefore, leveling techniques are
recommended.
Figure 1.12. Effect of poor leveling on uniformity.
The terrain is divided into compartments, stonecutters or closed boards, within

which a discharge is higher than the rate of infiltration, leaving the water stagnant
until it penetrates the ground. Leveling is done with zero slope.

The water is carried to the compartments by means of ditches provided with exit
gate. Sometimes compartments are fed by overflowing the water from the
compartment above (Figure 1.13).
Figure 1.13. Application in cascade of flow to the mason
a. Ways of performing irrigation by compartments:
By temporary flood:
Apply a quantity of water equivalent to the dose of irrigation and leave it on the
surface until it is fully infiltrated. When the moisture content of the soil is reduced
to the fraction readily available by the crop, a new irrigation is carried out. The
compartment is flooded for a relatively small time, which depends on the velocity
of infiltration.
Temporary flood irrigation is applied to crops that tolerate well the terrain soaked
for some time, such as: forage, cotton, maize, fruit trees, poplars, etc. It can be
applied to any type of soil, although in sandy soils, with less capacity of water
storage, the size of the compartments can be so small that it becomes a serious
inconvenience for the cultivation practices; only in intensive farms where a large
amount of labor is used, it may be economical to use flood irrigation on sandy soils.

By permanent flood:
This type of irrigation is usually used for rice cultivation. The compartments are
filled with water to the desired level, and once this level is reached, the water
supply is continued, but with a lower flow, evacuating the excess through landfills.
This excess water can discharge to another compartment located at the lower level
or to a drainage channel.
Permanent flooding requires clayey soils, with low infiltration velocity, or terrains
where the water table is close to the surface, otherwise the loss of water through
deep infiltration decreases the efficiency of irrigation to non-economic levels. When
there is an extensive surface cultivated by this system it is necessary to reuse the
water evacuated from the compartments, in order to increase the efficiency of
irrigation.
b. Sizes of compartments.
The size of the compartments must be adequate for acceptable uniformity. This size
depends on the available flow rate and infiltration rate.
The recommended litter surface for different types of soil and flow depends on the
type of soil and the available flow (Table 1.4)
The minimum measures are determined by the available flow rate, since it is
desirable to cover the whole of the compartment with water in a relatively short
time:
o In sandy soil, up to 0.5 hours.
o On sandy-loam terrain, up to 1 hour.
o In clay-loam soil, up to 2 hours.
The flow rate should be sufficient to cover the entire surface in 60-70% of the time
required to supply the irrigation dose. The height of the water layer is usually 25 cm
on average.

Table 1.4. Recommended stoneware surface values (m2)
The topography of the terrain will determine the shape of the compartments. When
the topography and the depth of the terrain allow adequate leveling, large
rectangular or square compartments can be formed; but when the topography is
very undulating, the terraces and compartments will adapt to the contour lines,
which gives rise to a large irregularity in the shape and size of them. Whenever the
topography allows, the compartments should be given the square shape, in order to
reduce the length of the rills for the same useful irrigation surface.
Flow required to fill a known compartment surface:
Q = flow rate (m3 / s)
S = surface (m2)
t1 = filling time (s)
H = height of water to be maintained (m)
i = infiltration rate (m / s)
E = evapotranspiration velocity (m / s)
Flow rate to maintain constant the height of the water in the compartment, and
that must provide the irrigation channel is:
Volume of water leaving the compartment: Vs = S t2 (E + i); as

Flow of water exiting the compartment: Qs = S (E + i)
t2 = time the flood lasts
Maintenance flow (input): QE = QS = S (E + i)
Flow necessary to renew n times a volume of water in a compartment:
V = S t2 (E + i) + S H n
Volume of water for renovation: Vr = S H n
Flow of water renewal: Qr =
Total renewal flow: Q =
Subsurface Irrigation
Subsurface irrigation (Figures 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3) reduces the chance of human contact with the
effluent and significantly reduces public health risk. By placing the effluent in the root zone of
plants, beneficial reuse of both the hydraulic and nutrient components of the effluent is maximised,
offering enhanced environmental benefits. Homeowners have less maintenance obligations when a
subsurface irrigation system is installed. There are also potential amenity benefits offered by
subsurface irrigation, such as less chance of surface saturation and effluent runoff.
NSW Health requires non-disinfected effluent, such as that from septic tanks and most wet
composting treatment systems, to be disposed of at least 300 millimetres underground ie subsoil (as
opposed to subsurface, as discussed in this section). Subsoil irrigation puts effluent largely below
the depth of the root zone of most grasses. This means there is limited nutrient uptake and it is
unlikely to result in a healthy growing lawn. However, it does minimise the risk of human contact
with untreated effluent and minimises surface runoff during extended wet weather. Subsoil
irrigation also creates an easy-to-maintain effluent irrigation area. Supplementary disinfection units
cannot be added to a treatment system unless they are already part of a NSW Health approved
system. Disposal using trenches is often a more attractive option as it provides a much smaller
footprint system.

Figure 2.1 A subsurface irrigation Figure 2.2 An installed subsurface -

system under construction irrigation system -
There have been significant developments in subsurface drip technology for effluent irrigation in
the domestic market. Subsurface irrigation involves pressure-dosing of a polyethylene pipe fitted
with turbulent flow or pressure compensating drip emitters. Proprietary systems may have built-in
protection against root intrusion and biofilm development. Pressure compensation / regulation
ensures even distribution of effluent and low application rates across a variety of gradients and
elevations.
Subsurface irrigation of disinfected effluent puts the effluent directly in the root zone to optimise
hydraulic and nutrient take-up. It minimises the risk of human contact and reduces surface runoff
during extended wet weather. Subsurface irrigation allows better amenity and easier maintenance
of an effluent irrigation area.
Careful hydraulic design of subsurface irrigation is essential to ensure correct sizing and choice of
components, including providing for adequate effluent pumping, effluent filtration, line flushing,
placement of vacuum release valves, and correct spacing of laterals and emitters. Consideration of
rainfall is as important for sizing subsurface irrigation areas as for surface irrigation, however
subsurface irrigation may allow for higher nutrient uptake in the same location.

Figure 2.3 Subsurface irrigation schematic
1.1. Design
A subsurface irrigation system should be designed with consideration for the site and soil
assessments.
The following factors should be considered when designing a subsurface irrigation system.
All effluent irrigation areas require appropriate sizing based on the greater of either
hydraulic or nutrient balances as a limiting factor.
Careful hydraulic design is needed to ensure appropriate equipment selection and
satisfactory operation.
Protect the effluent irrigation area from potential run-on and stormwater by building an
upslope diversion drain or berm.
Choose an appropriate pump that can adequately service the demands of the designated
effluent irrigation area. It must overcome the friction loss and headloss in the system, and
meet the required head and irrigation flow rates of the selected emitters at the most distant
point in the system. The effluent irrigation area may need to be split into two or more
fields, supplied via a distribution or sequencing valve. Individual fields should be no larger
than 400 square metres (typically 250 to 300 square metres).
Design the system to deliver an appropriate dosing volume that fully charges the irrigation
lines in each field. Non-return valves may be needed.
Program irrigation to ensure even delivery of effluent to the fields in the effluent irrigation
area.
Irrigation system components need to be carefully selected and specified to ensure
satisfactory operation. The standard irrigation kit supplied with many aerated wastewater
treatment systems is not suitable for subsurface irrigation.

The distribution pipe should be 25 millimetre PVC or polyethylene pipe, buried 300
millimetres underground.
Use only subsurface drip line designed specifically for effluent irrigation. Pressure-
compensating subsurface drip line (typically 16 millimetre) is used with emitters and
laterals at approximately 600 millimetre spacings (a maximum of 1,000 millimetre
spacings) and buried 100 to 150 millimetres deep. A pressure regulator may be needed
where non-pressure compensating line is used. This is only relevant for use with a wick-
based system.
Adequate filtration must be incorporated in the system. Install a disc filter or a 100 to 150
micron filter before the sequencing valve. The filter must be cleaned regularly - at least
every three months. A filter flush valve should be fitted downstream of the field flush
valve.
Either impregnate the drip line with root inhibitor, or use a tech filter that dispenses a root
inhibitor (a chemical injector assembly or impregnated emitter tube) to protect drip line
from root ingress. A wick-based system (Figure 2.4) may reduce the susceptibility of the
drip lines to root incursion.
The design specifications of the system must be clearly communicated to the system
installer. A licensed contractor should install the system and complete and sign the
Installation Certificate.
An aerated wastewater treatment system or other secondary treatment system must provide
adequate treatment and be serviced regularly to ensure the irrigation system does not
become clogged with suspended solids or organic material.
Figure 2.4 Wick system

The system should use demand dosing, particularly where load generation varies over time.
This will require an adequately sized pump well to be incorporated.
Air release valves need to be installed at high points in each area or field, and additional air
release valves may be needed in undulating terrain.
Incorporate air/vacuum valves, pressure-reducing valves and non-return / tube non-leakage
valves into the design as needed. The non-leakage valve shuts off flow through the valve
when line pressure drops below a selected pressure and opens and passes flow when the
line pressure exceeds a higher selected pressure. This removes the need for the irrigation
system to refill at the beginning of each irrigation cycle by holding pressure in the
irrigation lines and keeping them filled. This ensures the system reaches operating pressure
in minimum time. It also prevents the system draining to the lowest point where it is
installed on a slope and more even distribution of the effluent. The air/vacuum relief valve
serves two purposes it evacuates air from the laterals during system start-up and prevents
a vacuum forming after the pump turns off. This prevents debris getting into the drippers at
the higher locations in the field.
The system must have the capacity to enable flushing to remove any suspended solids and
organic growth that may accumulate. A field flush valve must be installed on the return line
to facilitate flushing back to the treatment system, an in-field soakage pit or a small
(maximum of 10 m long x 0.6 m wide x 0.7m deep) self-supporting arch absorption trench.
The flushing return manifold should be 25 millimetre PVC or polyethylene line buried at
300 millimetres.
Fit a non-return valve where the effluent irrigation area is located above the treatment
system or pump well.
Additional hydraulic design will be needed where effluent irrigation area slopes exceed
12% (6.80). For example, the design may need a much larger pump for the head required to
evenly distribute the effluent throughout the effluent irrigation area, or where the effluent
irrigation area is at some distance or height above the wastewater treatment system.
Adequately vegetate the effluent irrigation areas with species suited to effluent irrigation
before the irrigation system is commissioned.
Where vehicles, livestock, domestic animals or children may access the effluent irrigation
area, exclude them and protect the area by fencing or planting shrubs around the edge of
the effluent irrigation area.
1.2. The KISSSTM wick system
KISSSTM subsurface textile irrigation delivers water directly to the root zone at a rate that matches
the soil capillary action. The design enhances uniform vegetation growth, reduces water logging
and drainage losses caused by deep drainage and tunnelling, and minimises soil salinity levels. The
system deters root intrusion without using chemicals and can be fully automated.
Water is supplied to the soil from the surface of a geotextile fabric instead of from individual
emitters in a drip line. Dispersing the water over a larger area reduces the rate of water discharged

to the soil bringing it closer to the capillary absorption rate. It also converts the dripline from a
series of point sources to a single, broad line source (Figure 2.5).
Subsurface KISS irrigation Subsurface drip irrigation

Figure 2.5 The KISSSTM irrigation wetting patterns
1.3. Installation
A number of installation techniques should be used for effective long term operation of a
subsurface effluent irrigation area. Common failures of irrigation systems are often caused by poor
installation practices. System installation needs to be timed in relation to other construction
activities (eg for a dwelling) so that the irrigation system is not destroyed or damaged. Follow the
additional steps below when installing a subsurface irrigation system.
Step 1 Site preparation

Obtain a copy of the council approved plans and conditions of consent. Accurately locate irrigation
areas as indicated in the consent, on the site plans and according to the specified and approved
design and/or any covenant. Check the location of the irrigation system against the approved site
plans and if there is any change in the position from the site plans, must be made to council to alter
their position.
Step 2 Positioning
Ensure the laterals of an irrigation system are built along the contours to ensure even distribution.
This will avoid more heavily loading part of the area, which can lead to premature failure of the
effluent irrigation area.
Step 3 Excavation
Bury irrigation lines and distribution laterals 100 to 150 millimetres below natural ground level to
ensure irrigation occurs in the root zone and protect against UV damage and lawn mowers. These
lines can be installed with a small trench digger.
The main distribution line from the treatment system to the effluent irrigation area and the return
flush manifold to the wastewater treatment system must be buried at least 300 millimetres deep and
in a manner that protects against mechanical damage or deformation.
Step 4 Construction
Install the irrigation distribution laterals, then flush and check the lines for leaks or breaks before
backfilling.

Turf or plant grass over the effluent irrigation area to establish vegetation cover promptly after
construction. This ensures the best uptake of effluent by evapotranspiration. Ensure that deep rooted
plant species are not planted close to irrigation lines, to reduce the chance or roots intruding and
clogging the laterals.
Build a stormwater diversion drain or berm above the effluent irrigation area on sloping sites to
avoid stormwater run-on.
Step 5 Dosing
The pressure-dosed irrigation system should evenly distribute the effluent throughout the entire
effluent irrigation area.
Where the water table is high or a shallow subsurface limiting layer otherwise reduces the depth of
free draining soil the effluent can pass through, or where soil storage is otherwise limited, consider
building a raised subsurface irrigation bed.
System design
To improve communication between the designer and installer, the designer should prepare a
System Design. This report conveys critical details of the design to the installer. It describes and
quantifies the design and illustrates the appropriate layout and configuration of the system with
plans and sketches.
Finally, the installer must provide an Installation Certificate to certify that the installation is as
described in the relevant sections of the System Design.
1.4. Inspection
Council should inspect the irrigation system before backfilling to ensure all components are
installed according to Installation. Council should make a final installation inspection to ensure
compliance with all conditions of consent before issuing an approval to operate the system.
1.5. Operation
A subsurface irrigation system needs regular maintenance in addition to the quarterly service
inspection. System owners are usually responsible for this operational maintenance, including:
Regularly mowing the effluent irrigation area and disposing of grass clippings outside the
effluent irrigation area
Regularly cleaning some filters installed on irrigation systems as per the manufacturers
specifications. Where these filters are used system owners are responsible for regularly cleaning
them
Back flushing irrigation lines to remove any biofilm build up and prevent blockages.
1.6. Common technical issues

Plumbers, property owners and regulatory authorities have observed a number of common problems
with subsurface irrigation installations including:
- Inadequate hydraulic design:
- Causing uneven distribution

- Causing hydraulic overloading and saturation where the effluent irrigation area is too small.
This can be worsened if owners supplement the irrigation with other sources to try to
establish and maintain unsuitable plant species that need more water to survive. Subdivide
effluent irrigation areas so that the size of each field can be adequately serviced by the
pump, and irrigated sequentially using a distribution or sequencing valve
- Preventing the hydraulic load reaching the more distant ends of irrigation lines and
overloading the nearer ends of the irrigation lines (where the irrigation fields are too large).
- Pump capacity does not meet the needs of the irrigation system. This is a common problem
where the capacity of pumps supplied with many aerated water treatment systems is
exceeded because the effluent irrigation fields are too large, too far away, or upslope of the
treatment system. Typically, an irrigation pump must provide at least 20 metres head. The
flow rate will vary depending on the emitter spacing, and the length of irrigation line. Each
field should be able to discharge 80 litres per minute. If the pump is too small, flow
distribution will not be uniform
Not enough irrigation lines installed to adequately distribute effluent over the required
effluent irrigation area
Appropriate buffer distances are not accommodated
Irrigation onto sites that are too steeply sloping, causing surface breakout
Using non-pressure compensating lines or not laying them on the contour causing
preferential irrigation of low points in irrigation lines
Irrigation lines become blocked due to treatment failure or inadequate filtration of effluent
or lack of flushing capability
Inappropriate or too-wide line spacing or loading causing striping of lawns
Effluent irrigation area not maintained and grass not mowed.
1.7. Case study
An aerated wastewater treatment system was installed for a new home. Council and the Sydney
Catchment Authority required all effluent to be applied using subsurface irrigation of lawn areas
around the new home, to ensure appropriate buffer distances from a nearby watercourse.
Approximately 800 square metres of drip line was installed on unvegetated ground with very thin
soil and a significant amount of exposed rock. The effluent was distributed by a main distribution
line from the system. The contractor laid the irrigation line and connected it to the aerated
wastewater treatment system. The area was left without vegetation for a period of time, although the
family had moved in and was using the system (Figure 2.6). There were a number of problems
including:
The surrounding soil began to erode and wash away as effluent was applied to the soil
The pipes deteriorated from natural UV light and surrounding activities that caused cracks
and breaks in the lateral

Figure 2.6 Poorly installed subsurface effluent irrigation system
The contractor was asked to move the effluent irrigation area to specified reas around the home
according to council. The irrigation lines were removed from the downslope area and re-laid in the
turfed areas around the home, upslope of the aerated wastewater treatment system.
Within weeks the new effluent irrigation area again showed signs of failure and the property owner
observed surface ponding. The irrigation pump failed and activated the high level alarm.
Investigations identified the following issues:
The perished and brittle irrigation lines had not been replaced and cracks and breaks in the lines
(Figure 2.7) caused excessive application of effluent to some areas. This exceeded the hydraulic
capacity of the soil and caused surface ponding.
Figure 2.7 Damaged irrigation line sections cut out and replaced as part of an unsatisfactory
repair.

The irrigation pump was too small and could not pressurise such a large single area of irrigation
lines (it could not overcome the friction loss and headloss in the system)
The large single field was laid on rock in thin soil (Figure 2.8) no flushing valves were installed
Figure 2.8 Rock outcrop and thin soils in original effluent irrigation area
Rectification measures undertaken by the contractor included:

Removing the damaged irrigation pipes and replacing them with new subsurface irrigation
lines
Installing a suitably sized irrigation pump in the aerated wastewater treatment system
Splitting the irrigation into a number of fields
Installing an auto-sequencing valve.
Figure 2.9 One of the new fields at the rear of the property established upslope of the aerated
wastewater treatment system on imported soil

Figure 2.10 Second field established at front of property on imported soil
The following design measures could have prevented these problems:

Preparing a hydraulic design for the subsurface effluent irrigation area (and subfields) and
system components (including the irrigation pump)
Locating and installing the effluent irrigation area as specified by the hydraulic design and
council.
Burying all irrigation dripper lines, laterals and distribution lines below ground to prevent
UV deterioration.
Vegetating or turfing the effluent irrigation area immediately after installation with suitable
plant/grass species
Fitting the irrigation system with a flushing manifold
Dividing the effluent irrigation area into a number of smaller fields to ensure even
distribution throughout the area
Installing an automatic sequencing valve to allow effluent irrigation areas to be irrigated
alternately without the owner needing to switch the fields
Council inspecting the installation to ensure compliance with requirements
Making the installer (and property owners) aware of the proposed system, the conditions of
consent and their obligations to complete the system installation including testing the system and
vegetating the irrigation area
The installer certifying that the system was installed as needed and designed

METHODS OF PUMPED IRRIGATION

Energy is required, by definition, to do work; the rate at which it is used is defined as power. A
specific amount of work can be done quickly using a lot of power, or slowly using less power, but
in the end the identical amount of energy is required.
The cost of pumping or lifting water, whether in cash or kind, is closely related to the rate at which
power is used (i.e. the energy requirement in a given period). Since there is often confusion on the
meaning of the words power and energy, it is worth also mentioning that the energy
requirement consist of the product of power and time.
The hydraulic power required to lift or pump water is a function of both the apparent vertical height
lifted and the flow rate at which water is lifted.
Pumped system are made up of the following components
Water source
Pump and power unit
Distribution system
Method of irrigation
Figure 3.1 Components of a typical irrigation scheme

The water source, the distribution system and the method of irrigation determinate
the energy demand.
The pump and power unit provide the energy supply.
Water source
The water source may be a river or lake (surface water) or a shallow well or borehole
(groundwater). In some cases, water can be abstracted from rivers by gravity, but in many cases
pumping will be needed. In the case of groundwater abstraction, pumping is essential.
Pump and power unit
The pump may be driven by a power unit such as a diesel or petrol engine, or an electric motor. In
some special cases solar or wind power, or even hand or animal power, may be used to provide the
power source for the pump, but they are not so common and are generally limited to very small
irrigated plots. In this manual the primary concern is with the use of pumps driven by diesel or
petrol engines, as these are usually the main sources of energy supply available to most small-scale
farmers.
Distribution system
The distribution system conveys water from the pump to the fields and may consist of pipes or open
channels. Some systems are a combination of both. The choice of distribution system has a
significant effect on the energy demand
Method of irrigation
The method of irrigation may be surface, sprinkler or trickle irrigation. This may also affect the
choice of distribution system and is also significant in determining the energy demand. Surface
irrigation may be supplied by either pipe or open channel system. Sprinkler and trickle irrigation
system would normally use piped distribution system.
Typical system
The most common combinations of components for an irrigation system are:
Pump Open channel surface irrigation

Pump Pipe supply surface irrigation
Pump Pipe supply sprinkler or trickle irrigation
The first system is the most common for small-scale irrigation, although the advantages of the
second are now being more fully realized. Sprinkled, and specially trickle, irrigation are growing in
importance in some areas where soils are very sandy and water is scarce, or energy cost are high, or
both, but surface irrigation is the dominant method and is likely to remain so in many countries for
the foreseeable future.

3.1. WATER SOURCES

a. Rivers and lakes
Many small irrigation schemes are located close to natural and lakes and obtain water
by pumping from the sources. They provide supply which can be seen by the farmer
and be judged whether sufficient or not for the seasonal needs of the farm. Usually, the
pumping pressures, and hence energy requirements, needed to use such sources are
small because the difference in elevation between the source water level and the level
of the field are usually not large.
b. Shallow groundwater
This is an ideal source of supply for farms located some distance from a river or lake.
Usually the groundwater table is fed by seepage from a river or lake and may be only a
few meters below ground level. This source may be less reliable than surface water
because except through pumping experience there is no easy way of assessing whether
there is a sufficient reserve of water to ensure adequate irrigation. However, the farmer
can save the cost of an expensive canal or pipe system to bring water from a more
distant surface supply.
c. Deep groundwater
This may be water which has permeated through the ground from a surface source
many kilometers away or water which has been trapped in the ground by impermeable
soils for many thousands of years (fossil water).
Pumping deep groundwater which may be 20 100 m or more below ground level can
be expensive in terms of energy use, as well as in the cost of drilling the borehole, and
requires special, deep borehole, pumping equipment, which may also be expensive to
buy.
3.2. PUMPS
A pump is a machine which changes fuel energy into useful water energy and needs a
petrol or diesel engine or an electric motor to drive it. In special circumstances, it may
also be possible to use wind or solar energy. For surface irrigation the pump lifts water
from a river or groundwater into a channel or pipe system. For sprinkler and trickle
irrigation the pump provides the energy for the pressure and discharge needed to
distribute water in the pipes to the sprinklers and emitters, in addition to the energy
needed to lift water from the source.
a. Pump types
Although there are many types of pump and water lifting devices, many are unsuited to
irrigation use. The most commonly used types are the axial flow (or propeller) pump,
the radial flow (or centrifugal) pump, and the mixed flow pump.

Axial flow pump
An axial flow pump consist of a propeller hence its alternative name housed
inside a tube which is located below the water level. The tube acts as the discharge
pipe, and the power unit turns the propeller by means of a long shaft running down
the middle of the pipe and this lifts the water up the pipe. This pump is very
efficient for lifting large volumes of water at low pressure and is ideally suited to
lifting water from a river or lake to provide surface irrigation water to a farm with
open channel distribution. However, these pumps tend to be very expensive because
of the high cost of materials, particularly the drive shaft and bearings to support the
shafted propeller.
Figure 3.2 axial flow pump
Radial flow (centrifugal) pump
Centrifugal pumps are the most common type of pump used on small schemes
because they are much cheaper than axial pumps to buy and maintain. They are best
to sprinkler and trickle irrigation, where a higher pressure is needed than for surface
irrigation.
To understand how a centrifugal pump works, consider first how centrifugal forces
occur. Most readers will at some time have spun a bucket of water around at arms
length and observed that no water falls from the bucket even when it is upside
down. Water is held in the bucket by the centrifugal forces created by spinning the

bucket. A centrifugal pump makes use of this idea and can be thought of as many
buckets all spinning around together. The buckets are replaced by an impeller with
blades or vanes which spin at high speed inside the pump casing. Water is draw into
the pump from the source of supply through a short length of inlet pipe called the
suction pipe.
Figure 3.3 Radial flow pump
As the impeller spins, water is thrown outwards and is collected by the pump casing
and guided toward the outlet.
Some pumps have very simple impellers with straight vanes. These tend to be
inefficient because they create a lot of turbulence in the flow and hence energy
losses. However, they are cheap to make and are used in cases where efficiency is
not important.
Table 3.1 Guide to selecting centrifugal pumps

Centrifugal pumps can be classified into two types: volute pumps, and turbine
(diffuser) pumps. The main difference between them is that the turbine type has
diffuser vanes, which provide diverging passages to direct the water flow.
Mixed Flow
This pump is a mixture of the axial flow and the centrifugal pump and has the
advantage of combining the best features of both pump types. Mixed flow pumps
are more efficient at pumping larger quantities of water than centrifugal pumps and
are more efficient at pumping to higher pressures than axial flow pumps.
Figure 3.4 Mixed flow
b. Pump Characteristics
Axial flow, centrifugal and mixed flow pumps are designed to run at a constant speed
and their performances are described by the following characteristics:
Head and discharge

Power requirements
Efficiency of operation
Typical characteristics for operating head and discharge for the three pump types
appear as Figures

They show how head, power and efficiency vary as the discharge changes. For
example, when the head requirement is 120% of the design head value, discharge is
reduced to 60%, 80% and 90% of design discharge for centrifugal, mixed flow and
axial flow pumps respectively

Head and discharge
Pumps can deliver a wide range of discharges depending on the pressure required
and the speed at which the pump is operated. However, there is a trade off between
head and discharge. If more discharge is needed the head drops, and if less
discharge is needed, then the head rises. A different set of curves would be
obtained if the pump was running at a different speed. The faster it runs the greater
the head and the discharge.
Power
All pumps need power to rotate the impeller. The amount of power needed depends
on the speed of the pump and the discharge that is required. The faster the pump
rotates, the more power is needed.
For axial flow pumps there is a very large power demand as the pump is starting
because there is a lot of water and a heavy pump impeller to get moving. Once the
pump is under way the power demand drops to its normal running level.
Centrifugal pumps behave quite differently. The power demand is very low when
starting, but as the discharge increases the power also gradually increases.
Mixed flow pumps operate in between these two contrasting conditions and have a
more uniform power demand over the discharge range.
Efficiency
It measures how well the mechanical energy and power from the power unit is
converted into water energy and power in the pump. The pump power efficiency is
calculated by:
The efficiency generally increases to some maximum value and then falls again
over the discharge range. The maximum efficiency is usually between 30 - 80%
and there is only a limited range of discharges and heads over which the pumps
operate at maximum efficiency
c. Pump selection
There are many pumps on the market and the designer must try to select a pump which
will provide the discharge and head needed for the scheme while the pump is operating
within its maximum efficiency range.

Table 3.1 Pump selection
A large number of irrigation schemes use surface irrigation and open channel
distribution pumping from shallow water supplies. This situation is ideal for axial
flow pumps but unfortunately few, if any, pumps are available at a reasonable price
for the small discharges required on many farms. The only alternative is to use
centrifugal pumps instead and accept that they will run at well below their peak
efficiency.
For sprinkler and trickle irrigation much higher pressures are needed and so
centrifugal pumps are ideally suited to this use and will operate more efficiently
3.3. Methods of irrigation
There are three methods of pumped irrigation commonly used.

Surface irrigation
Sprinkler irrigation
Trickle irrigation
The main objectives of these methods are to:
Apply an adequate amount of water to meet crop needs

Apply water uniformly across the field
Ensure there are no long-term problems
a. Surface irrigation
This is the most common method used and involves flooding water across
the soil surface so that it can infiltrate into the root zone and be used by the
crop. Basin irrigation, border irrigation and furrow irrigation are all surface
methods. The choice of surface method depends on the crop, cultivation
practices, soils and topography, and farmer preferences.
Surface irrigation is a labour-intensive method but generally requires less
energy than other methods because of the low head required for distribution

b. Sprinkler irrigation
Sprinkler irrigation involves distributing water in pipes under pressure and
spraying it into the air so that it breaks up into small droplets and falls to the
ground like natural rainfall. Sprinkler systems are generally more efficient and
use less labour than surface irrigation and can be adapted more easily to sandy
and erodible soils on undulating ground. There are many types of sprinkler
system available, but the most common is a system using portable pipes
(aluminum or plastic) supplying rotary impact sprinklers.
Figure 3.5 Spinkler irrigation
An individual rotary impact sprinkler produces a circular wetting pattern with

poor uniformity. To obtain good uniformity, several sprinklers are always
operated close together so that the patterns overlap. Pressure is an important
factor in successful sprinkler operation. Typical operating pressures range from
2 to 6 bar, and so energy requirements can be much greater than for surface
irrigation. If sprinklers are working at the pressure recommended by the
manufacturer then the distribution will be good. If the pressure is above or
below this value then the distribution will be adversely affected. The most
common problem is when pressure is too low and this happens when pump and
pipes wear, increasing friction and so reducing pressure.
c. Trickle irrigation
Trickle irrigation involves dripping water onto the soil at very low flow rates
(2-20 l/h) from a system of small diameter plastic pipes fitted with outlets
called emitters.

An important advantage is the ease with which nutrients can be applied with the
irrigation water. The relative importance of each of these attributes will vary
depending on the situation.
Figure 3.6 Trickle irrigation
Trickle irrigation is potentially a very efficient method of applying water to

crops. Field application efficiency can be as high as 90%, but like any
other method it relies very much on the skill of the irrigator to achieve this.
Field measurements on trickle systems have shown application efficiencies
as low as 25%. This was the result of poor system management rather than
design. The farmers had not fully understood the concept of partial wetting
of the root zone and so they wasted a lot of water trying to wet up the entire
area. Because of the potentially higher efficiency and the operating pressure
of only 1-2 bar this method can use less energy than sprinkler irrigation and
in some cases less than surface irrigation.
TECHNICAL IRRIGATION SYSTEM
REFLECTIONS
Regarding the efficiency of irrigation water management in Latin America, according to several
studies, it has been concluded that irrigation efficiency varies in an average range of 28% to 32%,
that is, there is a high waste of water, due to its poor application to the farms (gravity irrigation and
flooding) and the poor state of conservation of the networks of conduction and distribution, which
are mostly land.
In order to address part of the irrigation problem, technified irrigation programs have been created to
promote and encourage the progressive replacement of traditional irrigation systems in the

agricultural sector through the incorporation of modern and efficient systems, such as gravity-fed and
pressurized irrigation methods.
WHAT IS WATERING TECHNIQUE?

The technique of irrigation allows:
Improve the technology of irrigated agriculture, through modern and efficient irrigation
systems.
Use efficient irrigation systems, such as: Sleeves, Multicompuertas, Californian Tubes and
Intermittent Irrigation, Sprinkling, Micro Sprinkling and Dripping.
Apply the required water to the crop: quantity, quality and opportunity to improve
production.
Greater efficiency in the use of water and fertilizers
Higher production and better product quality; therefore, more profit.
Higher incomes for farmers.
WHY TECHNIQUE IRRIGATION?

When technifying irrigation systems, the following benefits can be obtained:
Decrease in the parcels and consequently, reduction of expenses by tariff.
Greater efficiency in the use of water and fertilizers, consequently, higher production,
better product quality and consequently higher profits.
Greater availability of time to engage in other activities.
Higher incomes for farmers.
GRAVITY-TECNIFIED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
A. IRRIGATION SYSTEM WITH SLEEVES

In this system plastic sleeves are used to conduct the irrigation water in the farm, from
one point to another. The sleeves allow water to be applied to the grooves by means of
perforations at predetermined distances, where valves are installed.
This irrigation system is simple, inexpensive, and easy to install and operate.
Figure4.1 Irrigation with sleeves

B. MULTICOMPUERTAS IRRIGATION SYSTEM

It is a system of conduction and distribution of water of irrigation inside a property, by
means of light pipes, easy to transport and to install. They work at low pressure. This
system achieves a high application efficiency.
CHARACTERISTICS:
Replaces very well to the channels of conduction and distribution, diminishing the
losses by infiltration, reaching high efficiency of irrigation (70%).
Low investment, installation, operation and maintenance costs.
Great versatility of the system, which allows watering with well water and avenues.
Simple to design and easy to install, when using PVC pipe.
Minimal investment and rapid capital recovery.
It allows to improve the fertilization of the crops.
Figure 4.2 Multicompuertas Irrigation system
C. IMPULSE OR FLAMMABLE IRRIGATION SYSTEM

It consists of applying water to the furrows in short but frequent intervals of time. It is
performed in the same irrigation period, by means of a device that opens and closes the
floodgates from time to time. It can be installed in the Californian Fixed Irrigation and
Multicompuertas systems.
CHARACTERISTICS:
Allows high application efficiencies, superior to 75%.

Easy installation, operation and maintenance.
Lower cost than pressurized systems.
Rapid recovery of investment.
Greater water economy.

Figure 4.3 Impulse or flammable Irrigation system
MAIN PRESSURE TECHNIQUE IRRIGATION SYSTEMS.
A. IRRIGATION SYSTEM BY ASPERSION

It consists of simulating the rain but controlling the time and its intensity, through a
wide range of sprinklers designed to operate at different pressures, spacings and sizes,
according to the requirements of the crops.
This system allows:
Apply water to the crops in a uniform and controlled manner.

Reduce losses by driving and distribution.
Reduce the harmful effects of frost.
Improve efficiency and economy in the application of fertilizers and pesticides.
Eliminate soil leveling requirements.
Eliminate the danger of soil erosion.
Minimize the demand for labor during irrigation.
Standardize the application of water.
HYDRAULIC DESIGN
Its purpose is to calculate the dimensions of the distribution network and the optimization of the
layout of the same, so that sufficient water can be applied to the crops during any of their
development; another object is to ensure that the application of water in the form of rain on the
ground is sufficiently uniform. With all this you will get good productions with the least expense of
water.
The branches, sprinklers or irrigation wings are the ones that distribute the water to the crop by
means of the sprinklers coupled to them. The lateral or feeding pipes are those from where the
branches are derived. In both branches and rails, there is the case of a conduit with multiple outlets
distributed along it, evenly spaced and by which discharge the same flow.
Q=nq
Q = Extension Flow
n = Number of outputs
q = Flow rate of each output
At the beginning of the pipe with multiple outlets (in connection with the feed pipe), the flow rate is
Q. As the pipe is advanced, friction losses are less than those occurring in a pipe of equal diameter
and length, but without intermediate outlets. These load losses can be calculated section by section
between two consecutive outputs, where the flow rate remains constant, and then add the values
obtained in all sections. In order to avoid this cumbersome procedure, Christiansen devised a method

based on calculating the loss in a pipe of equal length, diameter and roughness, without intermediate
outlets, through which the Q flow flows. Subsequently, it is multiplied by a reducing coefficient F
Christiansen) so that the losses in both cases are equivalent.
75% of the friction losses occurring in the branches occur in the first quarter of their length, for
which reason the distance to which the first outlet is coupled is important
Figure 4.4 Uniformity
Figure 4.5 Sprinkler irrigation
B. MICRO SPRAY IRRIGATION SYSTEM

It consists of applying the water in the form of fine and soft rain. It is considered
localized irrigation because it spreads moisture in the root zone of the plant.

Its components are the same as those used in the drip irrigation system, except the
emitters which in this case are micro sprinklers, which can mist the water or sprinkle it
in the form of drops (fine rain).
Figure 4.6 Micro-sprinkler irrigation
Figure 4.7 Micro Sprinkler
C. DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM

It allows the application of water and fertilizers in the root zone of the crop, in the form
of drops and in a localized way. It maintains a high frequency in strictly necessary
quantities and in a timely manner.
This irrigation system allows:
Apply the irrigation water in a localized, continuous, timely and efficient way.
Adapt to any soil and topographical conditions.
Water, fertilize and control pests simultaneously, saving time and wages.
Eliminate weed development and the presence of pests and / or diseases.
Apply water and fertilizer when plants require it.
Achieve high efficiency of application, greater than 90%.
HYDRAULIC DESIGN
The hydraulic design determines the components, network dimensions and operation of the irrigation
system, in such a way that the water needs can be applied to the crop in the time that has been
established, taking into account the previously made agronomic design .
The sequence of the hydraulic design of a high-frequency localized irrigation is shown in the table,
after the agronomic design and based on other data such as the characteristics of the chosen sender,
topography and dimensions of the farm, etc.

For the design of an irrigation subunit, irrespective of the drawing procedure of the irrigation
network, the hydraulic calculations consist of first determining the lateral and tertiary flow rates and
then, taking into account the pressure tolerance (obtained from from the flow tolerance), calculate the
diameters and the pressure regime for the same pipes. This is the most complicated phase of the
hydraulic calculation and with it ends the design of the subunit. The rest of the design (secondary,
primary and header) is more similar to any traditional pipeline irrigation network, with some
peculiarities in the case of the irrigation head.
Sequence of hydraulic design in localized irrigation
Table 4.1 Hydraulic Design Sequence
PRESSURE NEEDED IN THE ORIGIN OF THE HEAD
The pressure in the irrigation emitters located for proper operation is around 1 kg / cm2 (or between
0.5 and 3 kg / cm2 if the emitters are self-compensating). Thus, the pressure required at the outlet of
the irrigation head should be the one required by the emitters plus the pressure losses produced in the
passage of water through the pipes (pipes and special parts). In order to determine the pressure
required at the beginning of the installation, losses caused by the elements (filters, valves, counters,
etc.) produced by the irrigation head itself must be considered.
Manufacturers must supply the corresponding data to these elements. If these data are not available,
the values shown in the table can be used for design purposes.
Loss of load produced by elements of the irrigation head
Table 4.2 loss of load
Elemento del cabezal Prdida de carga (m)

Hidrocicln 3-5
Filtro de arena 3-5
Filtro de malla 1-3
Filtro anillas 1-3

Tanque de fertilizacin 1-4

Inyector hidrulico 4-5
Inyector venturi 5-20
Regulador de presin 4-6
Vlvula 1-3
PRESSURE REQUIRED BY THE PUMP GROUP
The necessary pressure of the pumping group, also called total manometric height or total elevation
height, can be obtained by applying the following expression:
Hm = Ho + hr drive DZ
Hm = Total gauge height
Ho = Pressure height at the head inlet
hr drive = Pressure drop from the pump to the head
DZ = Difference in height between the water level and the head
RECOMMENDED SPEEDS
As normal, it is not necessary to exceed the speed of 3m / s. In carrier-to-emitter ramps, side-rails

and, in general, in pipelines with many outlets, a speed of around 1 m / s is desirable. In the rest of
the irrigation pipes can maintain a speed of about 1.5-2 m / s.
In the pipelines, it is not necessary to exceed 2 m / s, an interval of 0.8 to 1.5 m / s, which is the
minimum cost.
The minimum speed is about 0.5 m / s; if the water carries particles in suspension, it should not be
lower than 0.6 m / s.
Figure 4.8 Drip irrigation
Figure 4.9 Drip irrigation

Figure 4.10 Dropper
D. EXHAUST IRRIGATION SYSTEM

It is a system of localized irrigation, which is applied continuously, through a porous
tube that exudes throughout its length and surface, or part of it.
This system allows:
Save irrigation water.

Increase the uniformity of application of water to different pressures, which
optimally meets the water requirements of the crop.
Return the evapo-transpirated water continuously through the porous tube, so that the
plants will always have optimal conditions of humidity.
Water in a "continuous way", so that the soil and the plants establish their own water
demands, avoiding percolation losses.
Be used in open fields and in greenhouses, on flat or sloping terrain, in all climates
and with all crops. In parks and gardens, "buried" irrigation is an important factor for
the aesthetics of the environment and is not exposed to being robbed or stolen.
Figure 4.10 Exudation tape

REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Small scale pumped irrigation: energy and cost; M. Kay, Silsoe College, UK, 90 pginas.
WEBOGRAPHY:
http://www.oni.escuelas.edu.ar/2003/entre_rios/26/sisriego/riesup.htm
http://www.fagro.edu.uy/hidrologia/riego/RIEGO%20POR%20SUPERFICIE.pdf
https://inta.gob.ar/sites/default/files/inta_manual_riego_superficial.pdf
http://www.mapama.gob.es/ministerio/pags/biblioteca/hojas/hd_1994_10-11.pdf
http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/export/drupaljda/1337160940Riego_por_superficie_baja.pdf
http://ocwus.us.es/ingenieria-agroforestal/hidraulica-y-
riegos/temario/Tema%208.Riego%20por%20superficie/page_04.htm
http://www.agrobanco.com.pe/pdf_cpc/REVISTA_AGROPECUARIA_8.pdf
http://www.psi.gob.pe/wp-
content/uploads/2016/03/biblioteca_guias_programa_de_riego_tecnificado.pdf

Irrigation Methods

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Irrigation Methods

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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL PEDRO RUIZ GALLO

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, SYSTEMS AND ARCHITECTURE

IRRIGATION METHODS ................................................................................................................. 1

2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF SURFACE IRRIGATION.

1 PROFESSIONAL CIVIL ENGINEERING SCHOOL - UNPRG

3. SURFACE IRRIGATION METHODS.

Forms of the furrows.

Figure 1.1. Shape of the Grooves

2 PROFESSIONAL CIVIL ENGINEERING SCHOOL - UNPRG

Figure 1.2. Types of rows a) Linear b) Contour

Figure 1.3. Furrows in Zig - Zag.

3 PROFESSIONAL CIVIL ENGINEERING SCHOOL - UNPRG

Design of Furrow Irrigation

a. Section of the Furrows.

4 PROFESSIONAL CIVIL ENGINEERING SCHOOL - UNPRG

Figura 1.4. Dimensiones del surco. a) Suelo arenoso, b) Suelo arcilloso

5 PROFESSIONAL CIVIL ENGINEERING SCHOOL - UNPRG

Figure 1.5. Moistening. a) Sandy soil; b) Free floor; c) Clay soil

Figure 1.6 (a) Ideal moistening; b) Excessive furrow spacing

6 PROFESSIONAL CIVIL ENGINEERING SCHOOL - UNPRG

Figure 1.7. a) Small flow rate; (b) Excessive flow

Sometimes, in practice, it is not possible to accommodate the separation of the

c. Slope of the Furrows.

7 PROFESSIONAL CIVIL ENGINEERING SCHOOL - UNPRG

In view of these considerations, it will be necessary to find a balance between the

Q max = non-erosive maximum flow rate expressed in l / s

P = furrow slope expressed in percentage (%)

8 PROFESSIONAL CIVIL ENGINEERING SCHOOL - UNPRG

Table 1.1. Infiltration speed according to the type of soil

9 PROFESSIONAL CIVIL ENGINEERING SCHOOL - UNPRG

Figure 1.8. Irrigation by strips.

It is used in little pronounced hills, where it would be very expensive to form

Irrigation Design by Fajas.

10 PROFESSIONAL CIVIL ENGINEERING SCHOOL - UNPRG

Figure 1.9. Effects of flow. a) Low flow; b) Excessive

11 PROFESSIONAL CIVIL ENGINEERING SCHOOL - UNPRG

a. Earring of the Girdles.

The transverse slope should be practically zero, although a height difference of 5 - 6

b. Width of the Girdles.

Table 1.2. Width of the belt depending on the slope

12 PROFESSIONAL CIVIL ENGINEERING SCHOOL - UNPRG

c. Length of the Girdles.

The girdles should be as long as possible, provided that acceptable irrigation

The length of the girdles is determined by the following factors:

The time of application of the irrigation is given by the formula:

T = time expressed in hours.

H = height of water to be applied, expressed in mm.

13 PROFESSIONAL CIVIL ENGINEERING SCHOOL - UNPRG

S = area of the girdle, expressed in m2.

Q = flow rate expressed in l / s.

14 PROFESSIONAL CIVIL ENGINEERING SCHOOL - UNPRG

Figure 1.10. Flood Irrigation.

Design of Flood Irrigation.

15 PROFESSIONAL CIVIL ENGINEERING SCHOOL - UNPRG

Figure 1.12. Effect of poor leveling on uniformity.

The terrain is divided into compartments, stonecutters or closed boards, within

16 PROFESSIONAL CIVIL ENGINEERING SCHOOL - UNPRG

Figure 1.13. Application in cascade of flow to the mason

a. Ways of performing irrigation by compartments:

17 PROFESSIONAL CIVIL ENGINEERING SCHOOL - UNPRG

o In sandy soil, up to 0.5 hours.

o On sandy-loam terrain, up to 1 hour.

o In clay-loam soil, up to 2 hours.