Outline
Temperature and 0th law of
Chapter 10
Thermal Physics
1 2
Thermal Physics
„ Thermal physics is the study of
„ Temperature
„ Thermal energy transfer (heat)
„ Thermal properties of matter
„ Transformation between states of matter
„ Macroscopic properties (T,V,P)
„ Relationship with microscopic properties
3 4
Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics
„ If objects A and B are separately in thermal
equilibrium with a third object, C, then A and
B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
„ Allows a definition of temperature
5 6
„
Thermodynamics
„ Thermometers, temperature scales
„ Thermal expansion
„ Ideal gas - macroscopic description
and kinetic theory
Heat
„ The process by which energy is
exchanged between objects because of
temperature differences is called heat
„ Objects are in thermal contact if energy
can be exchanged between them
„ Thermal equilibrium exists when two
objects in thermal contact with each
other cease to exchange energy
Temperature from the
Zeroth Law
„ Two objects in thermal equilibrium
with each other are at the same
temperature
„ Temperature is the property that
determines whether or not an
object is in thermal equilibrium
with other objects
1
Thermometers Thermometers, cont
„ Used to measure the temperature of an „ A mercury
object or a system thermometer is an
„ Make use of physical properties that example of a common
thermometer
change with temperature
„ The level of the
„ Many physical properties can be used mercury rises due to
„ volume of a liquid thermal expansion
length of a solid
Temperature can be
„
„
pressure of a gas held at constant volume
„
defined by the height
volume of a gas held at constant pressure
„
of the mercury
electric resistance of a conductor
„
column
„ color of a very hot object
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Temperature Scales Celsius Scale

„ Thermometers can be calibrated „ Temperature of an ice-water mixture is
by placing them in thermal contact defined as 0º C
with an environment that remains „ This is the freezing point of water

at constant temperature „ Temperature of a water-steam mixture

is defined as 100º C
„ Environment could be mixture of ice
This is the boiling point of water
and water in thermal equilibrium
„

„ Distance between these points is

„ Also commonly used is water and
divided into 100 segments or degrees
steam in thermal equilibrium

9 10

Gas Thermometer Kelvin Scale

„ Temperature „ When the pressure of a gas goes to
readings are zero, its temperature is –273.15º C
nearly
„ This temperature is called absolute zero
independent of
the gas „ This is the zero point of the Kelvin scale
„ Pressure varies „ –273.15º C = 0 K
with temperature „ To convert: TC = TK – 273.15
when maintaining „ The size of the degree in the Kelvin scale is
a constant the same as the size of a Celsius degree
volume

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2
 Pressure-Temperature Modern Definition of
Graph Kelvin Scale
„ All gases „ Defined in terms of two points
extrapolate to the „ Agreed upon by International Committee on
same temperature Weights and Measures in 1954
at zero pressure „ First point is absolute zero
„ This temperature is „ Second point is the triple point of water
absolute zero „ Triple point is the single point where water
can exist as solid, liquid, and gas
„ Single temperature and pressure
„ Occurs at 0.01º C and P = 4.58 mm Hg

13 14

Modern Definition of Some Kelvin

Kelvin Scale, cont Temperatures
„ The temperature of the triple point „ Some
on the Kelvin scale is 273.16 K representative
Kelvin
„ Therefore, the current definition of temperatures
of the Kelvin is defined as „ Note, this scale is
1/273.16 of the temperature of the logarithmic
triple point of water „ Absolute zero has
never been
reached
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Comparing Temperature
Fahrenheit Scales Scales
„ Most common scale used in the US
„ Temperature of the freezing point
is 32º
„ Temperature of the boiling point is
212º
„ 180 divisions between the points

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3
 Converting Among
Temperature Scales Thermal Expansion
TC = TK − 273.15 „ The thermal expansion of an object is a
consequence of the change in the
9 average separation between its
TF = TC + 32 constituent atoms or molecules
5 „ At ordinary temperatures, molecules
5 vibrate with a small amplitude
TC = (TF − 32 ) As temperature increases, the
9 „
amplitude increases
9 This causes the overall object as a whole to
∆TF = ∆TC
„
expand
5
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Applications of Thermal
Linear Expansion Expansion – Bimetallic Strip
„ For small changes in temperature
„ Thermostats
∆L = αL0 ∆T „

„
Use a bimetallic strip
Two metals expand
„ α, the coefficient of linear expansion, differently
Since they have
depends on the material
„

different coefficients
„ ∆T - change in temperature of expansion

„ See table 10.1

„ These are average coefficients, they can vary
somewhat with temperature

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Area Expansion Volume Expansion

„ Two dimensions „ Three dimensions expand
expand according to
∆V = β Vo ∆T
∆A = γA0 ∆T
for solids, β = 3α
γ = 2α
„ For liquids, the coefficient of volume
„ γ is the coefficient of expansion is given in the table
area expansion

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4
 More Applications of
Quick Quiz 10.3 Thermal Expansion
„ Fluid for a very sensitive thermometer:
a) mercury, b) alcohol, c) gasoline, d) glycerin „ Pyrex Glass
∆V = β Vo ∆T „ Thermal stresses are smaller than for
ordinary glass (αpyrex~1/3αglass)
„ Sea levels
„ Warming the oceans will increase the
volume of the oceans

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Unusual Behavior of Water Example: Problem #14

„ Aluminum cube
„ V0 = 1.00 m3
„ T = 20oC
„ ∆V = 100 cm3
„ As the temperature of water increases from 0ºC
to 4 ºC, it contracts and its density increases
∆V = β Vo ∆T
„ Above 4 ºC, water exhibits the expected „ ∆T - ?
expansion with increasing temperature
„ Maximum density of water is 1000 kg/m3 at 4 ºC
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Characteristics of an Ideal
Gas properties Gas
„ A gas does not have a fixed „ Collection of atoms or molecules
volume or pressure that move randomly
„ In a container, the gas expands to „ Exert no long-range force on one
fill the container another
„ Most gases at room temperature „ Each particle is individually point-
and pressure behave like
approximately as an ideal gas „ Occupying a negligible volume

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5
Moles Avogadro’s Number
„ It’s convenient to express the amount „ The number of particles in a mole
of gas in a given volume in terms of the
number of moles, n
is called Avogadro’s Number
mass „ NA=6.02 x 1023 particles / mole
n= „ Defined so that 12 g of carbon
molar mass
„ One mole is the amount of the contains NA atoms
substance that contains as many „ The mass of an individual atom
particles as there are atoms in 12 g of can be calculated:
carbon-12
molar mass
matom =
31
NA 32

Avogadro’s Number and Equation of State for Ideal

Masses
The mass in grams of one Avogadro's
„
number of an element is numerically
the same as the mass of one atom of
the element, expressed in atomic mass
units, u=1.66x10-24 g
„ Carbon has a mass of 12 u
„ 12 g of carbon consists of NA atoms of
carbon
„ Holds for molecules also
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Gas
PV = nRT
„ P - gas pressure, V - gas volume
„ n - quantity of gas in moles
„ R is the Universal Gas Constant
„ R = 8.31 J / mole.K in SI units
„ T - absolute temperature in K
„ Real gas at low pressure behaves as
ideal
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Ideal Gas Law, Alternative

Version Example: Problem #29
PV = Nk BT „ V=1.0 cm3
T= 20oC
„ V, T, P
„ kB is Boltzmann’s Constant „ Pa=1.013x105 Pa
„ kB = R / NA = 1.38 x 10-23 J/ K „ Pb=1.0x10-11 Pa
„ N is the total number of molecules PV = Nk BT
n = N / NA „ Na-?
PV = nRT
„

„ n is the number of moles „ nb-?

„ N is the number of molecules kB = 1.38 x 10-23 J/ K
R = 8.31 J / mole.K
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6
 Kinetic Theory of Gases –
Assumptions
„ The number of molecules in the
gas is large and the average
separation between them is large
compared to their dimensions
„ The molecules obey Newton’s laws
of motion, but as a whole they
move randomly
Kinetic Theory of Gases –
Assumptions, cont.
„ The molecules interact only by
short-range forces during elastic
collisions
„ The molecules make elastic
collisions with the walls
„ All the molecules are identical

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Pressure of an Ideal Gas Pressure, cont

„ The pressure is „ The pressure is proportional to the
proportional to the number of molecules per unit volume
number of molecules and to the average translational kinetic
per unit volume and energy of the molecule
to the average
„ Pressure can be increased by
translational kinetic
energy of a molecule „ Increasing the number of molecules per unit
volume in the container
3  N  1 2 Increasing the average translational kinetic
P=   mv  „

2  V  2  energy of the molecules

„ Increasing the temperature of the gas

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Molecular Interpretation of
Temperature Internal Energy
„ Temperature is proportional to the „ In a monatomic gas, the KE is the only
average kinetic energy of the molecules type of energy the molecules can have
3
1 3 U= nRT
mv 2 = k BT 2
2 2 „ U is the internal energy of the gas
„ The total kinetic energy is proportional to „ In a polyatomic gas, additional
the absolute temperature possibilities for contributions to the
3 internal energy are rotational and
KEtotal = nRT vibrational energy in the molecules
2
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7
Speed of the Molecules Some rms Speeds
„ Expressed as the root-mean-square
(rms) speed
3 kB T 3RT
v rms = =
m M

„ At a given temperature, lighter

molecules move faster, on average,
than heavier ones
„ Lighter molecules can more easily reach
escape speed from the earth
43 44

Maxwell Distribution Maxwell Distribution, cont

„ A system of gas „ For every gas, vmp < vav < vrms
at a given
temperature will „ As the temperature rises, these
exhibit a variety three speeds shift to the right
of speeds
„ The total area under the curve on
„ Three speeds are
of interest: the graph equals the total number
„ Most probable of molecules
„ Average
„ rms

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