HAND OUT

INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE

By:
Rinta Ratnawati,M.Pd
By:
Rinta Ratnawati,M.Pd

SEKOLAH TINGGI AGAMA ISLAM NEGERI

TADRIS BAHASA INGGRIS
SEMESTER GENAP
2012 - 2013
PAMEKASAN
MEETING
A. LITERATURE AND LITERARY CRITICISM

In this course you will be introduced to the world of literature. As a student of

English, you must have studied literature, especially in English at a lower level than
the present one. That means to some of you, what you are going to learn in the early
part of this course may not be entirely new. There is therefore a need to bring your
previous knowledge to bear on the new knowledge that you acquire in the course.
In this unit, you will learn about the definitions of literature and different
literary forms. Literature is a study that concerns a whole range of human life and
activities. Thus, literature concerns you and me.

B. COURSE AIM
The aims are to help you understand the concept of literature and literary
criticism. These broad aims will be achieved by:
1. Introducing you to the study of literature and literary criticism.
2. Familiarizing you with the unique characteristics of literature and literary
criticism.
3. Acquainting you with the unique procedure that will enable you read, appreciates
and analyzes literary texts.
4. Preparing you for further studies in literature and literary criticism.

C. COURSE OBJECTIVES
There are eighteen units in the course and each unit has its objectives. You
should read the objectives of each unit and bear them in mind as you go through the
unit.
On your successful completion of this course, you should be able to:
1. Define literature and literary criticism.
2. Understand the concepts and principles that you need for the study and enjoyment
of literary works.
3. Explain the different genres of literature.
4. Recognize the techniques needed in literary criticism.
5. Analyze literary texts
6. Enjoy and appreciate any literary work.

D. Working through this Course

To complete this course, you are required to study the units, the recommended
novels, plays, poems and other related materials. You will be required to undertake
some exercises for which you need a pen, a note-book, and other materials that will be
listed in this guide. At the end of each unit, you will be required to submit written
assignments for assessment purposes. At the end of the course, you will write a final
examination.
 MEETING

A. DEFINITION

Moody (1987) writes that literature springs from our in born love of telling a
story, of arranging words in pleasing patterns, of expressing in words some special
aspects of our human experience.
 Boulton (1980) defines literature from a functional perspective as the
imaginative work that gives us Rs: recreation, recognition, revelation and
redemption.

Rees (1973), after describing what he regarded as literature, summed up that

literature is a permanent expression in words of some thoughts or feelings in ideas
about life and the world.

All the above definitions describe literature from different perspectives. Still,
there are certain things that are common to them. They all recognize the fact that:
i. Literature is imaginative
ii. Literature expresses thoughts and feelings
iii. Literature deals with life experiences
iv. Literature uses words in a powerful, effective and yet captivating
manner
v. Literature promotes recreation and revelation of hidden facts.

Literature is thus summed up as permanent expressions in words (written or

spoken), specially arranged in pleasing accepted patterns or forms. Literature
expresses thoughts, feelings, ideas or other special aspects of human experiences.

B. FORMS OF LITERATURE

Forms are taken to mean the mode in which literature is expressed. Usually, it
is in either the spoken or written form. The spoken form predated the written one. The
spoken form is common to many in the Third World or developing countries of Africa
that are not literate. This is the form of literature that is called Orature. It is orally
rendered and transmitted from generation to generation. Examples are the oral
literature from your locality.
The written form of literature is that which has been reduced to writing. It is common
among literate cultures. It is no wonder therefore that when the British Colonialists came to
Africa, they did not recognize our literature, which was mostly in the oral form.
C. STEPS IN STUDYING LITERATURE

What are the steps in studying literature? Before this unit is rounded off, it is
necessary to look at language issues in defining literature. Language is an important tool in
literature. It is in literature that words are used in a special sense for the writer to bring out
intentions. That is, words are manipulated in literature to suite the writer's intention. Let us
consider the following piece of literary illustration:

Those who have nothing but guns for the hungry

 And think of nothing but death and dying
Let them spend our Earth's fortune
Harvesting blood from the fields of war
The last banquet shall be their children's blood.

In the above poem, the poet uses ordinary words in a special sense. Look at Harvesting
blood.
Grains are normally what is harvested (or do you think blood is Harvested?). However, in the
poem, the poet uses 'harvest' to convey his intentions.
It is the special use of language in this manner that distinguishes literature as a subject of
study, distinct from other subjects in the curriculum.

D. TYPES OF LITERATURE

Before we go into this unit, do you still remember what you learnt in the first
unit? Without opening to Unit 1, can you define literature from your own perspective?
From your previous knowledge, what do you understand by the term "types of
literature"? Attempt this to answer these questions before you read this section further.
By types of literature we mean genres of literature. Majority, there are three broad
types of literature, these are drama, poetry and prose. Under drama we have: dance
drama, radio and television drama, mime, pantomime, heroic and morality plays.
Principally however, they all come under: tragedy, comedy, tragic-comedy and
melodrama. Each of these will be discussed in detail and later on in the course. For
 now, we should note that drama is primarily written to be performed or acted on stage.
Therefore, the playwright usually writes his plays character by character, scene by
scene and act by act to forestall any confusion and to ensure correctness during
performance.

E. POETRY

Poetry is another genre or type of literature. It is written in verse, that is, it is

usually in lines known as verse. The use of verse is hence different from the biblical
sense of chapter and verse. It simply refers to poems written in rhythmic patterns and
lines. Consider the following poem:

WE HAVE COME HOME

We have come home
From the bloodless wars
with sunken hearts -
Our boots full of pride
From the true massacre of the soul
When we have asked
"What does it cost?
To be loved and 1eft alone"

The illustrative poem above depicts versification. It was not written in prose or
continuous form, but line by line. This is one of the reasons why it is a poem and not
a play (drama) or prose (novel).

F. PROSE WORKS

The next genre or type of literature we shall consider is prose. This is a term
you should be familiar with. What do you understand by it? Give your answer before
reading this unit any further. Prose refers to the literary or written form of the
language of ordinary speech. We often talk about a book written in prose style or
continuous form. The novel falls under prose. It is the latest arrival of the literary
genres, in fact, novel means new. How many novels have you read? Mention 10 of
them and name their authors. The prose could be fiction or non-fiction. Fictions are
imagined or invented stories. Thus, the events presented did not occur in real life,
although they may be real to life, because, all literary work should depict life of
various types. They include fables common in African literature and the modern
George Orwell's Animal Farm, where the characters, mainly animals are made to
talk, act and behave like human beings. Others are allegory which are similar to
fables, but whose characters represent ideas, such as love, hope, meekness and the
like, as is seen in John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. Also included in the class of
prose are parables, romance and short stories. Non-fiction prose is more or less true-
to-life stories. They include biography, autobiography, travels and adventures and the
essay. All these types will be dealt with more fully in other modules.

MEETING
1. Characters

Characters :These are the persons, animals, other creatures or things

that the playwright has created to act out the play or drama /
representation of a person, place, or thing performing traditionally
human activities or functions in a work of fiction.

There are usually two types of characters: the flat and round.

a. Flat characters / static characters

who do not change from the beginning to the end of the play.

b. Round characters / dynamic characters

They grow and develop with the play. Everything about them is revealed in the
play. They are usually the main characters of the play.
 Protagonists: These are the leading characters in a play. They are the most
important. The entire action of the play centers around them. They are the heroes
or heroines of the play. If the play has a happy ending, the protagonists are comic
characters. If the play has a sad ending, the protagonists are tragic characters.

Antagonists: These are the characters whose main aim is to contend with the
protagonists. They work against the interest of the protagonists. In most cases,
they lead to the downfall of the protagonists, if the play is tragic, or to the happy
ending if the play is comical.

2. Plot

Plot is the literary element that describes the structure of a story. It shows
arrangement of events and actions within a story.

Plot Components:

Climax: the turning point, the

most intense momenteither
mentally or in action

Rising Action: the series of conflicts and Falling Action: all of the action which
crisis in the story that lead to the climax follows the climax

Exposition: the start of the story, the Resolution: the conclusion, the tying
Special Techniques of Plot
situation before the action starts together of all of the threads
Suspense- excitement or tension
Foreshadowing- hint or clue about what will happen in story
Flashback- interrupts the normal sequence of events to tell about something that
happened in the past
Surprise Ending- conclusion that reader does not expect

3. Conflict
Conflict is a dramatic struggle between opposing forces. Conflicts can be external or
internal

External conflict- outside force may be person, group, animal, nature, or a nonhuman
obstacle

Character vs character
(problem with another character)
 Character vs nature
(problem with force of nature)

Character vs Society
(problem with the laws or beliefs of a group)(character vs.
community, society or culture

Internal conflict- takes place in a characters mind

Character vs himself
(problem with deciding what to do or think; inner conflict)

4. Setting

The setting is the place (location) where the story takes place and the time it
occurs.
Geographical location (London, Cairo, Wyoming, etc.)
Time period - day, month, season, year, decade, century, millenium. (WWII,
1865, Middle Ages, today, etc.)
Socio-economic characteristics of the location (wealthy suburbs, depression
dustbowl, etc.)
The specific building, room, and so forth (castle, log cabin, bus, mountain top,
etc.)
Atmosphere: mood or feeling in the story.
Verisimilitude: the appearance of being true to life life-like. (veri = truth;
similtude = like). Fantasy typically lacks verisimilitude and historical fiction
tries to achieve verisimilitude.
 A good setting helps the reader visualize the places in the story.
A good author includes descriptions of the setting using the five senses
SIGHT
SMELL
TASTE
FEEL
SOUND

5. Theme
Theme is a central idea or central message of the story. Themes usually
contain insight into the human condition telling something about humans and what it
means to be human.
Themes can be stated directly or implied by the characters, events, and actions in the
story.

Remember theme is not the subject!

The subject can be stated in one or two words. For example: love
Theme is the central idea and it makes a revelation about the subject. It must
be a statement. For example: Love is a powerful and motivating force when it
is first experienced.
When stating a theme avoid using clichs!

6. Point of View
Point of view is the perspective from which the story is told.
Who is telling the story? For example, is it a player on the home team, an opposing
player, or someone watching the game?
How do we know what is happening? For example, does a character tell us?
Someone else?
a. Narrator
The person telling the story who may or may not be a character in the story.

b. POV - 1st Person Limited

Told from the viewpoint of one of the characters, using the first person pronoun
I / Narrator participates in action but sometimes has limited knowledge/vision.

Example :

The thousands of injuries of Fortunato I had borne as best I could, but when
he ventured upon insult I vowed revenge. You, who so well know the nature of
my Told from the viewpoint of one of the characters, using the first person
pronoun I.soul, will not suppose, however, that I give utterance to a threat.
The Cask of Amontillado
by Edgar Allan Poe
c. POV - 2 rd Person Limited
Second person - Narrator addresses the reader directly as though she is part of
the story.
(i.e. You walk into your bedroom. You see clutter everywhere and)

d. POV - 3 rd Person Limited

Third person, told from the viewpoint of a character in the story.

Example:

They all laughed, and while they were laughing, the quiet boy moved his bare
foot on the sidewalk and merely touched, brushed against a number of red ants
that were scurrying about on the sidewalk. Secretly, his eyes shining, while his
parents chatted with the old man, he saw the ants hesitate, quiver, and lie still on
the cement. He sensed they were cold now.

Fever Dream by Ray Bradbury

e. POV - 3 rd Person Omniscient

The author is telling the story directly. All-knowing narrator (multiple
perspectives). The narrator knows what each character is thinking and feeling, not
just what they are doing throughout the story.
This type of narrator usually jumps around within the text, following one
character for a few pages or chapters, and then switching to another character for a
few pages, chapters, etc. Omniscient narrators also sometimes step out of a
particular characters mind to evaluate him or her in some meaningful way.

Example:

But just then, from somewhere far off, Millicent was sure of it, there came a
melodic fluting, quite wild and sweet, and she knew it must be the song of the
heather birds as they went wheeling and gliding against the wide blue horizons
through vast spaces of air, their wings flashing quick and purple in the bright sun.

Initiation by Sylvia Plath

MEETING
 A. Types of Fiction

Types of Fiction

Science fiction fiction story with a science theme, space etc.

Animal Fiction A main character is an animal

Adventure exciting and sometimes dangerous plot or setting

Realistic fiction story that is based on a true story

Historical fiction fiction story based on a historical event

Mystery A problem is solved by following clues

Humorous fiction funny story, characters, setting and or plot

Biography True story of someones life

Autobiography True story of the authors life

Fantasy fanciful fiction, cannot possibly be real

Folktales stories passed down orally by different cultural groups

Fables similar to folktales but the characters are animals and there is a moral or lesson

B. Types of Prose Fiction

 The following definitions are based on Barnet/Berman/Burto 1964, Cuddon 1998,
Hawthorn 1986, Fowler 1987.

The novel can be defined as an extended work of prose fiction. It derives from
the Italian novella (little new thing), which was a short piece of prose. The novel has
become an increasingly popular form of fiction since the early eighteenth century,
though prose narratives were written long before then. The term denotes a prose
narrative about characters and their actions in what is recognisably everyday life. This
differentiates it from its immediate predecessor, the romance, which describes
unrealistic adventures of supernatural heroes. The novel has developed various sub-
genres:

In the epistolary novel the narrative is conveyed entirely by an exchange of

letters. (e.g. Samuel Richardson, Pamela.)

A picaresque novel is an early form of the novel, some call it a precursor of the
novel. It presents the adventures of a lighthearted rascal (pcaro=rogue). It is usually
episodic in structure, the episodes often arranged as a journey. The narrative focuses on
one character who has to deal with tyrannical masters and unlucky fates but who usually
manages to escape these miserable situations by using her/his wit. The form of the
picaresque narrative emerged in sixteenth-century Spain. Examples are: Cervantes, Don
Quixote; and in the English tradition: Thomas Nash, The Unfortunate Traveler; Mark
Twain, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn; Daniel Defoe, Moll Flanders.

The historical novel takes its setting and some of the (chief) characters and
events from history. It develops these elements with attention to the known facts and
makes the historical events and issues important to the central narrative. (e.g. Walter
Scott, Ivanhoe; Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities)

The bildungsroman (novel of education) is a type of novel originating in

Germany which presents the development of a character mostly from childhood to
maturity. This process typically contains conflicts and struggles, which are ideally
overcome in the end so that the protagonist can become a valid and valuable member of
society. Examples are J.W. Goethe, Wilhelm Meister; Henry Fielding, Tom Jones;
Charles Dickens, David Copperfield; James Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young
Man.

The gothic novel became very popular from the second half of the eighteenth
century onwards. With the aim to evoke chilling terror by exploiting mystery and a
variety of horrors, the gothic novel is usually set in desolate landscapes, ruined abbeys,
or medieval castles with dungeons, winding staircases and sliding panels. Heroes and
heroines find themselves in gloomy atmospheres where they are confronted with
supernatural forces, demonic powers and wicked tyrants. Examples are Horace Walpole,
The Castle of Otranto; Ann Radcliffe, Mysteries of Udolpho; William Faulkner,
Absalom! Absalom!
 The social novel, also called industrial novel or Condition of England novel,
became particularly popular between 1830 and 1850 and is associated with the
development of nineteenth-century realism. As its name indicates, the social novel gives
a portrait of society, especially of lower parts of society, dealing with and criticising the
living conditions created by industrial development or by a particular legal situation (the
poor laws for instance). Well-known examples are: Elizabeth Gaskell, Mary Barton;
Charles Dickens, Oliver Twist; Benjamin Disraeli, Sybil and Charles Kingsley, Alton
Locke.

Science fiction is a type of prose narrative of varying length, from short-story to

novel. Its topics include quests for other worlds, the influence of alien beings on Earth or
alternate realities; they can be utopian, dystopian or set in the past. Common to all types
of science fiction is the interest in scientific change and development and concern for
social, climatic, geological or ecological change (e.g. Mary Shelley, Frankenstein; H.G.
Wells, The Time Machine; Aldous Huxley, Brave New World; George Orwell, 1984;
Anthony Burgess, A Clockwork Orange).

Metafiction is a term given to fictional writing which self-consciously and

systematically draws attention to its status as an artefact in order to pose questions
about the relationship between fiction and reality. It concentrates on the
phenomenological characteristics of fiction, and investigates into the quintessential
nature of literary art by reflecting the process of narrating. (e.g. Laurence Sterne, The
Life and Opinons of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman; John Fowles, The French
Lieutenants Woman; Doris Lessing, The Golden Notebook)

A romance is a fictional narrative in prose or verse that represents a chivalric

theme or relates improbable adventures of idealised characters in some remote or
enchanted setting. It typically deploys monodimensional or static characters who are
sharply discriminated as heroes or villains, masters or victims. The protagonist is often
solitary and isolated from a social context, the plot emphasises adventure, and is often
cast in the form of a quest for an ideal or the pursuit of an enemy. Examples:
Anonymous, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight; Sir Philip Sidney, Arcadia; Percy B.
Shelley, Queen Mab; Nathaniel Hawthorne, The House of the Seven Gables.

A short-story is a piece of prose fiction marked by relative shortness and

density, organised into a plot and with some kind of dnouement at the end. The plot
may be comic, tragic, romantic, or satiric. It may be written in the mode of fantasy,
realism or naturalism.
MEETING
 A. Element Of Fiction Analysis

CENTRAL IDEA: Central idea refers to the author's main point or purpose in writing
the story. Central idea is the reader's intellectual response to the story, citing a
generalization based on the particular facts of the story. Central idea is more than an
indication of the story's subject; rather, it is the author's statement about the subject. For
the central idea following, assume that the subject of the story is maturity: "The central
idea of the story is that maturity is a product of one's actions and attitudes, not one's
possessions."

CHARACTER: Character refers to the people, animals, or forces that inhabit a story.
Each short story has a central character and some minor characters. Characters will have
certain qualities and behaviors that help to illustrate the central idea. The central
character, or protagonist, will often have one beginning key trait or value that is out of
balance. Examples of a key trait might include immaturity, conceitedness, self-denial,
arrogance, fear of change, sexual or gender frustration, or a variety of other human
behaviors. The key trait is more than an emotion or occupation or external situation. In
analysis of character, the student should be most concerned with the static or dynamic
nature of the central character. Is the central character's beginning key trait altered by the
end of the story? A character whose beginning key trait is changed at the end is said to be
dynamic. A character whose beginning key trait is not changed at the end is said to be
static.

CONFLICT: Conflict refers to the various problems a character encounters in a story.

The central character will usually face one central (major) conflict and several minor
conflicts (complications). Conflicts are of three general types: man vs. man; man vs.
cosmos; and man vs. himself. At the climax of a story, some critical decision is made or
some critical action is performed by the central character, and the winner of the central
conflict becomes apparent. The resolution (or solving) of the central conflict produces a
new state of affairs. In most substantial stories, the central conflict is internal (man vs.
himself), and it relates to the key trait that is out of balance.

SETTING: Setting in a narrow sense refers to the physical location and time setting of
the story. It can also refer to the cultural, historical, economic, or social aspects of that
setting. The setting is in a sense the "world" through which the characters journey,
encountering problems along the way. On a surface level, the setting of a story may
sometimes seem insignificant. On an underlying level, though, the setting is often
significant to the events of the story.

POINT OF VIEW: Point of view refers to the position from which the story is viewed or
told. This position determines the light in which the reader views the characters and
events of the story. The narrative voice is a persona the author assumes to tell the story;
the author is not the narrator. This voice can be that of a character in the story (first-
person); a semi-detached observer (third-person limited); or a detached observer (third-
person omniscient and third-person objective). This voice may have a certain sensibility
or world view that can in some way color the reader's perception of the story. Be aware
that point of view in literary analysis has nothing to do with an opinion or a persuasive
"point of view."

LANGUAGE: This term refers to a variety of figurative and literary devices. In most
cases, the author's intent in using these devices is to compare dissimilar objects or evoke
secondary associations for a literary effect. Some language devices to be analyzed are
symbolism, irony, and literary allusion.

TONE: Tone refers to the author's emotional attitude toward the story and characters. The
reader gauges tone through his or her own emotional response called mood. If the author
is successful in creating tone, then tone and mood should be similar. The reader's
expression of tone identifies the reader's reaction to the outcome of the story, not the
character's reaction. A story's tone should be expressed as an adjective. For example, "The
tone of the story is sad."

MEETING
A. Example of Fiction Analysis

- The teacher give the students short story

- The students analysis the short story
- Discuss together
MEETING
MEETING
MEETING
A. Elements of Drama:
The elements of drama, by which dramatic works can be analyzed and evaluated, can
be categorized into three major areas: literary elements, technical elements, and
performance elements.

1. Literary Elements
Character : a person portrayed in a drama, novel, or other artistic piece.
Exposition is the who, when, where and what part of the play.
Story organization: beginning, middle, end
Conflict: the internal or external struggle between opposing forces, ideas, or
interests that creates dramatic tension.
Suspense: a feeling of uncertainty as to the outcome, used to build interest and
excitement on the part of the audience.
Theme: the basic idea of a play; the idea, point of view, or perception that
binds together a work of art.
Language:in drama, the particular manner of verbal expression, the diction or
style of writing, or the speech or phrasing that suggests a class or
profession or type of character.
Style: the shaping of dramatic material, settings, or costumes in a deliberately
nonrealistic manner.
Soliloquy: a speech by a single actor who is ALONE on stage
Monologue: a long speech made by one actor; a monologue may be delivered
alone or in the presence of others.

2. Technical Elements
 Scenery (set): the theatrical equipment, such as curtains, flats, backdrops, or
platforms, used in a dramatic production to communicate
environment.
Costumes : clothing and accessories worn by actors to portray character
and period.
Props : short for properties; any article, except costume or scenery,
used as part of a dramatic production;any moveable object
that appears on stage during a performance, from a
telephone to a train.
Lights : the placement, intensity, and color of lights to Help
communicate environment, mood, or feeling.
Sound : the effects an audience hears during performance to
communicate character, context, or environment
Makeup : costumes, wigs, and body paint used to transform an actor
into a character.

3. Performance Elements
Acting :use of face, body, and voice to portray character
Character motivation : the reason or reasons for a characters behavior; an
incentive or inducement for further action for a character.
Character analysis: in responding to dramatic art, the process of examining how
the elements of dramaliterary, technical, and
performanceare used.
Empathy : the capacity to relate to the feelings of another.
Speaking : the mode of expression or delivery of lines.
Breath control : proper use of the lungs and diaphragm muscle for
maximum capacity and efficiency of breath for speaking.
Vocal expression : how an actor uses his or her voice to convey
character.
Inflection : change in pitch or loudness of the voice.
Projection : how well the voice carries to the audience.
Speaking style : the mode of expression or delivery of lines.
Diction : selection and pronunciation of words; clarity of speech.

Nonverbal expression:
Gestures any movement of the actors head, shoulder, arm, hand,
leg, or foot to convey meaning
Body alignment physiologically correct posture and use of the body to
ensure the maximum capacity and efficiency of breathing
and movement
Facial expression physical and vocal aspects used by an actor to convey
mood, feeling, or personality
Character blocking the path formed by the actors movement on stage, usually
determined by the director with assistance from the actor
and often written down in a script using commonly
accepted theatrical symbols
Movement stage blocking or the movements of the actors onstage
during performance; also refers to the action of the play as
it moves from event to event.
MEETING
 A. Example of Drama Analysis 1

- The teacher give the students some dramas

- The students analysis the drama
- Discuss together
MEETING
 A. Example Of Drama Analysis 2

- The teacher give the students some dramas

- The students analysis the drama
- Discuss together
MEETING
 A. Element of Poetry Analysis

POETRY ASSUMPTIONS

Readers of poetry often bring with them many related assumptions:

That a poem is to be read for its "message,"

That this message is "hidden" in the poem,

The message is to be found by treating the words as symbols which naturally do not mean
what they say but stand for something else,

You have to decipher every single word to appreciate and enjoy the poem.

There are no easy ways to dispel these biases. Poetry is difficult because very often its
language is indirect. But so is experience - those things we think, feel, and do. The lazy reader
wants to be told things and usually avoids poetry because it demands commitment and energy.
Moreover, much of what poetry has to offer is not in the form of hidden meanings. Many poets
like to "play" with the sound of language or offer an emotional insight by describing what they
see in highly descriptive language. In fact, there can many different ways to enjoy poetry; this
reflects the many different styles and objectives of poets themselves. For an overview of the
many ways to read a poem, click here. Finally, if you are the type to give up when something is
unclear, just relax! Like we just said, there can be many different approaches to examining
poetry; often these approaches (like looking for certain poetic devices or examining the meaning
of a specific phrase) do not require a complete and exhaustive analysis of a poem. So, enjoy what
you do understand!

FIRST APPROACHES

Read the poem (many students neglect this step). Identify the speaker and the
situation. Feel free to read it more than once! Read the sentences literally. Use your prose
reading skills to clarify what the poem is about.Read each line separately, noting unusual
words and associations. Look up words you are unsure of and struggle with word associations
that may not seem logical to you.Note any changes in the form of the poem that might signal
a shift in point of view. Study the structure of the poem, including its rhyme and rhythm (if
any). Re-read the poem slowly, thinking about what message and emotion the poem
communicates to you.
 STRUCTURE and POETRY

An important method of analyzing a poem is to look at the stanza structure or style of a poem.
Generally speaking, structure has to do with the overall organization of lines and/or the
conventional patterns of sound. Again, many modern poems may not have any identifiable
structure (i.e. they are free verse), so don't panic if you can't find it!

STANZAS: Stanzas are a series of lines grouped together and separated by an empty line
from other stanzas. They are the equivalent of a paragraph in an essay. One way to identify a
stanza is to count the number of lines. Thus:

couplet (2 lines)
tercet (3 lines)

quatrain (4 lines)

cinquain (5 lines)

sestet (6 lines) (sometimes it's called a sexain)

septet (7 lines)

octave (8 lines)

FORM: A poem may or may not have a specific number of lines, rhyme scheme and/or metrical
pattern, but it can still be labeled according to its form or style. Here are the three most common
types of poems according to form:

1. Lyric Poetry: It is any poem with one speaker (not necessarily the poet) who expresses strong
thoughts and feelings. Most poems, especially modern ones, are lyric poems.

2. Narrative Poem: It is a poem that tells a story; its structure resembles the plot line of a story [i.e.
the introduction of conflict and characters, rising action, climax and the denouement].

3. Descriptive Poem: It is a poem that describes the world that surrounds the speaker. It uses
elaborate imagery and adjectives. While emotional, it is more "outward-focused" than lyric poetry,
which is more personal and introspective.
In a sense, almost all poems, whether they have consistent patterns of sound and/or structure, or are
free verse, are in one of the three categories above. Or, of course, they may be a combination of 2 or
3 of the above styles! Here are some more types of poems that are subtypes of the three styles above:

Ode: It is usually a lyric poem of moderate length, with a serious subject, an elevated style, and an
elaborate stanza pattern.

Elegy: It is a lyric poem that mourns the dead. [It's not to be confused with a eulogy.]It has no set
metric or stanzaic pattern, but it usually begins by reminiscing about the dead person, then laments
the reason for the death, and then resolves the grief by concluding that death leads to immortality. It
often uses "apostrophe" (calling out to the dead person) as a literary technique. It can have a fairly
formal style, and sound similar to an ode.

Sonnet: It is a lyric poem consisting of 14 lines and, in the English version, is usually written in
iambic pentameter. There are two basic kinds of sonnets: the Italian (or Petrarchan) sonnet and the
Shakespearean (or Elizabethan/English) sonnet. The Italian/Petrarchan sonnet is named after
Petrarch, an Italian Renaissance poet. The Petrarchan sonnet consists of an octave (eight lines) and a
sestet (six lines). The Shakespearean sonnet consists of three quatrains (four lines each) and a
concluding couplet (two lines). The Petrarchan sonnet tends to divide the thought into two parts
(argument and conclusion); the Shakespearean, into four (the final couplet is the summary).

Ballad: It is a narrative poem that has a musical rhythm and can be sung. A ballad is usually
organized into quatrains or cinquains, has a simple rhythm structure, and tells the tales of ordinary
people.

Epic: It is a long narrative poem in elevated style recounting the deeds of a legendary or historical
hero.

Qualities of an Epic Poem:

narrative poem of great scope; dealing with the founding of a nation or some other
heroic theme requires a dignified theme requires an organic unity requires orderly
progress of the action always has a heroic figure or figures involves supernatural
forces
written in deliberately ceremonial style

Other types of poems include:

Haiku: It has an unrhymed verse form having three lines (a tercet) and usually 5,7,5 syllables,
respectively. It's usually considered a lyric poem.

Limerick: It has a very structured poem, usually humorous & composed of five lines (a cinquain), in
an aabba rhyming pattern; beat must be anapestic (weak, weak, strong) with 3 feet in lines 1, 2, & 5
and 2 feet in lines 3 & 4. It's usually a narrative poem based upon a short and often ribald anecdote.
SOUND PATTERNS

Three other elements of poetry are rhyme scheme, meter (ie. regular rhythm) and word sounds
(like alliteration). These are sometimes collectively called sound play because they take advantage
of the performative, spoken nature of poetry.

RHYME
Rhyme is the repetition of similar sounds. In poetry, the most common kind of rhyme is the end
rhyme, which occurs at the end of two or more lines. It is usually identified with lower case letters,
and a new letter is used to identify each new end sound. Take a look at the rhyme scheme for the
following poem :

I saw a fairy in the wood,

He was dressed all in green.
He drew his sword while I just stood,
And realized I'd been seen.

The rhyme scheme of the poem is abab.

.Internal rhyme occurs in the middle of a line, as in these lines from Coleridge, "In mist or cloud,
on mast or shroud" or "Whiles all the night through fog-smoke white" ("The Ancient Mariner").
Remember that most modern poems do not have rhyme.

NOTE: Rhyme (above) and rhythm (below) are two totally different concepts!

RHYTHM AND METER

Meter: the systematic regularity in rhythm; this systematic rhythm (or sound pattern) is
usually identified by examining the type of "foot" and the number of feet.

1. Poetic Foot: The traditional line of metered poetry contains a number of rhythmical units, which
are called feet. The feet in a line are distinguished as a recurring pattern of two or three syllables
("apple" has 2 syllables, "banana" has 3 syllables, etc.). The pattern, or foot, is designated according
to the number of syllables contained, and the relationship in each foot between the strong and weak
syllables.Thus:

__ = a stressed (or strong, or LOUD) syllable

U = an unstressed (or weak, or quiet) syllable

In other words, any line of poetry with a systematic rhythm has a certain number of feet, and each
foot has two or three syllables with a constant beat pattern .

a. Iamb (Iambic) - weak syllable followed by strong syllable. [Note that the pattern is sometimes
fairly hard to maintain, as in the third foot.]

b. Trochee (Trochaic): strong syllable followed by a weak syllable.

c. Anapest (Anapestic): two weak syllables followed by a strong syllable.

e.g.
In her room at the prow of the house
Where light breaks, and the windows are tossed...

From "The Writer", by Richard Wilbur

d. Dactyl (Dactylic): a strong syllable followed by two weak syllables.

DD

Here's another (silly) example of dactylic rhythm.

DDDA was an / archer, who / shot at a / frog
DDDB was a / butcher, and / had a great / dog
DDDC was a / captain, all / covered with / lace
DDDD was a / drunkard, and / had a red / face.

e. Spondee (Spondaic): two strong syllables (not common as lines, but appears as a foot). A
spondee usually appears at the end of a line.
2. The Number of Feet: The second part of meter is the number of feet contained in a line.

Thus:
one foot=monometer
two feet=dimeter
three feet=trimeter
four feet=tetrameter
five feet=pentameter
six feet=hexameter (when hexameter is in iambic rhythm, it is called an alexandrine)

Poems with an identifiable meter are therefore identified by the type of feet (e.g. iambic) and the
number of feet in a line (e.g. pentameter). The following line is iambic pentameter because it (1) has
five feet [pentameter], and (2) each foot has two syllables with the stress on the second syllable
[iambic].

That time | of year | thou mayst | in me | behold

Thus, you will hear meter identified as iambic pentameter, trochaic tetrameter, and so on.

3. Irregularity: Many metered poems in English avoid perfectly regular rhythm because it is
monotonous. Irregularities in rhythm add interest and emphasis to the lines. In this line:

The first foot substitutes a trochee for an iamb. Thus, the basic iambic pentameter is varied with the
opening trochee.

4. Blank Verse: Any poetry that does have a set metrical pattern (usually iambic pentameter), but
does not have rhyme, is blank verse. Shakespeare frequently used unrhymed iambic pentameter in
his plays; his works are an early example of blank verse.
5. Free Verse: Most modern poetry no longer follows strict rules of meter or rhyme, especially
throughout an entire poem. Free verse, frankly, has no rules about meter or rhyme whatsoever! [In
other words, blank verse has rhythm, but no rhyme, while free verse has neither rhythm nor rhyme.]
So, you may find it difficult to find regular iambic pentameter in a modern poem, though you might
find it in particular lines. Modern poets do like to throw in the occasional line or phrase of metered
poetry, particularly if theyre trying to create a certain effect. Free verse can also apply to a lack of a
formal verse structure.

How do I know if a poem has meter? How do I determine the meter?

To maintain a consistent meter, a poet has to choose words that fit. For example, if a poet wants to
write iambic poetry, s/he has to choose words that have a naturally iambic rhythm. Words like betray
and persuade will work in an iambic poem because they are naturally iambic. They sound silly any
other way. However, candle and muscle will work best in a trochaic poem, because their natural
emphasis is on the first syllable. (However, a poet can use trochaic words if s/he places a one syllable
word in front of them. This often leads to poetic feet ending in the middle of words - after one
syllable - rather than the end.) It's not surprising that most modern poetry is not metered, because it is
very restrictive and demanding.

Determining meter is usually a process of elimination. Start reading everything in iambic by

emphasizing every second syllable. 80 to 90% of metered poetry is iambic. If it sounds silly or
strange, because many of the poem's words do not sound natural, then try trochaic, anapestic or
dactylic rhythms. If none of these sounds natural, then you probably do not have metered poetry at
all (ie. it's free verse).

WORD SOUNDS

Another type of sound play is the emphasis on individual sounds and words:

Alliteration: the repetition of initial sounds on the same line or stanza - Big bad Bob bounced
bravely.
Assonance: the repetition of vowel sounds (anywhere in the middle or end of a line or stanza) -
Tilting at windmills
Consonance: the repetition of consonant sounds (anywhere in the middle or end of a line or stanza) -
And all the air a solemn stillness holds. (T. Gray)
Onomatopoeia: words that sound like that which they describe - Boom! Crash! Pow! Quack! Moo!
Caress...
Repetition: the repetition of entire lines or phrases to emphasize key thematic ideas.
Parallel Stucture: a form of repetition where the order of verbs and nouns is repeated; it may involve
exact words, but it more importantly repeats sentence structure - "I came, I saw, I conquered".
MEANING and POETRY

I said earlier that poetry is not always about hidden or indirect meanings (sometimes called meaning
play). Nevertheless, if often is a major part of poetry, so here some of the important things to
remember:

CONCRETENESS and PARTICULARITY

In general, poetry deals with particular things in concrete language, since our emotions most
readily respond to these things. From the poem's particular situation, the reader may then generalize;
the generalities arise by implication from the particular. In other words, a poem is most often
concrete and particular; the "message," if there is any, is general and abstract; it's implied by the
images.

Images, in turn, suggest meanings beyond the mere identity of the specific object. Poetry "plays"
with meaning when it identifies resemblances or makes comparisons between things; common
examples of this "figurative" comparison include:

ticking of clock = mortality

hardness of steel = determination

white = peace or purity

Such terms as connotation, simile, metaphor, allegory, and symbol are aspects of this comparison.
Such expressions are generally called figurative or metaphorical language.

DENOTATION AND CONNOTATION

Word meanings are not only restricted to dictionary meanings. The full meaning of a word includes
both the dictionary definition and the special meanings and associations a word takes in a given
phrase or expression. For example, a tiger is a carnivorous animal of the cat family. This is the literal
or denotative meaning. But we have certain associations with the word: sinuous movement, jungle
violence, and aggression. These are the suggestive, figurative or connotative meanings.

FIGURATIVE/CONNOTATIVE DEVICES
 1. Simile is the rhetorical term used to designate the most elementary form of resemblances:
most similes are introduced by "like" or "as." These comparisons are usually between
dissimilar situations or objects that have something in common, such as "My love is like a
red, red rose."
2. A metaphor leaves out "like" or "as" and implies a direct comparison between objects or
situations. "All flesh is grass." For more on metaphor, click here.

3. Synecdoche is a form of metaphor, which in mentioning an important (and attached) part

signifies the whole (e.g. "hands" for labour).

4. Metonymy is similar to synecdoche; it's a form of metaphor allowing an object closely

associated (but unattached) with a object or situation to stand for the thing itself (e.g. the
crown or throne for a king or the bench for the judicial system).

5. A symbol is like a simile or metaphor with the first term left out. "My love is like a red, red
rose" is a simile. If, through persistent identification of the rose with the beloved woman, we
may come to associate the rose with her and her particular virtues. At this point, the rose
would become a symbol.

6. Allegory can be defined as a one to one correspondence between a series of abstract ideas
and a series of images or pictures presented in the form of a story or a narrative. For example,
George Orwell's Animal Farm is an extended allegory that represents the Russian Revolution
through a fable of a farm and its rebellious animals.

7. Personification occurs when you treat abstractions or inanimate objects as human, that is,
giving them human attributes, powers, or feelings (e.g., "nature wept" or "the wind whispered
many truths to me").

8. Irony takes many forms. Most basically, irony is a figure of speech in which actual intent is
expressed through words that carry the opposite meaning.

o Paradox: usually a literal contradiction of terms or situations

o Situational Irony: an unmailed letter

o Dramatic Irony: audience has more information or greater perspective than the
characters

o Verbal Irony: saying one thing but meaning another

Overstatement (hyperbole)

Understatement (meiosis)

Sarcasm

Irony may be a positive or negative force. It is most valuable as a mode of perception that assists the
poet to see around and behind opposed attitudes, and to see the often conflicting interpretations that
come from our examination of life.
POETRY AS A LANGUAGE OF INDIRECTION

Thus, if we recognize that much of the essential quality of our experience is more complex than a
simple denotative statement can describe, then we must recognize the value of the poet's need to
search for a language agile enough to capture the complexity of that experience. Consider this four-
line stanza:

O Western wind, when wilt thou blow

That the small rain down can rain?
Christ, that my love were in my arms,
And I in my bed again!

The center of the poem is the lover's desire to be reunited with his beloved (lines 3 and 4). But the
full meaning of the poem depends on the first two lines also. Obviously, the lover associates his grief
with the wind and rain, but the poet leaves to implication, to indirection, just how the lover's
situation and the wind and rain are related. We note that they are related in several ways: the need for
experiencing and manifesting love is an inherent need, like nature's need for rain; in a word, love,
like the wind and rain, is natural. Secondly, the lover is living in a kind of drought or arid state that
can only be slaked by the soothing presence of the beloved. Thirdly, the rising of the wind and the
coming of the rain can neither be controlled nor foretold exactly, and human affairs, like the lover's
predicament, are subject to the same sort of chance.

Undoubtedly, too, there are associations with specific words, like "Western" or "small rain" that the
reader is only half aware of but which nonetheless contribute to meaning. These associations or
connotations afford a few indirections that enrich the entire poem. For example, "small rain" at once
describes the kind of rain that the lover wants to fall and suggests the joy and peace of lover's tears,
and "small" alone might suggest the daintiness or femininity of the beloved.
MEETING
 A. Example of Poetry Analysis 1

- The teacher give the students poetry

- The students analysis the poetry
- Discuss together
MEETING
 B. Example of Poetry Analysis 2

- The teacher give the students poetry

- The students analysis the poetry
- Discuss together
MEETING
MEETING