Whether

de English Grammar Today

Whether is a conjunction.

Whether in indirect questions

We use whether in indirect yes-no questions and questions with or. We cant
leave out whether (or if):

They asked me whether (if) I was tired. (original question: Are you tired?)

Not: They asked me I was tired.

I want to find out whether (if) the rooms have a shower or not.

Not: I want to find out the rooms have a shower or not. (original question: Do
the rooms have a shower or not?)

We dont use either in indirect questions:

We cant say whether tourism is harmful or beneficial.

Not: We cant say either tourism is harmful or beneficial.

Whether or

We use whether or to introduce a clause giving two options or alternatives:

I cant decide whether to paint the wall green or blue. (or to paint the wall
blue)

She didnt know whether he was laughing or crying.

When the subject of the main clause is the same as the subject of
the whether-clause(s), we can use whether to + infinitive or whether + a finite
clause. When the subject of the main clause is different from the subject of the
subordinate clause, we have to use a finite clause.

Compare
 same subject different subject

Were not sure whether to stay here for

dinner or go somewhere else.
(whether + to + infinitive) Were not sure whether hell stay here
for dinner or go somewhere else.
Were not sure whether well stay here (whether + finite clause)
for dinner or go somewhere else.
(whether + finite clause)

Whether or not

We use whether or not or whether or not to give an opposite alternative:

We use the title Ms rather than Mrs (married woman) or Miss (unmarried
woman) when we dont know whether a woman is married or not.

Im not sure whether or not to go to camping this weekend.

We often use whether or not to mean its not important if or it doesnt

matter if. We dont use either in this way:

He always said what he thought, whether it was polite or not.

Not: either it was polite or not.

We can use whether or not in front or end position with this meaning. We
use it in orders or commands:

Whether you like it or not, youre going to have to look after your sister.

(or Youre going to have to look after your sister, whether you like it or not.)

See also:
If or whether?
Ellipsis
If: reporting questions
Typical errors

We use whether, not if, before a to-infinitive:

 Im not sure whether to get a new laptop.

Not: Im not sure if to get a new laptop.

We use whether or not, not either, to mean its not important that:

We have to accept that they are part of our lives, whether we like it or not.

Not: either we like it or not.

We use whether, not either, in indirect questions:

She has to decide whether she is going to accept the job or not.

Not: She has to decide either

We cant leave out whether (or if) in indirect questions:

I want to find out whether/if the rooms have a shower or not.

Not: I want to find out the rooms have a shower or not.

Take care to spell whether correctly: not weather, wheter, wheather or

wether.
If
de English Grammar Today
If is a conjunction.

If: conditions

We often use if to introduce possible or impossible situations or conditions and

their results. The situations or conditions can be real, imagined or uncertain:

I usually make a sandwich to take to work if I have enough time. (real)

If you dont book now, you wont get good tickets. (real)

Theyd have got the job done quicker if theyd had more people working on
it.(imagined)

Will you bring my glasses down if you go upstairs? (uncertain)

See also:
Conditionals: if

If possible, if necessary

We can sometimes leave words out after if to form fixed expressions:

Check the temperature of your meat with a meat thermometer if possible. (if
its possible or if thats possible)

Interest rates would have to rise if necessary to protect the pound, Mr John
Smith, Shadow Chancellor, indicated yesterday on BBC TVs Money
Programme.

If so, if not
We use so or not after if when it is obvious what we are referring to:

[from a job advertisement]

Are you looking for part-time work? Do you want to work from home? If so,
read on.(if you are looking for part-time work or if you want to work from home)

You should all have received your booklist for the course by now. If not,
please email the office. (if you havent received your booklist for the course by
now)

Ill see you soon, definitely at the wedding, if not before. (if I dont see you
before the wedding)

Even if

We can use even if to mean if when talking about surprising or extreme

situations:

Youre still going to be cold even if you put on two or three jumpers.

See also:
Even

If: reporting questions

We use if to introduce reported yes-no questions and questions with or.

Compare

direct question indirect question

Do you like dogs? I asked if she liked dogs.

Are you leaving now or are you He asked if I was leaving now or
staying for a bit longer? staying for a bit longer.
We use only if to express a strong condition, often an order or command, to
mean on the condition that. It has an opposite meaning to except if:

Payment will be made only if the work is completed on time.

Alright Ill come but only if I can bring a friend with me.

We often separate only and if, using only in the main clause:

Hell only take the job if they offer him more money.

Well only achieve our targets if everyone works together.

If and politeness

In speaking, we often use if to introduce a polite request. If is usually followed

by modal verbs will, would, can or could when it is used to be polite:

If youll just tell Julie that her next client is here. (Can you tell Julie that )

If you would like to follow me. (Please follow me.)

Clauses
de English Grammar Today

Clauses: introduction

A clause is the basic unit of grammar. Typically a main clause is made up of a

subject (s) (a noun phrase) and a verb phrase (v). Sometimes the verb phrase
is followed by other elements, e.g objects (o), complements (c), adjuncts (ad).
These other elements are sometimes essential to complete the meaning of the
clause:

[S]Sarah [V]smiled.

[S]Jo [V]doesnt feel [C]well.

Not: Jo doesnt feel. (well is essential because it completes the meaning

of feel.)

[S]They [V]haventposted [O]all the invitations. (post is a transitive verb which

needs an object, all the invitations)

The underlined words are not essential to complete the clause:

[S]I[V]ll call [O]you [AD]later.

[S]All the girls [V]laughed [AD]loudly.

When we give a command, we dont usually use a subject:

Be careful!

Jump!

When we do use the subject, it is to reinforce the instruction or to make clear

exactly who the speaker is talking to:

You be careful.

See also:
Commands and instructions
Verbs
 Subjects
Objects
Complements
Adjuncts
Clauses and sentences

Main (independent) clauses and subordinate (dependent)

clauses

Main (or independent) clauses can form sentences on their own. They arent
dependent on other clauses. They are always finite (they must contain a verb
which shows tense).

Subordinate (or dependent) clauses cannot form sentences on their own. They
are dependent on main clauses to form sentences. They can be finite or non-
finite (the main clauses are in bold; the subordinate clauses are underlined):

I didnt go to work because I wasnt feeling very well.

He studied violin and mathematics before taking a medical degree and

doing postgraduate work in biophysics at Harvard.

She had pretty hair and must have been nice-looking when she was
young.

If I tell him will he be angry?

See also:
Clauses: finite and non-finite

Clauses: coordinated

We can combine clauses of the same grammatical type to form sentences

using coordinating conjunctions:

[main clause]Ill take the train and [main clause]you can take the car.

Ill give you a call [subordinate clause] if Im going to be late or [subordinate clause]if
Im not coming.
You can use the phone [non-finite clause]to receive calls but [non-finite clause]not to
make them.

We dont create coordinated clauses with clauses of a different grammatical

type. For example we cannot coordinate a main clause and a subordinate
clause:

Ten minutes passed and no one had come.

Not: Ten minutes passed and if no-one had come.

Conditionals: other expressions

(unless, should, as long as)
de English Grammar Today

Unless

Conditional clauses can begin with unless. Unless means something similar to
if not or except if.

The verb forms in the examples are similar to sentences with if: we use the
present simple in the unless-clause and shall, should, will, would, can, could,
may or might in the main clause:

Unless I phone you, you can assume the trains on time. (If I do not phone
you /except if I phone you, you can assume the train is on time.)

Well have to cancel the show unless we sell more tickets at the last
minute. (Well have to cancel the show if we do not sell more tickets/except if
we sell more tickets at the last minute.)

Warning:

We dont use unless for impossible conditions:

If the government had not raised food prices, there would not have been so
many protests.
Not: Unless the government had raised food prices

Warning:

We dont use unless and if together:

Well go to the coast tomorrow unless it rains.

Not: Well go to the coast tomorrow unless if it rains.

See also:
Unless
If so, if not

Should you (Should with inversion)

In formal situations, we can use should + subject (s) + verb (v) instead of if:

Should you wish to cancel your order, please contact our customer service
department on 02317 6658932. (or If you should wish to cancel your order )

Should your child become anxious or nervous about any activity, it is a good
idea to inform the team-leader. (or If your child should become )

Had you (Had with inversion)

In formal situations, we can use had + subject + verb instead of if in third

conditional sentences:

Had I known you were waiting outside, I would have invited you to come in. (If
I had known you were waiting outside )

Had Margaret realised she would be travelling alone, she would never have
agreed to go.

If + were to

In formal situations, we can use if + were to when we talk about things that
might happen but which we think are unlikely:
If the Prime Minister were to resign, there would have to be a general election
within 30 days.

In even more formal styles, we use were + subject-verb inversion + to-

infinitive:

[V]Were [S]we [to -INF]to

give up the fight now, it would mean the end of
democracy in our country. (If we gave up the fight now )

[V]Were [S]the
economy [to -INF]to slow down too quickly, there would be
major problems. (If the economy slowed down too quickly )

As long as, so long as, providing, etc.

Sometimes we need to impose specific conditions or set limits on a situation.

In these cases, conditional clauses can begin with phrases such as as long
as, so long as, only if, on condition that, providing (that), provided (that).

As long as is more common in speaking; so long as and on condition that are

more formal and more common in writing:

[to a group of children]

You can play in the living room as long as you dont make a mess.

So long as a tiger stands still, it is invisible in the jungle.

The bank lent the company 100,000 pounds on condition that they repaid the
money within six months.

Providing (that) is more common in speaking; provided (that) is more formal

and more common in written language:

[talking about rail travel in the UK]

You can get a senior citizens reduction providing youve got a railcard.

They may do whatever they like provided that it is within the law.

See also:
As long as and so long as
Or and otherwise

We often use or and otherwise with conditional meanings:

Youve got to start studying, or youll fail all those exams. (If you dont start
studying, you will fail the exams.)

[talking about sending a package by mail]

Wed better send it express, otherwise itll take days. (If we do not send it
express, it will take days.)

Supposing

Supposing may be used with a conditional meaning. It can be used in first,

second or third conditional sentences. The speaker invites the listener to
imagine a situation:

Supposing I dont arrive till after midnight, will the guest-house still be
open?(Imagine if I dont arrive till after midnight )

Supposing you lost your passport, youd have to go to the embassy, wouldnt
you?

Supposing he hadnt recognised us he might never have spoken to us.

See also:
In case (of)
Wish
If only
Suppose, supposing and what if
Conjunctions
de English Grammar Today

Conjunctions are linking words like and, or, but, then and because:

They knocked down all the houses and they built a car park.

Are there four or five people living in that house?

My shoes look great but are not very comfortable.

And, but, either or, etc. (coordinating conjunctions)

Coordinating conjunctions connect items which are the same grammatical

type, e.g. words, phrases, clauses. The most common coordinating
conjunctions are and, or, but.

One-word conjunctions

Connecting words

Which do you prefer? [word]Red or [word]blue?

Connecting phrases

The meal was [phrase]very expensive and [phrase]not very nice.

Connecting clauses

[clause]There are seats outside but [clause]some people dont like sitting
outdoors.

Connecting sentences

My grandmothers name was Wall. But she became Jenkins when she got
married to my grandfather. (In very formal writing, we dont normally start a
sentence with but.)

Connecting prefixes

[prefix]Pro-
and [prefix]anti-government supporters waited outside the
parliament.
Two-word conjunctions

Some coordinating conjunctions have two parts: either or , neither

nor , both and :

You can drink chocolate milk either hot in the winter or cold in the summer.

Neither Lisa nor Helena had been to Italy before. (Lisa hadnt been to Italy
before and Helena hadnt been to Italy before.)

Both you and I know what really happened. (You know and I know what
happened.)

Warning:

Apart from two-word conjunctions, we only use one conjunction to connect

words or phrases:

Because my alarm didnt go off, I was late for work.

Not: Because my alarm didnt go off, so I was late for work.

After, although, as soon as, etc. (subordinating

conjunctions)

Common subordinating conjunctions are: after, (al)though, as, before, if, since,
that, until, when, whereas, while, once, so, as soon as, provided that. When a
clause follows these conjunctions, it becomes a subordinate clause, which
needs a main clause to make a complete sentence.

One-word conjunctions

[subordinate clause]After we had talked on the phone, [main clause]I wrote down
what we had decided.

[main clause]Everyone enjoyed the fishing trip [subordinate clause]although no one

caught any fish!

[subordinate clause]Before we left at four oclock, [main clause]we had something to

eat.
When the subordinate clause comes before the main clause, we usually put a
comma at the end of the clause. When the main clause comes first, we dont
need to use a comma.

See also:
Although or though?
As
As as
Before
If
Once
Since
So
That
Until
When
Whereas
While and whilst
Conjunctions with more than one word

Some subordinating conjunctions consist of more than one word: as long

as, as soon as, except that, in order that, so as to, provided that:

As long as the waves are high enough, we can go surfing.

Provided that he pays a fine, he will not have to go to jail. (formal)

Conjunctions that can be modified by adverbs

Some subordinating conjunctions may be modified by adverbs (underlined).

For example just when, ever since, only if, just as, simply because, right
before:

The phone rang just when Id gone to bed.

I have been afraid to swim in the sea ever since I was young.

Position of subordinating conjunctions

Words and phrases such as above all, anyway, as a result, as
well, eventually, firstly, however, overall, rather, then, therefore, though, on the
contrary (linking adjuncts) can create similar meanings to conjunctions (e.g.
adding, cause and effect). These words are adverb phrases and can come in
any position which an adverb can occupy:

He left home late. (As a result) he (as a result) didnt arrive until 8 pm (as a
result).

We cannot do this with subordinating conjunctions, which must come at the

beginning of the clause. Subordinating conjunctions create a grammatical
connection between two clauses, making one dependent on the other.

Compare

These two sentences mean the same thing but they

Subordinating
conjunction so:
He couldnt get money
from the bank so he
couldnt buy a house.
are connected differently:
So makes a subordinating link between the
cause/reason (He couldnt get money from the
bank) and the result (he couldnt buy a house).
This is a grammatical link. The position
of socannot change.

Linking adjunct as a result:

As a result creates a link between two clauses
He couldnt get money
based on meaning. We can move as a result (He
from the bank. As a
couldnt get money from the bank. He couldnt
result he couldnt buy a
buy a house as a result).
house.

See also:
Clauses and sentences
Conditionals
Clauses and sentences
de English Grammar Today

What is a clause?

A clause is the basic unit of grammar. A clause must contain a verb. Typically
a clause is made up of a subject, a verb phrase and, sometimes, a
complement:

Ive eaten.

The sale starts at 9 am.

I didnt sleep well last night.

Are you listening to the radio?

See also:
Clauses

What is a sentence?

A sentence is a unit of grammar. It must contain at least one main clause. It

can contain more than one clause. In writing, a sentence typically begins with
a capital letter and ends with a full stop:

She spoke to me. (one clause)

I looked at her and she smiled at me. (two main clauses connected by and)

We didnt go to the show because there werent any tickets left. (a main clause
and a subordinate clause connected by because)

In everyday speaking, it is often difficult to identify sentences. We speak in

small stretches of language, sometimes just single words or phrases. We dont
always speak in complete sentences, and we often complete each others
sentences:

Right.
Lets go.

A:

What are those flowers?

B:

Which ones?

A:

The pink ones over there.

A:

Did I tell you Im going to do a course in um

B:

Computing?

A:

No, business studies.

Clauses
de English Grammar Today

Clauses: introduction

A clause is the basic unit of grammar. Typically a main clause is made up of a

subject (s) (a noun phrase) and a verb phrase (v). Sometimes the verb phrase
is followed by other elements, e.g objects (o), complements (c), adjuncts (ad).
These other elements are sometimes essential to complete the meaning of the
clause:

[S]Sarah [V]smiled.

[S]Jo [V]doesnt feel [C]well.

Not: Jo doesnt feel. (well is essential because it completes the meaning

of feel.)

[S]They [V]haventposted [O]all the invitations. (post is a transitive verb which

needs an object, all the invitations)

The underlined words are not essential to complete the clause:

[S]I[V]ll call [O]you [AD]later.

[S]All the girls [V]laughed [AD]loudly.

When we give a command, we dont usually use a subject:

Be careful!

Jump!

When we do use the subject, it is to reinforce the instruction or to make clear

exactly who the speaker is talking to:

You be careful.

See also:
Commands and instructions
Verbs
 Subjects
Objects
Complements
Adjuncts
Clauses and sentences

Main (independent) clauses and subordinate (dependent)

clauses

Main (or independent) clauses can form sentences on their own. They arent
dependent on other clauses. They are always finite (they must contain a verb
which shows tense).

Subordinate (or dependent) clauses cannot form sentences on their own. They
are dependent on main clauses to form sentences. They can be finite or non-
finite (the main clauses are in bold; the subordinate clauses are underlined):

I didnt go to work because I wasnt feeling very well.

He studied violin and mathematics before taking a medical degree and

doing postgraduate work in biophysics at Harvard.

She had pretty hair and must have been nice-looking when she was
young.

If I tell him will he be angry?

See also:
Clauses: finite and non-finite

Clauses: coordinated

We can combine clauses of the same grammatical type to form sentences

using coordinating conjunctions:

[main clause]Ill take the train and [main clause]you can take the car.

Ill give you a call [subordinate clause] if Im going to be late or [subordinate clause]if
Im not coming.
You can use the phone [non-finite clause]to receive calls but [non-finite clause]not to
make them.

We dont create coordinated clauses with clauses of a different grammatical

type. For example we cannot coordinate a main clause and a subordinate
clause:

Ten minutes passed and no one had come.

Not: Ten minutes passed and if no-one had come.

Clauses: finite and non-finite
de English Grammar Today

Finite clauses

Finite clauses must contain a verb which shows tense. They can be main
clauses or subordinate clauses:

Is it raining? (main: present)

I spoke to Joanne last night. (main: past)

We didnt get any food because we didnt have enough time. (main: past;
subordinate: past)

Non-finite clauses

Non-finite clauses contain a verb which does not show tense. We usually use
non-finite verbs only in subordinate clauses. We usually understand the time
referred to from the context of the main clause. We often use a non-finite
clause when the subject is the same as the subject in the main clause:

I had something to eat before leaving. (I had something to eat before I left.)

After having spent six hours at the hospital, they eventually came home.

Helped by local volunteers, staff at the museum have spent many years
sorting and cataloguing more than 100,000 photographs.

He left the party and went home, not having anyone to talk to.

The person to ask about going to New Zealand is Beck.

You have to look at the picture really carefully in order to see all the detail.

After, although, though, and if

We often use non-finite clauses after some subordinating conjunctions

like after, although, though and if:
By the end of the day, although exhausted, Mark did not feel quite as tired as
he had in the past. (although he was exhausted)

The proposal, if accepted by Parliament, will mean fundamental changes to

the education system.

See also:
Ellipsis
After verbs + -ing or infinitive with to

We use non-finite clauses as the complements to verbs which take -ing or to-
infinitive after them:

I dont enjoy playing tennis in the rain.

Id hate to travel to London every day.

Relative clauses

A relative clause can be non-finite when the subject of the relative clause is
the same as the subject of the main clause:

The man sitting on the sofa over there is Simons brother. (The man who is
sitting )

Dont forget to fill in the form attached to the letter. ( which is attached to
the letter.)

See also:
Although or though?
Finite clauses
Relative clauses


Clauses: finite and non-finite

de English Grammar Today

Finite clauses

Finite clauses must contain a verb which shows tense. They can be main
clauses or subordinate clauses:

Is it raining? (main: present)

I spoke to Joanne last night. (main: past)

We didnt get any food because we didnt have enough time. (main: past;
subordinate: past)

Non-finite clauses

Non-finite clauses contain a verb which does not show tense. We usually use
non-finite verbs only in subordinate clauses. We usually understand the time
referred to from the context of the main clause. We often use a non-finite
clause when the subject is the same as the subject in the main clause:

I had something to eat before leaving. (I had something to eat before I left.)

After having spent six hours at the hospital, they eventually came home.

Helped by local volunteers, staff at the museum have spent many years
sorting and cataloguing more than 100,000 photographs.

He left the party and went home, not having anyone to talk to.

The person to ask about going to New Zealand is Beck.

You have to look at the picture really carefully in order to see all the detail.

After, although, though, and if

We often use non-finite clauses after some subordinating conjunctions

like after, although, though and if:
By the end of the day, although exhausted, Mark did not feel quite as tired as
he had in the past. (although he was exhausted)

The proposal, if accepted by Parliament, will mean fundamental changes to

the education system.

See also:
Ellipsis
After verbs + -ing or infinitive with to

We use non-finite clauses as the complements to verbs which take -ing or to-
infinitive after them:

I dont enjoy playing tennis in the rain.

Id hate to travel to London every day.

Relative clauses

A relative clause can be non-finite when the subject of the relative clause is
the same as the subject of the main clause:

The man sitting on the sofa over there is Simons brother. (The man who is
sitting )

Dont forget to fill in the form attached to the letter. ( which is attached to
the letter.)

See also:
Although or though?
Finite clauses
Relative clauses


Relative clauses: defining and non-

defining
de English Grammar Today

Defining relative clauses

We use defining relative clauses to give essential information about someone

or something information that we need in order to understand what or who is
being referred to. A defining relative clause usually comes immediately after
the noun it describes.

We usually use a relative pronoun (e.g. who, that, which, whose and whom) to
introduce a defining relative clause (In the examples, the relative clause is
in bold, and the person or thing being referred to is underlined.):

Theyre the people who want to buy our house.

Here are some cells which have been affected.

They should give the money to somebody who they think needs the
treatment most.

[talking about an actress]

Shes now playing a woman whose son was killed in the First World War.

Spoken English:

In defining relative clauses we often use that instead of who, whom or which.
This is very common in informal speaking:

Theyre the people that want to buy our house.

Here are some cells that have been affected.

See also:
Relative pronouns
Subject or object

The relative pronoun can define the subject or the object of the verb:
Theyre the people who/that bought our house. (The people bought our
house. The people is the subject.)

Theyre the people who/that she met at Jons party. (She met the
people. The people is the object.)

Here are some cells which/that show abnormality. (Some cells show
abnormality. Some cells is the subject.)

Here are some cells which/that the researcher has identified. (The
researcher has identified some cells. Some cells is the object.)

No relative pronoun

We often leave out the relative pronoun when it is the object of the verb:

Theyre the people she met at Jons party.

Here are some cells the researcher has identified.

See also:
No relative pronoun
Punctuation

Warning:

In writing, we dont use commas in defining relative clauses:

This is a man who takes his responsibilities seriously.

Not: This is a man, who takes his responsibilities seriously.

Nouns and pronouns in relative clauses

When the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause, we dont use
another personal pronoun or noun in the relative clause because the subject
(underlined) is the same:

Shes the lady who lent me her phone. (who is the subject of the relative
clause, so we dont need the personal pronoun she)

Not: Shes the lady who she lent me her phone.

There are now only two schools in the area that actually teach Latin. (that is
the subject of the relative clause, so we dont need the personal pronoun they)

Not: There are now only two schools in the area that they actually teach Latin.

When the relative pronoun is the object of the relative clause, we dont use
another personal pronoun or noun in the relative clause because the object
(underlined) is the same:

We had a lovely meal at the place which Phil recommended. (which is the
object of the relative clause, so we dont need the personal pronoun it)

Not: We had a lovely meal at the place which Phil recommended it.

Non-defining relative clauses

We use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about the

person or thing. It is not necessary information. We dont need it to understand
who or what is being referred to.

We always use a relative pronoun (who, which, whose or whom) to introduce a

non-defining relative clause (In the examples, the relative clause is in bold,
and the person or thing being referred to is underlined.)

Clare, who I work with, is doing the London marathon this year.

Not: Clare, I work with, is doing the London marathon this year.

Doctors use the testing kit for regular screening for lung and stomach
cancers, which account for 70% of cancers treated in the western world.

Alice, who has worked in Brussels and London ever since leaving
Edinburgh, will be starting a teaching course in the autumn.

Warning:

We dont use that to introduce a non-defining relative clause:

Allen, who scored three goals in the first game, was the only player to
perform well.

Not: Allen, that scored three goals in the first game, was the only player to
perform well.
See also:
Relative pronouns
Punctuation

In writing, we use commas around non-defining relative clauses:

Etheridge, who is English-born with Irish parents, replaces Neil

Francis, whose injury forced him to withdraw last week.

Spoken English:

In speaking, we often pause at the beginning and end of the clause:

Unlike American firms which typically supply all three big American car
makers Japanese ones traditionally work exclusively with one
maker.(formal)

And this woman who Id never met before came up and spoke to
me.(informal)

Defining or non-defining relative clauses?

Sometimes defining and non-defining relative clauses can look very similar but
have different meanings.

Compare

non-defining defining

His brother, who works at the

His brother who works at the supermarket is
supermarket, is a friend of mine.
a friend of mine.
He has only one brother, and that
He has more than one brother. The one Im
brother works at the
talking about works at the supermarket.
supermarket.

Its hoped that we will raise Its hoped that we will raise 10,000 for local
10,000 for local charities which help the homeless.
charities, which help the The money is intended for local charities.
homeless. Some of these local charities help the
non-defining defining

The money is intended for local homeless. There are other local charities as
charities. All these local charities well as these.
help the homeless.

Warning:

The information in a defining relative clause is essential, so we cant leave out

the relative clause. The information in a non-defining relative clause is extra
information which isnt essential, so we can leave out the relative clause.

Compare

A defining relative clause which

we cant leave out; without this
The soldier who had gold stripes on his
information we do not know
uniform seemed to be the most important one.
which soldier the speaker is
referring to.

Non-defining relative clauses

The tour party was weakened when Gordon
which we can leave out:
Hamilton, who played in the World Cup team,
The tour party was weakened
withdrew yesterday because of a back
when Gordon Hamilton
injury, which kept him out of the Five
withdrew yesterday because of a
Nations Championship.
back injury.

Warning:

We can use that instead of who, whom or which in defining relative clauses,
but not in non-defining relative clauses:

I think anyone who speaks in public is nervous beforehand.

I think anyone that speaks in public is nervous beforehand.

Her car, which was very old, broke down after just five miles.

Not: Her car, that was very old, broke down after just five miles.
Each or every?
de English Grammar Today

We use each to refer to individual things in a group or a list of two or more

things. It is often similar in meaning to every, but we use every to refer to a
group or list of three or more things.

Compare

Each stresses individual members of a

Each one takes turns cooking dinner in group.
the evenings. Each refers to two or more people who
share the work.

Every stresses all the members of the

Everyone takes turns cooking dinner in
complete group.
the evenings.
Every refers to three or more people.

We use adverbs such as almost, practically and nearly with every, but not
with each:

Almost every car in the car park was new.

Not: Almost each car

Practically every house now has at least two televisions.

Not: Practically each house

We can use each of + pronoun or each of + determiner + noun, but

with every we must use every one + pronoun or every one + determiner +
noun:

Each of us has a bicycle.

Every one of us has a bicycle.

Not: Every of us

Each of the children received a special gift.

Every one of the children received a special gift.

Not: Every of the children
Wish
de English Grammar Today

Wish + to-infinitive

When we use wish followed by a verb in the to-infinitive form, wish means the
same as want, but it is more formal. We do not normally use wish in the
continuous form when we use it with a to-infinitive:

I wish to speak to Mr Hennessy, please.

Not: Im wishing to speak to

We dont use a that-clause after wish when it is a more formal version of want:

I wish to visit you in the summer, if possible.

Not: I wish (that) I visit you in the summer

We can use an object (underlined), before the to-infinitive:

I did not wish my family to know about Sara, so I told them nothing.

When we use an object after wish, we must also use a verb in the to-infinitive
form. Alternatively, we can say want or (more politely) would like:

We wish to have a table near the window, please. (or We would like a
table near the window, please.)

Not: We wish a table near the window

Wish + indirect object + direct object

We use wish with two objects, an indirect object + a direct object (underlined),
for expressions of good wishes and hopes that good things will happen to
people:

(io = indirect object; do = direct object)

I wish [IO]you [DO]success in your new job.

Ive got my driving test tomorrow. Wish [IO]me [DO]luck!

We wish [IO]you [DO]a long and happy life together.

Wish + that-clause

We use wish with a that-clause when we regret or are sorry that things are not
different. We imagine a different past or present:

I just wish that everything could be as it used to be.

In informal situations, we usually omit that:

I wish I had his mobile phone number; we could tell him the good news. (I
dont have his mobile phone number; it would be good if I had it.)

I wish you hadnt told me how the film ends. Youve spoilt it for me. (You told
me how the film ends; it would have been better if you had not told me.)

Wish + verb forms in the that-clause

The verb forms we use in that-clauses after wish are similar to the verb forms
in conditional clauses after if. We use a past verb form for present and future
meanings.

Compare

if wish

It would be good if we had a bigger car. I wish we had a bigger car.

It would be good if I knew how to use this I wish I knew how to use this DVD
DVD player. player.

When we wish something about the past, we use the past perfect after wish:

I wish I had known Charlie was coming. I would have invited Jane. (I didnt
know it and did not invite Jane.)
I wish I hadnt said that. I can see Ive upset you. Sorry. (I did say it; it would
have been better if I had not said it.)

Wish + would

We can use wish + would if we are annoyed about something that is or is not
happening, or about something that will or will not happen:

I wish youd stop making so much noise! (You are making a noise; it would be
better if you didnt.)

I wish you wouldnt come through the kitchen with your dirty boots on. (You
do come through the kitchen; it would be better if you didnt.)

In informal situations, we can use wish in the continuous form like this:

Hes embarrassing everyone. Im just wishing he would go away!

Warning:

We use hope, not wish, when we want something to happen in the future or
when we want something to have happened in the past:

I hope the weathers fine tomorrow.

Not: I wish the weathers fine tomorrow.

I hope they didnt miss their flight.

Not: I wish they didnt miss their flight.

Suppose, supposing and what if
de English Grammar Today

Suggestions

We use suppose, supposing and what if + present verb form to make

suggestions about what might happen:

A:
What time shall we meet?

B:
Suppose we meet in the offices downstairs at four oclock?

A:
Thats perfect. Ill let the others know.

Supposing I dont bring my car and you and I travel together. That would
save us half the cost of petrol and parking.

A:
The electricity has gone. There must be a power cut.

B:
What if we find the candles and put them around the room?

A:
Okay. Good idea. Do you know where they are?

Possibility

When we are less certain, we use suppose, supposing and what if + past form
to talk about future possibility:

Suppose we asked Mary to baby-sit? Do you think shed do it? (not as certain
as Suppose we ask Mary to baby-sit?)

Supposing someone else wrote the essay. How would we know? (not as
certain as Supposing someone else writes the essay )

A:
What if I gave up working full-time. Id love that.
B:
Youre joking surely!!

When we refer to something that did not happen (something hypothetical), we

use the past perfect:

Suppose we hadnt brought our umbrellas. (We did bring our umbrellas.)

Supposing they had closed the road. Would that have been a good
idea? (They didnt close the road.)

What if I had accidentally told Maria about the party! That would have ruined
the surprise. (I didnt tell Maria about the party.)

Warning:
We use be supposed to to talk about obligations and arrangements, not
suggestions.

You are supposed to put money in the parking meter!

See also: