4 Ch02 Network Theorems - Review

Linear Element
Chapter 2
A linear element is a passive element whose
voltage-current relationship is described by a linear
equation; i.e. if the current through the element is
Network Theorems multiplied by a constant k, then the voltage across
the element is likewise multiplied by k.
Consider a resistor R with current R

Artemio P. Magabo i=i1. From Ohms Law, we get i + v -
Professor of Electrical Engineering v v1 Ri1
Suppose the current is increased by a factor k; i.e.
i2=ki1. The new voltage is
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Institute v2 Ri2 Rki1 kv1 (R is a linear element)
University of the Philippines - Diliman
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Institute
Revised by Michael Pedrasa, May 2012
Consider an inductor R with current L Linear Dependent Source

i=i1. The inductor voltage is i v
+ - A linear dependent source is a current or voltage
di source whose output current or voltage is
v v1 L 1
dt proportional only to the first power of some
current or voltage variable in the circuit, or to the
Suppose the current is increased by a factor k; i.e.
sum of such quantities.
i2=ki1. The new voltage is
di2 d(ki1 )
v2 L L kv1
dt dt kvx +
kiy +
kvw kiz
- -
Thus,L is a linear element.
Note: Following the same analysis, we can show Linear Dependent Linear Dependent
that a constant capacitor is a linear element. Voltage Sources Current Sources
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Institute Electrical and Electronics Engineering Institute
1
Linear Electric Circuit Principle of Superposition
An electric circuit is linear if it consists of In an electric circuit containing N independent
sources, the current (or voltage) in any branch is
independent sources
equal to the algebraic sum of N components, each
linear dependent sources of which is due to one independent source acting
linear elements alone.
Note: Reducing an independent source to zero:

The response of a linear circuit is proportional to the
sources; that is, if all independent sources are 1. For a voltage source, remove the source and
multiplied by a constant k, all currents and voltages replace with a short circuit;
will likewise increase by the same factor k. 2. For a current source, remove the source and
replace with an open circuit.
Example: Find I1 and R1 +Vx Thus, we get

I2 using nodal analysis. Vs Vx
+ I1 I1
From KCL, we get Vs R2 I2 Is R1
-
V Vs Vx
Is x 1 R2
R1 R2 REF I1 Vs Is
R1 R 2 R1 R 2
which can be simplified as
and
1 1 1 Vx
Vx Is Vs I2
R1 R 2 R1 R2
or
R1R 2 R2 1 R1
Vx Is Vs I2 Vs Is
R1 R 2 R1 R 2 R1 R 2 R1 R 2
2
Solution using Superposition: Finally, we apply superposition to get I 1 and I2.
R1
Assume Vs is acting alone. I1 I1a I1b
Replace Is by an open circuit. + I1a
Vs R2 I2a I2 I2a I2b
1
I1a I2a Vs -
Substitution gives
R1 R 2
Next, assume Is is acting alone. Replace Vs with a 1 R2
short circuit. We get I1 Vs Is
R1 R1 R 2 R1 R 2
R2
I1b Is
R1 R 2 I1b 1 R1
R2 I2b Is I2 Vs Is
R1 R1 R 2 R1 R 2
I2b Is
R1 R 2
6A
Consider the 81-V source 6 12
Example : acting alone.
Find all currents using +
6 12 81
superposition. Ia 3A 81V Ia 3
+ 27 -
81V 9A 3
- 6
Consider the 9-A source
6 acting alone. 6 12
We have three independent sources. 15

Ib (9A) 5 A
Solve for the currents with each source 15 12 Ib 9A Ic 3
acting alone.
Ic 9 Ib 4 A
6
3
6A 4V
Finally, consider the 6-A Example: Use + - 3
source acting alone. superposition to + 1 I
find the current I. Vx 2
+
5Vx
9 6 12 -
Id (6A) 2 A - 2A
9 18 Id
Ie 3
Ie 6 Id 4 A Consider the 4-V source acting alone. From KVL,
we get
6 4V
Apply superposition to get 4 3Ia 5Vx 2Ia + - 3
the current in any resistor.
Vx 2Ia + Ia +
For example, the current in the 3 resistor is Vx 2 - 5Vx
which gives -
I3 Ia Ic Ie 3 4 4 11 A
Ia 0.8 A
1.5A
Consider next the 2-A 3 Example: Find the voltage
source acting alone. Vx using the principle of
+ 1 Ib 10V
Vx 2
+
5Vx superposition. 20
We get - + -
- 2A + - Vx +
Vx 2(2 - Ib ) 16V 3A 80
-
and
Consider the 16-V source
Vx 3Ib 5Vx acting alone. Using voltage
division, we get 20
Solving simultaneously, we find Ib=3.2 Amps.
20 + - Vx1 +
Vx1 (16V) 16V 80
Applying superposition, we get 20 80 -
I Ia Ib 4 A 3.2 V
4
20
Consider next the 3-A Finally, consider the 1.5-A 1.5A
source acting alone. - Vx2 + source acting alone.
80 Ix 3A 80
Ix (3 A) Because of the short
20
20 80 circuit, we get
- Vx4 +
2.4 A Vx4 0 80
Vx2 20Ix 48 V
From Ohms Law, we get
Next, consider the 10-V
source acting alone. 10V Applying superposition, we get
20 + -
20 Vx Vx1 Vx2 Vx3 Vx4
Vx3 (10 V) - Vx3 +
20 80 80
3.2 48 2 0 46.8 V
2V
Thevenins Theorem The Thevenin equivalent of network A is shown.

Consider a circuit which can be represented by two Rth
x
networks: A which is linear and B, which may be
+
linear or non-linear. Any dependent source in Network
Vth
network A is controlled by a current or voltage in B
-
network A. The same is true with network B.
y
x
where
Linear
Network
Network Vth= open-circuit voltage from terminal x to
B terminal y, with network B removed
A
y Rth= the equivalent resistance from terminal x
Network A can be replaced by a voltage source Vth to terminal y, looking into network A, with
which is connected in series with a resistor Rth. all independent sources reduced to zero.
5
Nortons Theorem The Norton equivalent of network A is shown.
Consider a circuit which can be represented by two x
networks: A which is linear and B, which may be
linear or non-linear. Any dependent source in Network
In Rn
network A is controlled by a current or voltage in B
network A. The same is true with network B.
y
x
where
Linear
Network
Network In = short-circuit current from terminal x to
B terminal y, with network B removed
A
y Rn=Rth=the equivalent resistance from terminal x
Network A can be replaced by a current source I n to terminal y, looking into network A, with
which is connected in parallel with a resistor Rn. all independent sources reduced to zero.
Thevenin Equivalent General Procedure for Determining

General Procedure Thevenin Resistance
1. Remove the load and find the voltage across the If the circuit contains only independent sources,
open circuit terminals, VOC. This is the Thevenin suppress all sources and compute the resistance at
equivalent voltage. the open terminals.
2. Determine the Thevenin equivalent resistance Rth If the circuit contains only dependent sources,
at the open terminals with the load removed. apply an independent voltage (current) source at
the open terminals and measure the corresponding
3. Connect the load to the Thevenin equivalent current (voltage). The Thevenin equivalent
circuit, consisting of VOC in series with Rth. The resistance is given by the voltage/current ratio.
desired solution can now be obtained.
Rth If the circuit contains both independent and
+ dependent sources, determine the short circuit
VOC Rth
VOC + Rload current ISC at the open terminals. The ratio VOC/ISC
- is the resistance Rth.
6
Norton Equivalent Circuits with
Independent Sources
9V + 600
General Procedure - Only
10mA
300
1. Remove the load and find ISC, the short-circuit Example 1: Find
current. ISC is the Norton equivalent current. +
the voltage VO using
300 1k VO 500
2. Determine the Norton equivalent resistance Rn -
Thevenins theorem.
at the open terminals with the load removed.
Note that Rn is the same as Rth.
First, find VOC. Remove
3. Connect the load to the Norton equivalent the 1k resistor and find 9V + I1 600
-
circuit, consisting of ISC in parallel with Rn. The the open-circuit voltage. 10mA
300
desired solution can now be obtained.
The current in mesh 2 +
is known already. 300 I2 VOC 500
ISC Rn ISC Rn -
Rload
I2 = 10mA
For mesh 1 we get The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown.

9 300(I1 0.01) 600I1 I1 = -6.67mA 500
x
+
From KVL on the lower left loop 8V
VOC 300(I 2 I1 ) 300I 2 VOC = 8V -
y
Next, find Rth . Remove the 1k resistor, reduce all Finally, we return the 1k resistor and find the
independent sources to zero, and find the equiva- voltage VO.
lent resistance from x to y.
500 x
600 1000
300(600) 300 + VO 8 5.33V
R th 300 +
1000 500
300 600 8V Vo 1k
x -
500 -
500 300
y
y
7
600
9V + Consider the 10mA source 10mA
-
600 Example 2: 300
acting alone.
10mA Use Nortons
300
theorem to find VO. ISC1 = 10mA 300 ISC1 500
+
300 1k VO 500
- Consider next the 9V
source acting alone.
First, find ISC. Replace 9V +
600
9V + 600 R eq 300 || 300 150 -
300 +Va
the 1k resistor with - REF
a short circuit and 10mA 150
300
Va 9 300 ISC2 500
find the current. 600 150
ISC 500 which gives
ISC can be found using 300
superposition. Va
Va=1.8 Volts and ISC 2 6mA
300
Circuits with Dependent Sources Only

Thus, we get
ISC = ISC1 + ISC2 20IX
= 16mA Example 3: +- x
Find the Thevenin
We have previously found Rthto be 500.The
resistance as seen 20 40 20
Norton equivalent circuit with the 1k resistor IX
from xy. y
is shown.
+ Attach a 1-A current source between terminals
16mA 500 VO 1k xy and find the voltage across the source.
- 20IX
+Va +Vb x
500(1000) +-
VO 0.016 +
500 1000 20 40 20 VS IS=1A
IX -
= 5.33V y
REF
8
Va Va Vb
KCL at supernode ab yields 1 Example 4: Find the Norton equivalent circuit
20 40 20 between terminals xy.
The voltage at the dependent source is 2 3 x
Va- Vb = 20Ix
+
Va
But I x 0.5VX 4 2 VX 4.5
40 so we get Va = 2Vb y
Solving simultaneously, we have
Va=10 V Vb=5 V We do not have an independent source so I SC=0.
Finally, the Thevenin resistance is To get the equivalent resistance Rn, attach a
V V 5V 1-V voltage source between terminals xy and
R th S b 5 find the current passing through the source.
IS IS 1 A
The resulting circuit is shown.

2 3 x From KCL
Va 2 Va Va 1
+ + 0
0.5VX 4 2 VX 4.5 Is VS=1V 42 2 3
-
y We get Va 2 Volts
3
We apply source transformation on the dependent We determine IS from KCL Finally, the Norton
source. resistance is
Is I3 I 4.5
4 2 +Va 3 x VS
1 Va 1 Rn
+
+
+ IS
2VX 2 VX 4.5 Is VS= 1V 3 4.5
- 1V
y -

3
REF
Is 1 A 1 A
3 3
9
Circuits with Independent and Dependent
10V
Sources 400 100
We find the -+
Example 5: 10V open-circuit vx + +
400 100 300 I2 vx 200 VOC
Find current -+ voltage VOC I1
Ix 400 - -
Ix using vx +
Nortons 300 vx 200 125
theorem. 400 - From mesh 1 we get Vx 200I 2 1
I1 I2
Let us first find ISC. Remove the 125 resistor
400 400 2
For mesh 2
and find the short-circuit current. 10 300(I 2 I1 ) (100 200)I 2
10V Solving simultaneously, we have
400 100 10
-+
ISC I1=11.11 mA I2= 22.22 mA
vx + 300 100
300 vx 200 ISC And the open-circuit voltage
400 - = 25 mA
VOC = 200(22.22)(10-3) = 4.444 V
Maximum Power Transfer

We get the equivalent resistance
VOC 4.444 V
Theorem
R th 177.76
ISC 0.025 A The value of R that will dissipate maximum power
is equal to the Thevenin resistance as seen from
The Norton equivalent circuit with the 125
the location of R.
resistor is shown.
In Example 1: 2
8
25mA 177.76 Ix 125 PR I R
2
x (1000)
500 x 1500
+ Ix 28.44 mW
177.76 8V R=1k
I x 0.025 -
But if R=Rth=500
177.76 125 8
2
y
= 14.68 mA PR (max) (500) 32 mW
2(500)
10
End
11

4 Ch02 Network Theorems - Review

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4 Ch02 Network Theorems - Review

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Linear Element

Consider a resistor R with current R

Consider an inductor R with current L Linear Dependent Source

Note: Reducing an independent source to zero:

Example: Find I1 and R1 +Vx Thus, we get

We have three independent sources. 15

Thevenins Theorem The Thevenin equivalent of network A is shown.

Thevenin Equivalent General Procedure for Determining

For mesh 1 we get The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown.

Circuits with Dependent Sources Only

The resulting circuit is shown.

Maximum Power Transfer

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