1

Q.No= 1

Bond Strength

In engineering, it is amount of adhesion between bonded surfaces. It is measured by the stress

needed to separate the bonded layers from each other. In engineering, the amount of adhesion
between bonded surfaces is measured in terms of the stress required to separate a layer of material
from the base to which it is bonded.

Bond strength is intimately linked to bond order and can be quantified by:

Bond energy

Bond-dissociation energy

Coating by galvanizing or by epoxy affects the bond strength. Bond strength increases with surface
roughness.

In terms of corrosion, bond strength is most commonly used in reinforced concrete. It is a measure
of the transfer of load between the concrete and reinforcement. Bond strength is influenced by:

Bar geometries

Concrete properties

Amount of confinement around the bar

Surface conditions of the bar

For reinforced concrete, it is necessary to create a suitable bond between steel bars and the
surrounding concrete. The bond ensures that there is little or no slip of the steel bars relative to the
concrete and the means by which stress is transferred across the steel-concrete. Bond resistance is
made up of chemical adhesion, friction and mechanical interlock between the bar and surrounding
concrete.

A loss of bond between the concrete and reinforcement could lead to failure of the structure.
Research on the effect of environmental corrosion on the bond between steel bars and concrete,
reports considerable loss of bond strength.

The bond strength of concrete is a function of compressive strength and is approximately

proportional to the compressive strength up to 20 MPa. For higher strength, the increase of bond
strength is progressively smaller. The bond strength of high-pressured steam-cured concrete is
low. The strength of concrete as a whole depends upon the bond strength of the hydrated hardened
cement paste.
 2

TENSILE STRENGTH

Tensile strength is one of the basic and important properties of concrete. A knowledge of its value
is required for the design of concrete structural elements.

Its value is also used in the design of prestressed concrete structures, liquid retaining structures,
roadways and runway slabs.

Direct tensile strength of concrete is difficult to determine; recourse is often taken to the
determination of flexural strength or the splitting tensile strength and computing the direct tensile.
Tensile strength is the ability of a material to withstand a pulling (tensile) force. It is customarily
measured in units of force per cross-sectional area. This is an important concept in engineering,
especially in the fields of material science, mechanical engineering and structural engineering.

The ability to resist breaking under tensile stress is one of the most important and widely measured
properties of materials used in structural applications. Tensile strength is important in the use of
brittle materials more than ductile materials.

The tensile strength of a material is the maximum amount of tensile stress that it can take before
failure, such as breaking or permanent deformation. Tensile strength specifies the point when a
material goes from elastic to plastic deformation. It is expressed as the minimum tensile stress
(force per unit area) needed to split the material apart.

Ductility

Ductility is a desirable structural property because it allows stress redistribution and provides
warning of impending failure. Steel-reinforced concrete beams are under-reinforced by design, so
that failure is initiated by yielding of the steel reinforcement, followed, after considerable
deformation at no substantial loss of load carrying capacity, by concrete crushing and ultimate
failure. This mode of failure is ductile and is guaranteed by designing the tensile reinforcement
ratio to be substantially below (ACI 318 requires at least 25 % below) the balanced ratio, which is
the ratio at which steel yielding and concrete crushing occur simultaneously. Thereinforcement
ratio thus provides a metric for ductility, and the ductility corresponding to the maximum
allowable steel reinforcement ratio provides a measure of the minimum acceptable ductility . The
design of FRP external reinforcement for flexure is fairly rational and straightforward. It is based
on Bernoullis hypothesis of strain compatibility that plane sections remain plane, which requires
perfect bonding between FRP and concrete, and the ability of the concrete to transfer stresses to the
FRP laminate by shear. In a beam reinforced internally with steel and externally with FRP, there is
usually substantial reserve capacity at steel yielding. After the steel reinforcement yields, the beam
can still carry increasing loads, albeit at a lower rate (with respect to deflections) than prior to steel
yielding, and the FRP maintains elastic behavior until failure occurs suddenly. Failure is
 3

precipitated by FRP debonding, rupturing, or concrete crushing. All of these modes of failure are
brittle, i.e., load capacity is reached with little inelastic deformation.

BENDABLE CONCRETE

The fibers slide within the concrete when bending occurs, providing with it is enough ton prevent
breakage.This new concrete is around 500 times more resistant to cracking than regular. A new
type of fiber reinforced bendable concrete is used in various places. This article will enlighten a
unique construction material i.e. the flexible concrete also known as bendable concrete. This
material can bring the revolution because of its some special quality such as
flexibility, self-healing, lighter weight, etc. In some countries such as Japan, Korea, U.S.A, etc the
flexible concrete is used in many structure. But in India it is still a new material and requires
proper research for its use in India. Soon we may saw the use of flexible concrete in many
structure. Concrete is widely used in todays construction industry. It has good load bearing
capacity. It can take the compressive load very effectively. But the main problem with the
traditional concrete is that it cannot take much tensile stresses. It fails under the tensile load. The
flexible concrete is a good substitute for this problem.

WELD ABILITY

Two metallic parts of same or different metals mixed and fused when welded with or without
applying pressure, with or without use of filler metal then the ease with which the metal joint will
properly of joining metal or metals called weldability

The easy with which welding of a give material can be done without producing any defect is called
weldability.

Also be defined as the capability of a metal to be welded under the fabrication conditions imposed
satisfactorily in the intended surface.

Weldability is considered as ease of accomplishing a satisfactory weld joint and can be in

determined from quality of the weld joint, effort and cost required for developing the weld joint.

While efforts required for producing sound weld joint are determined by properties of metal
system in consideration namely melting point, thermal expansion coefficient, thermal and
electrical conductivity, defects inherent in base metal and surface condition.

Therefore, weldability of a metal is considered as a relative term. The metallic material with
adequate weldabilityshoud fulfill the requirements like,

The metallic material with adequate weldabilityshoud fulfill the requirements like,

Contribute to good weld quality even with high dulation.

 4

Have unchanged corrosion resistance after welding.

Should not be embrittled when stress relieving.

FATIGUE STRENGTH

When a stress is repeated a great number of times, the strength of the material may be drastically
reduced and ultimately cause failure

Fatigue defined as progressive fracture under repeated loading

Fatigue strength the stress at which a material fails under repeated loading

. Fractures develop progressively over many stress cycles after initiation of a crack from a critical
flaw and subsequently by propagation of the crack until a sudden, unexpected fracture occurs.

This phenomenon is called Fatigue failure

Types: Static fatigue failure and Dynamic fatigue failure

BAR BENDING SCHEDULE:

Bar bending schedule provides the reinforcement calculation for reinforced concrete beam. It
provides details of reinforcement cutting length, type of bends and bend length. Bar bending
schedule or BBS is a list of reinforcement bars in tabular form which provides the following
important details:

1. Bar mark, which indicates the right position of the bar in a structure.

2. The diameter of the bar.

3. The shape of the bar.

4. The dimension of bending of the bar.

5. The number of same bar types.

6. The length of all bars.

7. Total length.

8. Weight .

9. Total weight.
 5

From BBS we can know the reinforcement of different bar sizes and bars are cut and bent
appropriately at the job site. It also ensures proper checking and completion of estimates in a short
time. The dimension of bends should be so given in the BBS that minimum calculation is required
for the making of bars and furtherly setting the machine and stops. BBS is very important and is a
little tough when drawings are complicated but it is a very important work on site where execution
of certain work is to be performed.

Shear Reinforcement

Shear Reinforcement reinforcement which is designed to resist shear or diagonal tension stresses.

Shear reinforcement is usually provided in the form of stirrups to hold the longitudinal
reinforcement and also to take the shear to which the structure is subjected to.

Now the doubt is here that if the stirrups are provided to resist the shear force, why are these
provided parallel to shear force and this way how will they resist shear force. Thats for two main
reasons -

Shear force doesnt directly acts at stirrups but gets transmitted through tensile and compression
reinf, thus shear stirrups actually bear the shear force as like a tensile bar.

The profile of crack developed due to shear force shall not be absolutely vertical (in case of beam)
as there are other forces acting also and because of this the crack shall be always be inclined and if
stirrups are there, the crack profile shall pass through the stirrups and shall be resisted.

Exterior Joints

The forces acting on an exterior joint can be idealized in following fig. The shear force in the joint
gives rise to diagonal cracks thus requiring reinforcement of the joint. The detailing patterns of
longitudinal reinforcements significantly affect joint efficiency. The bar bent away from the joint
core result in efficiencies of 25 to 45 % while those passing through and anchored in the joint core
show 85 to 100 % efficiency. However the strips have to be provided to confine the concrete core

within joint.
 6

Reinforcement used in concrete structure

Reinforced concrete has a high compressive strength compared to other building materials.

Due to the provided reinforcement, reinforced concrete can also withstand a good amount tensile
stress.

Fire and weather resistance of reinforced concrete is fair.

The reinforced concrete building system is more durable than any other building system.

Reinforced concrete, as a fluid material in the beginning, can be economically molded into a nearly
limitless range of shapes.

The maintenance cost of reinforced concrete is very low.

In structure like footings, dams, piers etc. reinforced concrete is the most economical construction
material.

It acts like a rigid member with minimum deflection.

As reinforced concrete can be molded to any shape required, it is widely used in precast structural
components. It yields rigid members with minimum apparent deflection.

Compared to the use of steel in structure, reinforced concrete requires less skilled labor for the
erection of structure.

Reinforcement Fabrication

Fabricated concrete reinforcing bar (rebar) refers to carbon steel used as reinforcement in concrete.
Rebars surface is often patterned to form a better bond with the concrete, and can be epoxy-coated
to mitigate corrosion. This document refers only to uncoated rebar. Fabricated rebar is reinforcing
steel which has been bent, cut, or otherwise modified for a specific installation. The fabrication of
 7

reinforcing steel into shapes suitable for fixing into the concrete formwork is normally performed
off site by specialists reinforcement fabricators, although it is recognized that this differs globally.
Very little reinforcement is cut and bent on site .Although the cutting and bending of
reinforcement appears relatively straightforward, the specialists reinforcement fabricator is well
equipped to do so in a consistently accurate manner and by working with in a defined set of quality
management criteria.

=====================================================================

Q.No= 2

(a)

Moisture Affects Concrete Strength

Water is an essential component when making concrete. The moisture that water provides also
gives concrete its strength during the curing process. While water is one of the most important
ingredients in concrete, it can also be the most destructive in excessive amounts. As one of the
most common building materials used in construction, appropriate concrete drying solutions are
necessary to ensure concrete strength and safety.

Sources of Excess Moisture in Concrete

Free water, or too much water in concrete mix
Moisture rising from beneath a slab
Failing to install a vapor barrier
Poor ventilation
Leaks
Groundwater and poor drainage
Inadequate landscaping grade
Dew point condensation
High relative humidity levels
Lack of protection from the elements
Not allowing concrete to dry and cure properly
Lack of climate control

Higher water-to-cement ratios result in greater spacing between the aggregates in cement, which
affects compaction. Similarly, increased moisture levels reduce the concretes compressive
strength and durability. As concretes surface area increases, particularly with the addition of fine
aggregates, so does the demand for water. The increased water leads to a higher water-to-cement
ratio.
When excess water creates greater spaces between aggregate materials, the voids fill with air after
the moisture evaporates. The resulting inadequate compaction reduces the concretes strength.
 8

Concrete with trapped air levels as little as 10 percent experience reductions in strength of up to 40
percent.

pH levels: Relative humidity levels and pH in concrete are directly related. As humidity levels
increase, so does the concretes pH and temperature. As pH levels in concrete increase, the more
likely floor covering adhesive bonds will fail. While higher temperatures allow concrete to dry
faster, it results in a less structured, more porous product.

Water containing bicarbonate ions and carbon dioxide cause a reaction known as carbonation in
concrete. This often happens in the presence of salts and acid rain. As the acidic substances lower
the concretes pH, the calcium carbonate within the aggregates dissolve and reduce the concretes
strength. Eventually, the concrete will crumble into sand and rock. As the concrete becomes more
acidic and damage progresses, the acids will eventually affect the protective layer of iron oxide on
steel reinforcements, leading to corrosion. Steel expands as it corrodes. This expansion within
already weakened concrete will cause it to further break and crack.

(b) Factored Affecting Permeability of Concrete

1. W/C ratio: The mixing water is indirectly responsible for permeability of the hydrated cement
paste because its content determines first the total space and subsequently the unfilled space after
the water is consumed by either cement hydration reactions or evaporation to the environment.
Concrete will not be vulnerable to water-related destructive phenomena if there is a little or no
evaporable water left after drying and provided that the subsequent exposure of the concrete to the
environment did not cause to resaturation of the pores. The latter, to a large extent, depends on the
hydraulic conductivity, which is also known as the coefficient of permeability (K).

2. Curing: Moist- curing for the 7-day (minimum recommended in ACI 308, Standard Practice
for Curing Concrete), resulted in a much more impermeable concrete. The following graph shows
the relationship between permeability, w/c ratio, and initial moist-curing for 4x8-inch cylindrical
concrete specimens 5 tested after 90 days of air drying and subjected to 3000 psi of water pressure.
Although permeability values would be different for other liquids and gases, the relationship
 9

between w/c ratio, curing period, and permeability would be similar.

3. The use of Admixtures:

Such as silica fume, latex emulsions, and high range water reducers allows placement of highly
impermeable concrete. More information on the effects of these admixtures, concrete mix design,
and curing is needed so that low permeability concretes can be uniformly specified and
manufacture.

4. Other Factors:

There are few other factors that affect the permeability in concrete as the improper compaction and
loss of mixing water, age of the concrete, increasing concrete age causes the permeability to
reduce, this is because concrete is material that will continue to hydrate over a long period of time
as long as there is a presence of un-hydrated lime. So with the presence of water, the hydration
products will fill the empty spaces in the matrix. Another factor that improves the permeability is
the fineness of cement. Finer cement particles will hydrate much faster; thus creating the
impermeable concrete faster.
 10

(c) Chemical Attack in Concrete

Chloride Attack

Chloride attack is one of the most important aspects while dealing with durability of concrete. It
primarily causes corrosion of reinforcement. Statistics have indicated that over 40% of failure of
structures is due to corrosion of steel.

Corrosion

For corrosion to occur, these elements must be present

There must be at least two metals (or two locations on a single metal) at different energy levels

an electrolyte

a metallic connection

In reinforced concrete, the rebar may have many separate areas at different energy levels.
Concrete acts as the electrolyte, and the metallic connection is provided by wire ties, chair
supports, or the rebar itself.
Sulphate Attack

Most soils contain sulphate in the form of calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium. They occur
in soils or ground water. Ammonium sulphate is frequently present in agricultural soil and water
from use of fertilizers or from sewage and industrial effluents.

Decay of organic matters in marshy lands, shallow lakes often leads to formation of H2S which
can be transformed into sulphuric acid by bacterial action.

Therefore sulphate attack is common occurrence in natural and industrial situations.

Alkali-Aggregate Reaction

Chemical reactions between aggregate containing certain reactive constituents and alkalis (sodium
and potassium salts) and hydroxyl ions released by the hydration of cement can have deleterious
effects on concrete.

(d) freeze thaw actions

Deterioration of concrete from freeze thaw actions may occur when the concrete is critically
saturated, which is when approximately 91% of its pores are filled with water. When water freezes
to ice it occupies 9% more volume than that of water. If there is no space for this volume expansion
in a porous, water containing material like concrete, freezing may cause distress in the concrete.
Distress to critically saturated concrete from freezing and thawing will commence with the first
freeze-thaw cycle and will continue throughout successive winter seasons resulting in repeated
loss of concrete surface.
 11

To protect concrete from freeze/thaw damage, it should be air-entrained by adding a surface active
agent to the concrete mixture. This creates a large number of closely spaced, small air bubbles in
the hardened concrete. The air bubbles relieve the pressure build-up caused by ice formation by
acting as expansion chambers. About 4% air by volume is needed and the air-bubbles should be
well distributed and have a distance between each other of less than 0.25 mm in the cement paste.

Concrete with high water content and high water to cement ratio is less frost resistant than concrete
with lower water content.

====================================================================

Q.No= 3

(a) Factors Influencing Corrosion

The nature and extent of corrosion depend on the metal and the environment. The important
factors which may influence the corrosion process are

Nature of the metal; Metal corrosion is a slow process of destruction of metal objects, after
chemical reactions that occur on the surface of metals, alloys, under the action of the environment.
Corrosion process is influenced by a number of internal and external factors.

Internal factors are those tied to metal, such as: steel structure, surface condition, presence at
surface of protection films, etc. way of processing. Usually, pure metals does not corrode, in
contrast, metals that contain various impurities, such as metals that have uses in technique, the
very presence of these impurities favors corrosion.

Oxygen: Like water, oxygen increases the rate of corrosion. Corrosion can take place in an
oxygen-deficient environment, but the rate of the corrosion reaction (and destruction of the metal)
is generally much slower. In immersed conditions, if an electrolyte is in contact with one area of
metal containing more oxygen than the electrolyte in contact with another area of the metal, the
higher oxygen-concentration area is cathodic relative to the remaining surface. An oxygen
concentration cell then forms, which results in rapid corrosion.

Temperature: Corrosion reactions are electrochemical in nature and usually accelerate d with
increasing temperature; therefore, corrosion proceeds faster in warmer environments than in
cooler ones.

Chemical Salts: Chemical salts increase the rate of corrosion by increasing the efficiency
(conductivity) of the electrolyte. The most common chemical salt is sodium chloride, a major
element of seawater. Sodium chloride deposited on atmospherically exposed surfaces also acts as a
hygroscopic material (i.e., it extracts moisture from the air), which then increases the corrosion in
non-immersed areas.
 12

Humidity: Humidity and time-of-wetness play a large role in promoting and accelerating
corrosion rates. Time-of-wetness refers to the length of time an atmospherically exposed substrate
has sufficient moisture to support the corrosion process. The wetter the environment, the more
corrosion is likely to occur.

Pollutants: Acid rain (a chemical by-product from manufacturing and processing plants), and
chlorides (in coastal areas) promote corrosion. Acid gases, such as carbon dioxide, can also
dissolve in a film of moisture in contact with the metal.

(b) Preventive measures in new structure

Preventive measure for controlling the corrosion of steel embedded in cement concrete use sound
corrosion engineering principles directed towards the following aspects.

Design Factors

Corrosion engineering principles are based on the following design factors. low water cement
ration ,high strength concrete, higher minimum cement content, thicker concrete cover, proper
detailing of reinforcement and moderate stress levels.

Construction Aspects

Adequate compaction of concrete effective curing, production of impervious concrete, effective

grouting of tendons and periodical maintenance must be implemented and these constitute sound
corrosion engineering principles.

Reinforcement protection

The reinforcement in new construction can be protected using the following.

Cement based coatings

Galvanizing zinc based paints
Epoxy coating
Bitumen based coating
Phosphatic coatings
Coating for reinforcement bars must be satisfying the following.

Ensure uniform coating on the deformed surface configuration of the bars

Be flexible enough to allow post coating bending of bars
Be mechanically stable to sustain handling, transportation and fabrication of reinforcement
Provide the facility of easy application
Resist corrosion
 13

Surface coating for concrete

The reinforcement in new construction can be any coating selected to be applied on the surface of
concrete as a preventive measures against the corrosion of reinforcement must perform the
following functions.

Control carbonations of concrete

Resist chloride penetration
Control moisture penetration of concrete
Provide supplementary protection in case of inadequate cover
Protect concrete from sulphate attack
Protect reinforcement from corrosion

In addition any paint system used as coating for concrete should possess the following properties.

Adhesion to the surface of concrete

Alkali resistance
Abrasion resistance
Flexibility of viscosity
Weather resistance
Water vapour diffusion resistance
Water penetration resistance
Chloride sulphate penetration resistance
Capable of breathing out moisture from inside

( c) Remedial Measure Consists of:

Avoid use of alkali-reactive aggregate in concrete.

Cement with alkali content more than 0.6 % should not be used.

Portland Pozzolana cement is recommended.

Inadequacy of Cover:

If Concrete cover to reinforcement is inadequate, reinforcement is liable to get corroded soon due
to various factors such as Carbonation, ingress of sea water, moisture penetration etc. It is
therefore necessary that RCC works should have a minimum clear cover as recommended by IS
456: 2000. Reinforcement shall have concrete cover and thickness of such cover (exclusive of
plaster or other decorative finish) shall be as follows:

At each end of reinforcing bars not less than 25 mm nor less than twice the dia. of such bar.
 14

For longitudinal reinforcing bars in column, not less than dia. of such bar. In case of columns of
dimensions 200 mm or under, whose reinforcing bars do not exceed 12 mm in dia. a cover of 25
mm may be used.

For longitudinal reinforcing bars in beams, not less than dia. of such bar.

for tensile, shear, compressive or other reinforcement in a slab, not less than 15 mm, not less than
dia. of such bar.

Increased cover thickness may be provided when surface of concrete members are exposed to
the action of harmful chemicals (as in case of concrete in contact with earth faces contaminated
with such chemicals) acid vapours, saline atmosphere, sulphurous smoke etc. and such increase of
cover may be between 15 mm to 40 mm beyond.

For RCC members totally immersed in sea water, cover shall be 40 mm more than the normal
cover.

In all such cases cover should not exceed 75 mm. Based on part research, concrete, cover more
than 50 mm is, however, not recommended as it give rise to increase crack width which may
further allow direct ingress of deleterious materials to the reinforcement.

Apart from the remedies discussed above other preventive measures suggested in various
literature are:

Application of protective coating

Modification of concrete

Change in metallurgy of reinforcing steel

Cathodic protection system

Portland Cement Grouting

Wide Cracks, particularly in gravity dams and thick walls may be repaired by filling with portland
cement grout. This method is effective in preventing water leakage, but will not structurally bond
cracking sections. The procedure consists of cleaning the concrete along the crack by air jetting or
water jetting; installing grout at suitable intervals, sealing the crack between the seats with sealant;
flushing the crack to clean it and test the seal; and then grouting the whole area. Grout mixtures
may contain cement and water or cement plus sand and water, depending upon the width of the
crack. Water reducers or admixtures may be used to improve the properties of the grout. For large
volumes, a pump is used and for small volumes, a manual injection gun may be used. After the
crack is filled, the pressure should be maintained to ensure proper penetration of grout.
 15

Chemical Grouting

Chemicals used for grouting are sodium silicates, urethanes and acrylamides. Two or more
chemicals are combined to form gel, a solid precipitate or a foam as opposed to cement grouts that
consists of suspension of solids particles in a fluid. The advantages of chemical grouts include
applicability in moist environments and their ability to be applied in very fine cracks.

Epoxy grout

Epoxy grout has become more and more popular among tile contractors and builders. I find new
benefits every time I use this product. Unlike cement grout, which is made from a cementations
powder mix, epoxy grout is made from epoxy resins and a filler powder. The grout is extremely
durable and almost completely stains proof. Regular grout isn't waterproof, so unlike epoxy grout,
it can absorb water when it's wet and stain easily. Epoxy grout is made from two different resins
mixed with filler, making it very waterproof and bettered suited to harsher cleaning products.
Epoxy thin sets offer greater bond strength and chemical resistance than cementations grouts.

Column Jacketing

Column Jacketing is done to improve the load carrying capacity of the column. The procedure
followed is:

Open the footing of the column by excavating soil around it. Remove the plaster from the
surface of the column.

Make the surface of column concrete rough by sand blasting.

Remove the corroded bars by cutting them. Add new bars from footing to the slab as per the
instruction of engineers.

Apply bonding agent on the old concrete for proper bonding between old and new concrete.

Erect necessary shuttering around the column.

Pour minimum M-25 grade of concrete, vibrate and cure it.

Beam Jacketing

The surface of old concrete is cleaned by air jetting. Expanded wire mesh is fixed on the two sides
and bottom of the beam. To ensure a good bond between old concrete and new polymer modified
concrete, an apoxy bond coat is applied to the old concrete surface. The polymer modified mortar
is applied, while the bond coat is still fresh. Sometimes 2 to 3 coats of polymer modified mortar are
applied to achieve desired thickness. The mortar is cured for appropriate period in water. Epoxy
resin grout is injected in the cracks along top of beams.

=====================================================================
 16

Q.No= 4

(a)

The most important differences between the properties of the lightweight and normal weight
concrete used in the precast, prestressed beams were the reduction in modulus of elasticity and
tensile strength of the lightweight concrete. The modulus of elasticity of the lightweight concrete
used in Virginias beams was about 60 percent of that for normal weight concrete. Typical
lightweight concrete had a modulus at prestress transfer of about 3100 ksi (21 GPa), and a modulus
in service of about 3400 ksi (23 GPa). Tensile strength of the lightweight concrete was about 7/8
that of the equivalent beam or deck normal weight concrete
Typical Normal Weight and Lightweight Concrete Mix Proportions

he above table contains the concrete mix proportions for both normal weight and lightweight
concretes used in precast, prestressed concrete beams and cast-in-place concrete decks.

The desired densities and strengths of the lightweight beam and deck concretes were achieved by
 17

doing little more than swapping lightweight aggregates for the normal weight coarse aggregates.
Also, lightweight aggregate allowed the use of a lower water-cementitious materials (w/cm) ratio
in deck concretes without plastic shrinkage cracking or other early age cracking. Ratios of 0.40 to
0.45 are used in Virginia deck mixes, with cementitious materials content in the range of 585 to
650 lb/cu yd (347 to 386 kg/cu m).

The creep of beam concretes under the application of prestressing force plus self-weight was found
to be greatly influenced by the curing method, and not the presence of the lightweight aggregate.
Virginia beam concretes contain slag cement in which the reactivity is dependent on temperature.
Higher curing temperatures, such as a concrete temperature above 160F (71C) produced a creep
coefficient of 0.25 to 0.50, with all the creep strain occurring by a concrete age of 7 days. Lower
curing temperatures such as a concrete temperature of 135F (157C) produced a creep coefficient
of 1.0 to 1.2, with all the creep strain occurring by a concrete age of 60 days. Lightweight
prestressed concrete beams can be cured at the higher temperature to limit camber. Measured creep
in all the precast beam concretes after deck placement has been found to be minimal.

(c) Normal Weight Concrete Thermal Properties

18
 19

Lightweight Concrete Thermal Properties

20
 21

(d)

=====================================================================

Q.No= 5

(a)

High-strength concrete has a compressive strength greater than 40 MPa (5800 psi). Defines High
strength concrete as concrete with a compressive strength class higher than C50/60. High-strength
concrete is made by lowering the water-cement (W/C) ratio to 0.35 or lower. Often silica fume is
added to prevent the formation of free calcium hydroxide crystals in the cement matrix, which
might reduce the strength at the cement-aggregate bond.

Low W/C ratios and the use of silica fume make concrete mixes significantly less workable, which
is particularly likely to be a problem in high-strength concrete applications where dense rebar
 22

cages are likely to be used. To compensate for the reduced workability, superplasticizers are
commonly added to high-strength mixtures. Aggregate must be selected carefully for
high-strength mixes, as weaker aggregates may not be strong enough to resist the loads imposed on
the concrete and cause failure to start in the aggregate rather than in the matrix or at a void, as
normally occurs in regular concrete.

High strength concrete (HSC) may be defined as concrete with a specified characteristic cube
strength between 60 and 100 N/mm2, although higher strengths have been achieved and used.
Strength levels of 80 to 100 N/mm2 and even higher are being used for both precast and in-situ
work in the USA, France, Norway and some other countries. The main applications for HSC
in-situ concrete construction are in offshore structures, columns for tall buildings, long-span
bridges and other highway structures. The main advantage is the reduction in size of compression
elements and/or the amount of longitudinal reinforcement required.

The methods and technology for producing high strength concrete are not substantially different
from those required for normal strength concrete. The target water/cement ratio should be in the
range 0.300.35 or even lower. HSC can be produced with all of the cements and cement
replacements (additions) normally available in the UK. A wide range of aggregates can be used
though crushed rock aggregates (of suitably high crushing value) are preferable.

Superplasticisers / high range water reducers should be used to achieve maximum water reduction,
although plasticisers may be adequate for lower strength HSC (C60 to C70). Silica fume
(microsilica) or metakaoline can be used to enhance the strength at high levels (C80 and above),
but is not needed generally at the lower end (C60 to C80).

The terms "High performance concrete" and "High strength concrete" are often taken to mean the
same thing. However, as indicated, "High performance" strictly relates to a concrete that has been
designed to have good specific characteristics, such as high resistance to chloride ingress or high
abrasion resistance. As a result it may also have a high strength, but this is not the
main consideration.
 23

Classification of high-strength concrete

 24

(b)

Ingredient materials for high strength concrete

Cement

Strength development of concrete will depend on both cement characteristic and cement content.
The choice of Portland cement for HSC is extremely important. Unless high initial strength is the
objective, such as in prestressed concrete, there is no need to use a Type-III cement. When the
temperature rise is expected to be a problem, a Type-II lowheat-of-hydration cement can be used,
provided it meets the strength-producing requirements.
 25

Water and water-cement ratio The single most important variable in achieving HSC is the
water-cement ratio (Peterman and Carrasquillo, 1986). HSC produced by conventional mixing
technologies are usually prepared with water-cement ratios in the range of 0.22 to 0.40, and their
28 days compressive strength is about 60 to 130 MPa when normal density aggregates are used.
The requirements for water quality for HSC are no more stringent than those for conventional
concrete. Usually, water for concrete is specified to be of potable quality .

Aggregates

The properties of the aggregate are decisive for the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity
of HSC. In normal strength concrete (NSC), the aggregate has a higher strength and stiffness than
the cement paste. Failures in NSC are characterized by fractures in the cement paste and in the
transition zone between paste and aggregate. Reduced watercement ratio, therefore, causes a great
improvement in compressive strength of cement paste and hence of concrete.

Coarse aggregate

In HSC the capacity of the aggregate can be the limiting factor. This may be either the result of the
aggregate being weaker than the low water-cement matrix, or alternatively it is not sufficiently
strong and rigid to provide the strengthening effect. This is mainly related to the coarse aggregate
(CA). For optimum compressive strength with high cement content and low water-cement ratios
the maximum size of CA should be kept to a minimum, at in. or 3/8 in. The strength increases
were caused by the reduction in average bond stress due to the increased surface area of the
individual aggregate. Smaller aggregate sizes are also considered to produce higher concrete
strengths because of less severe concentrations of stress around the particles, which are caused by
differences between the elastic moduli of the paste and the aggregate. Many studies have shown
that crushed stone produces higher strengths than rounded gravel. The most likely reason for this is
the greater mechanical bond, which can develop with angular particles. However, accentuated
angularity is to be avoided because of the attendant high water requirement and reduced
workability. The ideal CA should be clean, cubical, angular, 100% crushed aggregate with a
minimum of flat and elongated particles . Among the different crushed aggregates that have been
studied traprock, quartzite, limestone, greywacke, granite, and crushed gravel traprock tends to
produce the highest concrete strength. Limestone, however, produces concrete strengths nearly as
high as those achieved using traprock. Gradation of CA within ASTM limits makes very little
difference in strength of HSC. Optimum strength and workability of HSC are attained with a ratio
of CA to FA above that usually recommended for NSC.

Fine aggregate

Fine aggregates (FA) with a rounded particle shape and smooth texture have been found to require
less mixing water in concrete and for this reason are preferable in HSC. HSC typically contain
such high contents of fine cementitious materials that the grading of the FA used is relatively
unimportant. However, it is sometimes helpful to increase the fineness modulus (FM) as the lower
 26

FM of FA can give the concrete a sticky consistency (i.e. making concrete difficult to compact)
and less workable fresh concrete with a greater water demand. Therefore, sand with a FM of about
3.0 is usually preferred for HSC.

Admixtures

Admixtures are widely used in the production of HSC. These materials include airentraining
agents and chemical and mineral admixtures. Significant increases in compressive strength,
control of rate of hardening, accelerated strength gain, improved. workability, and durability are
contributions that can be expected from the admixture or admixtures chosen. Reliable performance
on previous work should be considered during the selection process.

Chemical admixtures

Chemical admixtures such as superplasticizers (highrange water reducer) increase concrete

strength by reducing the mixing water requirement for a constant slump, and by dispersing cement
particles, with or without a change in mixing water content, permitting more efficient hydration.
The main consideration when using superplasticizers in concrete are the high fines requirements
for cohesiveness of the mix and rapid slump loss. Neither is harmful for the production of HSC.
HSC mixes generally have more than sufficient fines due to high cement contents. The use of
retarders, together with high doses and redoses of superplasticizers at the plant or at the job site can
improve strength while restoring slump to its initial amount. Even a superplasticized mix that
appears stiff and difficult to consolidate is very responsive to applied vibration.

(c) Advantages of using high strength concrete

Reduction in size of the columns

Speed of construction
More economical than steel concrete composite columns
Workability and pumpability
Most economical material in terms of time and money
Increased rentable\useful floor space
Reduced depth of floor system and decrease in overall building height
Higher seismic resistance, lower wind sway and drift
Improved durability in aggressive environment
Wearing resistance, abrasion resistance
Durability against chloride attack
Increased durability in marine environment
Low shrinkage and high strength
Service life more than 100 years
High tensile strength
Reduced maintenance cost
 27

(d) American Concrete Institute Method of Mix Design

(a) Data to be collected :

(i ) Fineness modulus of selected F.A.

(ii ) Unit weight of dry rodded coarse aggregate.

(iii ) Sp. gravity of coarse and fine aggregates in SSD condition

(iv ) Absorption characteristics of both coarse and fine aggregates.

(v ) Specific gravity of cement.

(b) From the minimum strength specified, estimate the average design strength by using standard
deviation.

(c) Find the water/cement ratio from the strength and durability points of view. Adopt the lower
value. CONCRETE MIX DESIGN 21

(d) Decide the maximum size of aggregate to be used. Generally for RCC work 20 mm and
pre-stressed concrete 10 mm size are used.

(e) Decide workability in terms of slump for the given job.

(f ) The total water in kg/m3 of concrete is determined, corresponding to the selected slump and
selected maximum size of aggregate.

(g ) Cement content is computed by dividing the total water content by the water/cement ratio.

(h) Select the bulk volume of dry rodded coarse aggregate per unit volume of concrete, for the
particular maximum size of coarse aggregate and fineness modulus of fine aggregate.

( j ) The weight of C.A. per cubic meter of concrete is calculated by multiplying the bulk volume
with bulk density.

(k ) The solid volume of coarse aggregate in one cubic meter of concrete is calculated by knowing
the specific gravity of C.A.

(l ) Similarly the solid volume of cement, water and volume of air is calculated in one cubic meter
of concrete.

(m) The solid volume of FA is computed by subtracting from the total volume of concrete the solid
volume of cement, CA, water and entrapped air.

(n) Weight of fine aggregate is calculated by multiplying the solid volume of fine aggregate by
specific gravity of F.A.
 28

(f ) cost Implications

The costs of the high strength concrete (HSC) building structures are influenced by a number of
factors, including the structure parameters (e.g., the grid size, the number of story and the grade of
concrete), the building design specifications (e.g., the lateral drift of the building structure) and the
design objectives (e.g., the minimization of total weights). Consequently, developing a model for
cost estimation requires an intensive understanding of the relations between the above factors and
the costs. the relations between the water-cement ratio, aggregate-cement ratio, aspect ratio and
volume percentage of fibres, and the various strength parameters are learned.

Hybrid cost estimation

Given a set of input variables including the grid size, the number of story, the grade of concrete,
one neural network can be used to estimate the costs for the concrete or formwork required for the
structural elements (including the slabs, columns, beams and shear walls) and the whole structure.
presents this network-based hybrid model for cost estimation, where the network serves as a
physical mapping between the input (independent) variables and the output (dependent) variables.
However, the network may not be best suited to this multidimensional cost estimation problem,
since the cost components to be estimated may have different sensitivities and variations with the
input variables. Thus, the hybrid estimation model usually gives a compromised performance,
although the training and implementation of the network require less computation.

Hierarchical cost estimation The three inputs in the cost model above can also be decomposed by
discretizing one or two independent variables into auxiliary variables. As such, the cost estimation
can be carried out separately by a set of independent networks, leading to a hierarchical cost
estimation scheme. Since networks are used to map relatively simpler input-output relationships,
more suitable network configuration and learning parameters can be obtained and thus a better
estimation performance can be attained.
29
 30

=====================================================================
 31

Q.No= 6

(a) Durability is the ability to last a long time without significant deterioration. A durable
material helps the environment by conserving resources and reducing wastes and the
environmental impacts of repair and replacement. A durable concrete is one that performs
satisfactiorily under anticipated exposure conditions during its life span. The material and mix
proportions used should be such as to maintain its intigrity and, if applicable, to protect embeded
metal from corrosion. Even though concrete is a durable material requiring a little or no
maintenance in normal environment but when subjected to highly aggressive or hostile
environments it has been found to deteriorate resulting in premature failure of structures or reach a
state requiring costly repairs. One of the main characteristics influcing durability of concrete is its
permeability to the ingree of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, chloride, sulphate and other potential
deleterious substances. Most of the durability problems in the concrete can be attributed to the
volume change in the concrete. Volume change in concrete is caused by many factors. The entire
hydration process is nothing but an internal volume change, the effect of hydration, the pozolanic
action, the sulphate attack, the carbonation, the moisture movement, all type of shrinkages, the
effect of chlorides, corrosion of steel, comes under the aspects of volume change in concrete. The
internal and external restraints to volume change in concrete results in cracks. It is the crack that
promotes permeability and thus it becomes a part of cyclic action, till such time that concrete
deteriorates, degrades, disrupts, and eventually fails. Role of Water-Cement Ratio The volume
change in concrete results in cracks and the cracks are responsible for disintegration of concrete.
Permeability is the contributory factor to the volume change with higher water-cement ratio being
the fundamental cause of higher permeability. Therefore, use of higher water-cement ratio-
permeability- volume change-cracks- disintegration- failure of concrete is a cyclic process in
concrete. Therefore, for a durable concrete, use of lower possible water-cement ratio is the
fundamental requirement to produce dense and impermeable concrete. The ACI includes the
following six criteria for material selections, mixing placing and curing procedures for concrete.

Ease of placement
Long term mechanical properties
Early age strength
Toughness
Life in sever enjoinments
Volume stability

Role of Water-Cement Ratio

It is generally recognized that quality of hydration product and the micro-structure of the
concrete in case of low water- cement ratio is superior to the quality of micro-structure that exists
in the case of higher water-cement ratio.
 32

The lower water-cement ratio concretes are less sensitive to carbonation, external chemical
attack and other detrimental effects that cause lack of durability of concrete.

However, in lower water-cement ratio concretes, there is not enough water available to fully
hydrate all cement particles, only surface hydration of cement particles takes place leaving
considerable amount of unhydrated core of cement grains. This unhydrated core of cement grains
constitute strength in reserve.

The capillary pores in concrete serve as a conduit or provide transport system for deteriorating
agents. However, it may be mentioned that the micro-cracks in initial stage are so fine that they
may not increase the permeability. But propogation of micro-cracks with time due to drying
shrinkage, thermal shrinkage, and externally appied loads will increase the permeability of the
system.

High-performance concrete (HPC) is concrete that has been designed to be more durable and, if
necessary, stronger than conventional concrete. HPC mixtures are composed of essentially the
same materials as conventional concrete mixtures, but the proportions are designed, or engineered,
to provide the strength and durability needed for the structural and environmental requirements of
the project. High-strength concrete is defined as having a specified compressive strength of 8000
psi (55 MPa) or greater. The value of 8000 psi (55 MPa) was selected because it represented a
strength level at which special care is required for production and testing of the concrete and at
which special structural design requirements may be needed.

(b) DURABILITY

The important properties of concrete, which govern the design of a concrete mix are

Strength

DurabilityWorkability

Economy.

Capable of resisting its disintegration and decay.

The concrete should be durable with regard to the various weathering conditions such as action of
atmospheric gases, moisture changes, temperature variations. For durable concrete, water-cement
ratio should be as small as possible to get a workable mix.A well compacted concrete has less
voids and pores and has more durability. To entrap innumerable minute air bubble in concrete,
Vinsol resin, is sometimes mixed with concrete. To Prevent Vinsol resin reacting chemically with
the cement, and to make it soluble in water, it is first neutralised by the addition of sodium
hydroxide.The permeability of concrete is a key factor influencing the durability of concrete.
Concrete permeability is dependent on permeability of each constituent material and its geometric
arrangement.The permeability of cement paste is primarily related to pore structure, which
 33

includes porosity, pore size and connectivity; while pore structure is a function of the water-
to-cement ratio and the degree of hydration.

(d) Mineral ADMIXTURES

Chemical admixtures are the ingredients in concrete other than portland cement, water, and
aggregate that are added to the mix immediately before or during mixing.

Producers use admixtures primarily

To reduce the cost of concrete construction;

To modify the properties of hardened concrete;

To ensure the quality of concrete during mixing, transporting, placing, and curing; and

To overcome certain emergencies during concrete operations

.Most admixtures are supplied in ready-to-use liquid form and are added to the concrete at the plant
or at the jobsite.Certain admixtures, such as pigments, expansive agents, and pumping aids are
used only in extremely small amounts and are usually batched by hand from premeasured
containers.
 34

Admixture characteristics

The main objectives for using super-plasticizers are the following.

To produce highly dense concrete to ensure very low permeability with adequate resistance
to freezing-hawing.
To minimize the effect of heat of hydration by lowering the cement content.
To produce concrete with low air content and high workability to ensure high bond
strength.
To lower the water-cement ratio in order to keep the effect of creep and shrinkage to a
minimum.
To produce concrete of lowest possible porosity to protect it against external attacks.
To keep alkali content low enough for protection against alkali-aggregate reaction and to
keep sulphate and chloride contents as low as possible for prevention of reinforcement
corrosion.
To produce pumpable yet non-segregating type concrete.
 35

Five Functions Admixtures are classed according to function. There are five distinct
classes of chemical admixtures: air-entraining, water-reducing, retarding, accelerating, and
plasticizers (super plasticizers).
All other varieties of admixtures fall into the specialty category whose functions include
corrosion inhibition, shrinkage reduction, alkali-silica reactivity reduction, workability
enhancement, bonding, damp proofing, and coloring.
Air-entraining admixtures, which are used to purposely place microscopic air bubbles into
the concrete, are discussed more fully in "Air-Entrained Concrete.
Water-reducing admixtures usually reduce the required water content for a concrete
mixture by about 5 to 10 percent.
Consequently, concrete containing a water-reducing admixture needs less water to reach a
required slump than untreated concrete.
The treated concrete can have a lower water-cement ratio. This usually indicates that a
higher strength concrete can be produced without increasing the amount of cement.
Recent advancements in admixture technology have led to the development of mid-range
water reducers.
These admixtures reduce water content by at least 8 percent and tend to be more stable over
a wider range of temperatures. Mid-range water reducers provide more consistent setting
times than standard water reducers.
Retarding admixtures, which slow the setting rate of concrete, are used to counteract the
accelerating effect of hot weather on concrete setting.
High temperatures often cause an increased rate of hardening which makes placing and
finishing difficult.
Retarders keep concrete workable during placement and delay the initial set of
concrete.Most retarders also function as water reducers and may entrain some air in
concrete.Accelerating admixtures increase the rate of early strength development, reduce
the time required for proper curing and protection, and speed up the start of finishing
operations.
Accelerating admixtures are especially useful for modifying the properties of concrete in
cold weather.Superplasticizers, also known as plasticizers or high-range water reducers
(HRWR), reduce water content by 12 to 30 percent and can be added to concrete with a
low-to-normal slump and water-cement ratio to make high-slump flowing concrete.
Flowing concrete is a highly fluid but workable concrete that can be placed with little or no
vibration or compaction.The effect of super plasticizers lasts only 30 to 60 minutes,
depending on the brand and dosage rate, and is followed by a rapid loss in workability. As
a result of the slump loss, super plasticizers are usually added to concrete at the jobsite.
Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures fall into the specialty admixture category and are used to
slow corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete.
Corrosion inhibitors can be used as a defensive strategy for concrete structures, such as
marine facilities, highway bridges, and parking garages, that will be exposed to high
concentrations of chloride.
Other specialty admixtures include shrinkage-reducing admixtures and alkali-silica
reactivity inhibitors.
 36

The shrinkage reducers are used to control drying shrinkage and minimize cracking, while
ASR inhibitors control durability problems associated with alkali-silica reactivity.

(e) Bleeding and segregation:-

The effect of silica fume on the theology of fresh concrete is considered a stabilizing affect in the
sense that addition of fine particle to a concrete mix tends to reduce segregation and bleeding.
When very fine particles of silica fume are added to concrete the size of flow channel is greatly
reduced because these particle are able to find their way into empty spaces between 2 cement
grains causing drastic segmentation of bleed water flow and reduce bleeding. Due to increase in
the number of solid-to-solid contact, the cohesiveness of the concrete mix is greatly improved
when silica fume is added. This makes the concrete highly attractive for pumping, shotcreting as it
reduces segregation.

Water demand increases in proportion to the amt of silica fume added. The increase in water
demand of concrete containing silica fume is about 1% for every 1% cement substituted
Workability is the ease with which a concrete mix can be handled. Water measures can be taken to
avoid this increase by adjusting aggregate grading and use of super plasticizer. The addition of
silica fume will lead to a cohesive mix due to more solid-to-solid contact and will have a lower
slump. This reduces bleeding and segregation.

Fresh concrete made with silica fume is more cohesive and therefore less prone to segregation than
concrete without silica fume. Too offset this increased cohesion when placing, silica fume
concrete is typically placed at 40 to 55 mm greater slump than concrete without silica fume in the
same placement.

Also, because of the very high surface area of the silica fume and the usually very low water
content of silica fume concrete, there will be very little, if any, bleeding. Once silica fume content
of about 5% is reached, there will be no bleeding in most concretes.

(f) Advantages of using poly-blends

May be vibrated to fill voids in forms

Good resistance against corrosion
Low permeability to water and aggressive solutions
Good long-term durability with respect to freeze and thaw cycles
Good adhesion to most surfaces
High tensile, flexural, and compressive strengths when fibre reinforcement is used
Rapid curing at ambient temperatures
Very Low Creep and Shrinkage
Resistant to Heat and Cold
Chemical Resistance
=====================================================================================
 37

Q.No= 7

(a) Types of Polymers & their uses

Polymer impregnated concrete

is one of the widely used polymer composite. It is nothing but a precast conventional concrete,
cured and dried in oven, or by dielectric heating from which the air in the open cell is removed by
vacuum. Then a low viscosity monomer is diffused through the open cell and polymerized by
using radiation, application of heat or by chemical initiation .Concrete-polymer composites were
prepared by impregnating sand-cement mortar with polymethylmethacrylate, polystyrene and
polyacrylonitrile as well as copolymers of styrenemethylmethacrylate, styrene-acrylonitrile,
styrene-butyl methacrylate, styrene-butyl acrylate, methyl methacrylate-butyl acrylate, methyl
methacrylate-ethyl acrylate, styrene-acry~ontrile crosslinked with divinyl benzene, and
polystyrene crosslinked with divinyl benzene. Mechanical properties such as compressive
strength, flexural strength and in some cases strength of transverse rupture were studied with these
polymer and copolymer impregnated concrete. The effects of water/cement ratio, sand/cement
ratio, curing temperature and time, polymer loading, and nature of polymer on the compressive
and flexural strengths of control concrete and polymer impregnated concrete were studied. For
copolymer impregnated concrete the effects of copolymer composition and nature of comonomer
pairs on the strength properties of the composite were also investigated.

Polymer cement concrete

is made by mixing cement, aggregates, water and monomer. Such plastic mixture is cast in
moulds, cured, dried and polymerized. A superior pcc made by furfuryl alcohol aniline
hydrochloride in the wet mix is claimed to be specially dense, on shrinking, high corrosion
resistance, low permeability and high resistance to vibrations and axil extension. The monomers
that are used in PCC are:

(a) Polyster-styrene.

(b) Epoxy-styrene.

(c) Furans.

(d) Vinylidene Chloride.

Polymer concrete

is an aggregate bound with a polymer binder instead of Portland cement as in conventional

concrete. The main technique in producing PC is to minimize void volume in the aggregate mass
so as to reduce the quantity of polymer needed for binding the aggregates. This is achieved by
properly grading and mixing the aggregates to attain the maximum density and minimum void
volume. The graded aggregates are prepacked and vibrated in a moulds. Monomer is then diffused
 38

up through the aggregates and polymerization is initiated by radiation or chemical means. A Silone
coupling agent is added to the monomer to improve the bond strength between the polymer and the
aggregate. In case polyester resins are used no polymerization is required. Polymer concretes are a
type of concrete that use polymers to replace lime-type cements as a binder. In some cases the
polymer is used in addition to portland cement to form Polymer Cement Concrete
(PCC) or Polymer Modified Concrete (PMC). Polymer concrete may be used for new construction
or repairing of old concrete. The adhesive properties of polymer concrete allow repair of both
polymer and conventional cement-based concretes. The low permeability and corrosive resistance
of polymer concrete allows it to be used in swimming pools, sewer structure applications, drainage
channels, electrolytic cells for base metal recovery, and other structures that contain liquids or
corrosive chemicals. It is especially suited to the construction and rehabilitation of manholes due
to their ability to withstand toxic and corrosive sewer gases and bacteria commonly found in sewer
systems. Unlike traditional concrete structures, polymer concrete requires no coating or welding of
PVC-protected seams. It can also be used as a bonded wearing course for asphalt pavement, for
higher durability and higher strength upon a concrete substrate.Polymer concrete has historically
not been widely adopted due to the high costs and difficulty associated with traditional
manufacturing techniques. However, recent progress has led to significant reductions in cost,
meaning that the use of polymer concrete is gradually becoming more widespread.

(b) The best way to ensure the advantages of polymers is to conduct a series of tests in the
polymer modified mortars and to compare the results with mortars without polymers. in most of
the particles cases it suffices only to conduct the test on polymer modified concrete if the base
concrete values are known. It is normally sufficient that the repair mortar has 10% higher strength
than the base concrete. The following test can be conducted to determine the suitability of the
formulation.

Compressive strength test

Bond strength test
Air entrainment test
Alkali resistance test
Chloride content test
Water permeability test
Carbonation resistance test
Wear resistance test
Impact resistance test
Chloride ion penetrating test
Shrinkage charactricts test
Bond and shrinkage test in typical repair case
Uv resistance test
Modulus of elasticity test
Dynamic modulus of elasticity test
Coefficient of thermal expansion test
 39

(c ) Epoxy Resin Tests

The main focus of the test program was on the behavior of joined concrete specimens, since epoxy
resin suppliers indicated that many of the properties such as pot life, viscosity, and sag
characteristics could be easily altered once satisfactory bonding characteristics were obtained.
However, a limited series of checks were made on epoxy resin physical characteristics. These
included:

(a) Pot life

(b) Viscosity

(c) Tensile bond strength

(d) Suitability for application

Pot Life.

Pot life of an epoxy resin is the period of time after mixing during which an adhesive remains
suitable for use. It is generally considered as the time between mixing in the container and placing
of the surfaces to be bonded in contact, although the primary test method (consistency) considers
only the heat reinforcing characteristic case of pot life in the container. Contact time is equally
important. In carrying out the consistency test, 20Om1 of mixed epoxy resin were put into a
40Om1 heat resistant beaker. The method of test requires that consistency be checked by use of a
viscosimeter at the start and end of the test. The material is then stirred by rotating a glass stirring
rod (1/4 in. diameter and 7 in. long) five times at 10 min. intervals after mixing. The rotation of the
stirring road was specified as one rotation per second by ASTM D 1338-56. This rotation was
continued until the consistency of the epoxy resin was such that stirring at one rotation per second
was impossible. The time at which the viscosity exceeded 3000 poises or the temperature of the
mixture increased 300 F was noted and termed the pot life.

Viscosity.

The viscosity of several epoxy resins was checked using a Brookfield RVT Viscosimeter (see Fig.
2.4). When used to determine pot life, viscosity was checked every 10min. after mixing until the
viscosity exceeded 300,000 cps.

Tensile Bond Strength.

The heads of two bolts (1-1/4 in. diameter, 4-in. length) were joined together with the epoxy resin
to test the epoxy resin tensile bond strength. To prevent eccentricity at the joints, the head of each
bolt was machined to form a perfect circle (1-3/4 in. in diameter). Bolts were joined in a jig, as
shown in Fig. 2.5. The correct alignment of the bolts was maintained by adjusting the plates
vertically and horizontally prior to applying the epoxy resin on the heads of the bolts. Oil and
grease on the bolt heads were completely removed with acetone prior to jointing. To keep the bolt
 40

heads from slipping until the epoxy resin hardened, excess adhesive was wiped off and the sides of
the heads were taped.

Suitability for Application.

During all jointing operations in the hardened concrete test series, epoxy resins were observed and
subjectively appraised regarding color, ease of mixing, ease of application, and tendency to sag.

(d) Typical properties of normal strength Portland cement concrete:

Density : 2240 - 2400 kg/m3 (140 - 150 lb/ft3)

Compressive strength : 20 - 40 MPa (3000 - 6000 psi)
Flexural strength : 3 - 5 MPa (400 - 700 psi)
Tensile strength : 2 - 5 MPa (300 - 700 psi)
Modulus of elasticity : 14000 - 41000 MPa (2 - 6 x 106 psi)
Permeability : 1 x 10-10 cm/sec
Coefficient of thermal expansion : 10-5 oC-1 (5.5 x 10-6 oF-1)
Drying shrinkage : 4 - 8 x 10-4
Drying shrinkage of reinforced concrete : 2 - 3 x 10-4
Poisson's ratio : 0.20 - 0.21
Shear strength : 6 - 17 MPa
Specific heat : 0.75 kJ/kg K (0.18 Btu/lbm oF (kcal/kg oC))

=====================================================================
 41

Q.No= 8

(a) Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC)

In conventional concrete, micro-cracks develop even before loading because of drying shrinkage
and other causes of volume change. When the structure is loaded, the micro cracks open up and
propagate. The development of such micro-cracks is the main reason of inelastic deformation in
concrete.

The weakness can be removed by inclusion of small, closely spaced and uniformly dispersed
fibers in concrete. The addition of fibers in concrete substantially improve its static and dynamic
properties. These fibers offer increased resistance to crack growth, through a crack arresting
mechanism and improve tensile strength and ductility of concrete.

Fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) can be defined as a composite material consisting of concrete
and discontinuous, discrete, uniform dispersed fine fibers. The continuous meshes, woven fabrics
and long wires or rods are not considered to be discrete fibers.

The inclusion of fibers in concrete and shotcrete generally improves material properties like
ductility, flexural strength, toughness impact resistance and fatigue strength. There is little
improvement in compressive strength. The type and amount of improvement in compressive
strength. The type and amount of improvement is dependent upon the fibre type, size, strength and
configuration and amount of fiber.

Fiber-reinforced mortar

The fiber-reinforced mortar or fibronizzata, is called so because in its interior features millimetric
size fiber, which will enhance its resistance. Typically, this type of mortar is ready for use, so it
requires no special processing steps. Suitable for the construction of interior and exterior
plaster and for the construction of load-bearing wallsor partitions is a product very versatile and
easy to use. The durability properties of four types of fiber reinforced cement composites are
compared. The four composites are conventional steel (SFRM), polypropylene, glass fiber
reinforced mortar (GFRM), and slurry infiltrated fiber concrete (SIFCON). To accelerate
deterioration, the test program consisted of exposure to intermittent drying and wetting conditions
in a 3.5 percent sodium chloride solution (simulating seawater), maintained at 50 C over periods of
2 to 10 months. After exposure, flexural tests were performed to evaluate the effect of deterioration
on the flexural strength and toughness of the composites. Results indicate that polypropylene
reinforced mortar has the best overall durability, while glass fiber reinforced mortar shows the
poorest overall performance. Steel fiber reinforced mortar showed noticeable reduction in flexural
strength and a dramatic reduction in toughness. the reduction in strength and toughness were both
 42

moderate. A prediction model for the long-term deterioration of steel fiber reinforced mortar is
proposed and a sample analysis is performed. The analysis indicates that corrosion can be very
critical for thin panel structures of the order of 0.5 in. (12.5 mm) in depth, but diminishes
substantially for structures with depths about 4 in. (100 mm) or larger. While cement mortar was
used in this study because of the nature of the thin specimens tested, the conclusions should
generally apply to fiber reinforced concrete where the coarse aggregate is of sufficient quality not
to contribute to corrosion.

(b) Structural behaviour of FRC

Flexure

The use of fibers in reinforced concrete flexure members increases ductility, tensile strength,
moment capacity, and stiffness. The fibers improve crack control and preserve post cracking
structural integrity of members.

Torsion

The use of fibers eliminate the sudden failure characteristic of plain concrete beams. It increases
stiffness, torsional strength, ductility, rotational capacity, and the number of cracks with less crack
width.

High Strength Concrete

Fibers increases the ductility of high strength concrete. Fiber addition will help in controlling
cracks and deflections.

Shear

Addition of fibers increases shear capacity of reinforced concrete beams up to 100 percent.
Addition of randomly distributed fibers increases shear-friction strength and ultimate strength.

Column

The increase of fiber content slightly increases the ductility of axially loaded specimen. The use of
fibers helps in reducing the explosive type failure for columns.

Cracking and Deflection

Tests have shown that fiber reinforcement effectively controls cracking and deflection, in addition
to strength improvement. In conventionally reinforced concrete beams, fiber addition increases
stiffness, and reduces deflection.
 43

( c) Concrete Cube Test

Concrete Cube Test is a test conducted to determine the strength of concrete. Usually a minimum
of 3 cubes are taken from each sample, so make sure you taken enough from the pour before it
finishes. Do check the specification you are working to, as sometimes the quantity of cubes you
have to take may vary. The frequency of sampling should be identified in client specifications or
by the designer. This could be per batch / load or even per volume poured. Check before you start.

Cube moulds are usually 150mm x 150mm x 15 mm (or 100mm x100mm x100mm) and can be
made from steel or polyurethane.

Before the concrete is scooped into the moulds, the moulds must be lightly coated in a mould
release agent. This ensures that the concrete does not stick to the mould and makes it easier to
remove the cube. When using a 150mm mould, the concrete sample is scooped into the mould in
3 equal layers (50mm) and compacted between each layer. There are various methods to compact
the concrete into the moulds. When using a 150mm mould, each layer compacted is tampered
using a certified compacting rod /bar, 35 tamps per layer is required. Once the 3 layers have been
tampered, tap the side of the mould with a hammer. Tampering and tapping removes trapped air in
the concrete and allows compaction of the sample.

Once complete, the concrete is levelled off using a concrete float or trowel to give a smooth
surface flush with the top of the mould.

Cube Testing

The cubes are generally tested at 7 & 28 days unless specific early tests are required, for example
to remove a concrete shutter safely prior to 7 days. Usually 1 cube will be tested at 7 days and 2
cubes at 28 days, however this may vary depending of the requirements, check the design first. The
cubes are removed from the curing tank, dried and grit removed. The cubes are tested using a
calibrated compression machine. This can be carried out internally by competent personnel or by a
certified test house.

The cubes are tested on the face perpendicular to the casting face. The compression machine exerts
a constant progressing force on the cubes till they fail, the rate of loading is 0.6 0.2 M/Pas
(N/mm/s). The reading at failure is the maximum compressive strength of the concrete.

(d) Applications Areas of FRC

Runway, Aircraft Parking, and Pavements.

For the same wheel load FRC slabs could be about one half the thickness of plain concrete slab.
FRC pavements offers good resistance even in severe and mild environments.

It can be used in runways, taxiways, aprons, seawalls, dock areas, parking and loading ramps.
 44

Tunnel Lining and Slope Stabilization

Steel fiber reinforced concrete are being used to line underground openings and rock slope
stabilization. It eliminates the need for mesh reinforcement and scaffolding.

Dams and Hydraulic Structure

FRC is being used for the construction and repair of dams and other hydraulic structures to provide
resistance to cavitation and severe erosion caused by the impact of large debris.

Thin Shell, Walls, Pipes, and Manholes

Fibrous concrete permits the use of thinner flat and curved structural elements. Steel fibrous
shortcrete is used in the construction of hemispherical domes.

Agriculture

It is used in animal storage structures, walls, silos, paving, etc.

Precast Concrete and Products

It is used in architectural panels, tilt-up construction, walls, fencing, septic tanks, grease trap
structures, vaults and sculptures.

Commercial

It is used for exterior and interior floors, slabs and parking areas, roadways, etc.

Warehouse / Industrial

It is used in light to heavy duty loaded floors.

Residential

It includes application in driveways, sidewalks, pool construction, basements, colored concrete,

foundations, drainage, etc.

(e) Fiber volume Fraction

Fiber volume fraction / ratio is an important mathematical element in

composite engineering. Fiber volume ratio, or fiber volume fraction, is the percentage of fiber
volume in the entire volume of a fiber-reinforced composite material. When manufacturing
polymer composites, fibers are impregnated with resin. The amount of resin to fiber ratio is
calculated by the geometric organization of the fibers, which affects the amount of resin that can
enter the composite. The impregnation around the fibers is highly dependent on the orientation of
the fibers and the architecture of the fibers. The geometric analysis of the composite can be seen in
the cross-section of the composite. Voids are often formed in a composite structure throughout the
 45

manufacturing process and must be calculated into the total fiber volume fraction of the composite.
The fraction of fiber reinforcement is very important in determining the overall mechanical
properties of a composite. A higher fiber volume fraction typically results in better mechanical
properties of the composite.

Calculating the volume of fiber ratio in a composite is relatively simple. The volume fiber fraction
can be calculated using a combination of weights, densities, elastic moduli, stresses in respective
directions, poison's ratios, and volumes of the matrix (resin system), fibers, and voids.

low volume fraction (less then 1%): Used in slabs and pavement that have large exposed surface
leading to shrinkage cracking. Moderate volume fraction(between 1 and 2%): Used in construction
method such as concrete . High volume fraction(greater then 2%): Used in making high
performance FRC.

Tension

With continuous fiber enforcement it is necessary to break the fibers before overall fracture can
occur. It is interesting to note what when an individual fiber in a continuous fiber composite break
it does not cease to contribute to the strength of the material because the broken fiber then behaves
like a long short fiber and will still be supporting part of the external load at sections remote from
the broken end. In short fiber composites however fiber breakage is not an essential prerequisite to
complete composite fracture, especially when the interfacial bond is weak because the fibers may
then be simply pulled out the matrix as the crack propagates through the latter.

Flexure / shear

In Flexure / shear As in the case of compression ,plastics reinforced short fiber are probably better
than those with continuous fibers because in the former with random orientation of fibers at least
some of the shear stress are on planes perpendicular to the continuous fibers, then the fibers will
offer resistance to shear deformation. Sine high volume fraction can be achieved with continuous
fibers this resistance can be substantial.

=====================================================================================
 46

Q.No= 9

(a) Effect of Air Entrained Concrete on Strength of Concrete:

Air entrained concrete has effects on compressive strength of concrete and its workability. Air
entrained concrete increases the workability of concrete without much increase in water-cement
ratio. Compressive strength of concrete is inversely proportional to workability of concrete. When
workability of concrete increases, its compressive strength decreases. To achieve the required
compressive strength of concrete, its workability is limited. But workability cannot be decreased
beyond certain limit so that concrete can be effectively placed and compacted at site. To maintain
the desired compressive strength and workability of concrete together, generally in the case of
higher strength concrete, admixtures are used. Air entraining agent is one such concrete admixture
to increase the workability without affecting much reduction in compressive strength.

But use of concrete admixture in concrete shall be considered in mix design so that desired
compressive strength is achieved with required amount of admixture and workability.

Normal reduction in strength of concrete by use of air-entrained admixtures varies from 3 to 7%.
This variation of strength shall be considered in the mix design of concrete. Suitably, trial mix
designs should be done to find exact variation of strength with the use of this admixture and
suitable corrections should be done in mix design to ensure desired strength.

Typically it may be assumed that a loss of 5% in compressive strength of concrete occurs due to
each 1% by volume of entrained air in the concrete mix.

In order to estimate water-cement ratio required for an air entrained concrete, an allowance for
strength reduction is incorporated in the mix design and higher target mean strength is assumed.

Effect of Air-Entrainment on Durability of Concrete

Durability is the ability to last a long time without significant deterioration. A durable material
helps the environment by conserving resources and reducing wastes and the environmental
impacts of repair and replacement. Durability of concrete: ability to resist weathering action,
chemical attack, abrasion, or any process of deterioration.

An air-entrainment upto 6 % can make the concrete more impervious. The steam curing of
concrete using pozzolana has been reported to decrease the permeability due to formation of
coarser C-S-H gel, lower drying shrinkage and accelerated conversion of Ca(OH)2 into cementing
product.
 47

(b) importance of Temperature in Mass Concrete

All concretes generate heat as the cementitious materials hydrate. Most of this heat generation
occurs in the first days after placement. For thin items such as pavements, heat dissipates almost as
quickly as it is generated. For thicker concrete sections (mass concrete), heat dissipates more
slowly than it is generated. The net result is that mass concrete can get hot. Management of these
temperatures is necessary to prevent damage, minimize delays, and meet project specifications.
For lack of a standard definition, we consider mass concrete to be any element with a minimum
dimension equal to or greater than 3 ft (0.9 m). Similar considerations should be given to other
concrete elements that do not meet this definition but contain Type III cement or cementitious
materials in excess of 564 lb/yd3 (335 kg/m3 ) of concrete. In many cases, these non-mass
elements will also generate significant amounts of heat. Maximum allowable concrete
temperatures and temperature differences are often specified to ensure that proper planning occurs
prior to concrete placement. In many cases, the specified limits are seemingly arbitrary and do not
consider project specifics. As an example of this, certain project specifications limit the maximum
concrete temperature to 135 F (57 C), and limit the maximum concrete temperature difference to
35 F (19 C). Other restrictions are often included, such as limits on the maximum and minimum
temperatures of delivered concrete. This temperature difference is the difference between the
temperature at the hottest portion of the concrete and that at the surface. Thermal cracking will
occur when contraction due to cooling at the surface causes tensile stresses that exceed the tensile
strength of the concrete. provides guidance on calculating the maximum allowable temperature
difference to prevent thermal cracking based on the properties of the concrete and for a specific
structure.

(c ) Importance of Curing

Curing refers to the methods used to keep concrete moist and at the temperature needed to
develop the required strength, wear resistance, and durability. The main concern is
preventing moisture loss from the slab surface, especially at early ages. Controlling this
 48

loss may require actions any time after placement, including before and after final
finishing.
Hydration is the hardening of concrete due depends on a chemical reaction between the
cement and water. The speed of hydration depends on temperature, but hydration also calls
for moisture to be present. Right conditions for curing involve three factors:
Moisture
Temperature
Time
Moisture for Curing Hydration of cement slows as concrete dries.
That is why slab surfaces must be kept from drying in the first several days after placement.
If the water is kept in the concrete, hydration will continue, but if all the free water
evaporates, hydration practically stops.
Protect the concrete surface either by applying water or preventing evaporation.
Curing protects the concrete surfaces from sun and wind.
The presence of water is essential to cause the chemical action which accompanies the
setting of concrete. Normally, there is an adequate quantity of water at the time of mixing
to cause the hardening of concrete. But it is necessary to retain water until the concrete has
fully hardened.
The strength of concrete gradually increases with age, if curing is efficient. This increase in
strength is sudden and rapid in early stages and it continues slowly for an indefinite period.
By proper curing, the durability and impermeability of concrete are increased and
shrinkage is reduced.
The resistance of concrete to abrasion is considerably increased by proper curing.
 49

(d) Formwork systems

Flex Formwork System

Flex-table Formwork System for Slab is the easiest and most flexible slab formwork
system for all types of slabs consisting of tubular steel props. Tripod, Four -way Head, H20
Timber Beams and Plywood Sheets.
The System can be used for a clear height up to 5.90m.
We have emerged as one of the most profound manufacturers of normal and Heavy Duty
Props.
Basically seen at construction sites, all these Scaffolding & Props are widely used for
supporting buildings and large structures.
Fabricated from best quality steel, our stock of props is highly durable in terms of
proficiency. With Light and Heavy Duty Props, one can reduce the cost incurred as these
props are reusable to support formwork shuttering.
Flex is a slab formwork which is not restricted by modular dimensions and therefore
doesnt dictate to any rules of a modular system. Due to the versatility of the Flex system,
all geometric constructions can be realized easily and without difficulties.
Maximum variability and adaptability makes the Flex profitable. You are working demand
oriented and are saving material, efforts and costs. Solidity of the construction, stability
and robustness, as well as versatility and easy assembly characterize the flex system.
The Flex-table Formwork System also impresses by its favorable material costs and is
therefore an economical solution wherever the wage level is low.
The most easy and Flex-table Formwork System for all types of slabs, consisting of steel
props, tripod, four-way head, H20 timber beam and shuttering panel.
It is mainly used for decking areas around lift shafts and stair cases, also for villa projects
or manual handled slab formwork system with limited crane capacity.
This system is fully crane independent.
The H20 timber Beams due to its easy handling, low weight and excellent statically figures
its high-grade bonding and protected beam ends with a plastic bumper assures a long
duration of life.

Beam Forming System

A major advantage of beam forming system is that it eliminates the use of timber for beam sides
and the beam bottom. This systems is suitable for beam depths from 300mm onwards. It is easy to
align, fix and remove. Such formwork systems have adjustable depth in step of 10 mm increment
and ensure right angle for side formwork with respect to beam bottom.

FOUNDATION FORMWORK

Foundation formwork is made up of steel .It is used for foundation purposes . It should be so easy
to De-shutter so that de-shuttering can be done within 16-24 hrs .

ALUFO COLUMN FORMWORK SYSTEM

 50

it is used for giving support of concrete in designing the shape of column .Alufo column formwork
is basically made-up of aluminium and plywood . the four major size of formwork is used as :

1.750x1800 3.450x1800 2.750x1200 4.450x1200

STAIR TOWER

Stair formwork is used for going at first floor or above . the stairs and platforms are form specially
perforated steel for slip free and safe usage. all staircase and landing double guard railed together
with toe-boards at circumference of platform.

HEAVY DUTY TOWER SYSTEM

It is used to support the slab and beam where height of floor is greater than 4.5m .the heavy duty
tower has greater strength than low duty tower .its size are .9m,1.2m &1.8m etc. It can bear
maximum load of 25 tonnes.

ACCESS TOWER

It is a light duty tower which use only in transporting materials and labour .it is use only up to 40m
.After this their is chance of buckle due to moment . It's maximum strength is 250kg/sq.m.

Climbing Formwork System

Climbing System are used for tall structures like cooling towers, etc where it is very
uneconomical to provide staging or scaffolding for supporting the external or internal wall
formwork.

In this system a bracket is hooked on to anchors called lost anchors provided in the already cast
wall and supports/alignments are taken from these brackets. The brackets are suitably braced to
prevent any sway and are provided with walkways/working platforms / handrails etc for safety and
ease of working. Varying degrees of sophistication are available in the Climbing formwork
systems, a few of which are as listed. Automatic climbing formwork, the wall formwork along
with the climbing brackets slide along the wall using motors, thus eliminating the need for crane.
This system is very often used for natural draught cooling towers.

(e) Causes of Formwork Failure

Formwork failures are the cause of many accidents and failures that occur during concrete
construction which usually happen when fresh concrete is placed . Generally some unexpected
event causes one member to fail, then others become overloaded or misaligned and the entire
formwork structure collapses.

Improper stripping and shore removal

Inadequate bracing
 51

Vibration
Unstable soil under mudsills*, shoring not plumb
Inadequate control of concrete placement
Lack of attention to formwork details
formwork not being designed by a competent person
formwork not constructed in accordance with the formwork design or specifications
onsite modifications to formwork due to site conditions not addressed in the design
damaged or sub-standard formwork components being used
removal of formwork before the concrete achieves adequate strength
overloading of the formwork during concrete pouring operations.
Formwork can be constructed to meet a custom design produced by a competent person or a
proprietary system can be used in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations.

(e) Formwork functions

The formwork is the main means of work in the moulding process of the concrete. Basically the
process of formwork making has to meet the following requirements:

- The structural component to be produced is to be moulded with the projected dimensions keeping
the admissible tolerances.

- The dead loads of the fresh concrete and of the reinforcement as well as the temporary load of
persons and working tools must be safely resisted and carried off to the soil or supporting members
of the structure.

- The concrete must be protected against too high or too low temperatures as well as vibrations.

- The thin concrete mix must not flow out of the formwork.

- The future concrete component must have a surface finish meeting the required quality after
stripping.

- The placement of necessary steel reinforcements must be easily possible during the erection of
the formwork.

- Stripping of the concrete components produced must be uncomplicated.

=====================================================================================
 52

Q.No= 10

(a) Functions of a wall

Transfer loads from the building to the foundation (load-bearing walls)

Resist heat transfer
Reduce sound transmission
Provide shelter
Provide security
Partition internal spaces
Provide fire resistance
1.Strength
2.Stability
3.Weather exclusion
4.Thermal Insulation
5.Sound Insulation
6.Durability
7.Fire resistance
8.Appearance Part of a cavity wall with the internal skin removed to expose the Insulation
A wall is a structure that defines an area, carries a load, or provides shelter or security. There are
many kinds of walls:

Defensive walls in fortification

Walls in buildings that form a fundamental part of the superstructure or separate
interior sections, sometimes for fire safety
Retaining walls, which hold back dirt, stone, water, or noise sound
Walls that protect from oceans (seawalls or rivers levees)
Permanent, solid fences
Border barriers between countries
Brick wall
Stone wall

(b) An economical and proven building system, high-strength masonry is gaining popularity in
high-rise buildings. Because it is both wall and structure, reinforced loadbearing masonry is an
all-in-one system that not only reduces construction time and lowers costs but also provides
excellent weather protection, subdivides interior space, provides superior fire resistance, forms
acoustic barriers, and has thermal mass.

Advantages of high-strength masonry include:

1. The same material can be used for both structure and the finished surfaces of the walls.

2. The repetition of fixed separation walls from floor to floor allows faster construction.
 53

3. Because the system uses masonry for both walls and structure, fewer trades are needed. 4. Steel
need not be fireproofed because it is protected within the masonry walls.

5. Floor to ceiling heights are reduced because the system has no beams. Structural load bearing
masonry buildings are now seen on the skylines of a growing number of cities in both seismic and
non- seismic areas.

6. The use of material such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal mass of a building and
can protect the building from fire.

7. Masonry is non-combustible product.

8. Masonry walls are more resistant to projectiles, such as debris from hurricanes or tornadoes.

(c) Load bearing wall

Load bearing wall are commonly constructed of wood ,brick ,structural steel studs, concrete block
and poured in place concrete. A load bearing wall support its own weight, the floor above it and the
wall or floor above and sometimes the roof of the building. Load bearing walls can be exterior and
interior walls.

Non load bearing wall

A non load bearing wall may be used to spate an area of the building into smaller rooms or
individual spaces. A non load bearing wall supports no load other then itself and the weight of the
finish materials attached to the wall. On load bearing wall may be constructed from common
materials including but not limited to wood frame members and the steel studs with an interior
finish of drywall or concrete wall.

Shear wall

Rigid vertical diaphragm transfers the loads into Foundations

Provide large strength and stiffness to buildings in the direction of their orientation.
Reduces lateral sway of the building
Resist : Lateral loads , Seismic loads , Vertical Forces(gravity)
In residential buildings, shear walls are external form a box which provides all of the lateral
support for the building.
Shear walls are especially important in high-rise buildings.
Provide large strength and stiffness in the direction of orientation
Significantly reduces lateral sway
Easy construction and implementation
Efficient in terms of construction cost and effectiveness in minimizing earthquake damage
 54

(d) Essential Tools for Quality Control

Many organizations use quality tools to help monitor and manage their quality initiatives.

There are several types of tools that can be used. However, there are seven management tools for
quality control that are the most common. Different tools are used for different problem solving
opportunities and many of the tools can be used in different ways.

The trick is to become familiar and comfortable with all of these quality tools so you can pull the
appropriate one out of the your toolbox when there is a problem solving need.

1. Flowchart

Most of us are familiar with flowcharts. You have seen flowcharts of reporting relationships
in organizational structures. Flowcharts are also used to document work process flows.

This tool is used when trying to determine where the bottlenecks or breakdowns are in
work processes. Flow-charting the steps of a process provides a picture of what the process looks
like and can shed light on issues within the process. Flowcharts are also used to show changes in a
process when improvements are made or to show a new work flow process.

2. Check Sheet

A check sheet is a basic quality tool that is used to collect data. A check sheet might be used to
track the number of times a certain incident happens.

As an example, a human resource department may track the number of questions by employees,
per category, per day. In this particular check sheet the tools shows the total number of questions
received by the human resources department.

This information helps that department identify opportunities to proactively share information
with employees in an effort to reduce the numbers of questions asked.

3. Cause and Effect (fish bone) Diagram

A cause and effect diagram, also know as a fish-bone diagram, shows the many possible causes of
a problem. To use this tool, you need to first identify the problem you are trying to solve and
simply write it in the box (head of the fish) to the right.

Next, you will list the major causes of the problem on the spine of the fish. Causes are typically
separated into categories of people, process, materials and equipment. Causes are then identified
through brainstorming with a group familiar with the problem.

Once all of the possible causes are identified, they can be used to develop an improvement plan to
help resolve the identified problem.
 55

4. Pareto Chart

A Pareto chart is a bar graph of data showing the largest number of frequencies to the smallest. In
this example, we are looking at the number of product defects in each of the listed categories.

When you look at the number of defects from the largest to the smallest occurrences, it is easy to
see how to prioritize improvements efforts. The most significant problems stand out and can be
targeted first.

5. Control Charts

Control charts or run charts are used to plot data points over time and give a picture of the
movement of that data. These charts demonstrate when data is consistent or when there are high or
low outliers in the occurrences of data.

It focuses on monitoring performance over time by looking at the variation in data points.
And, distinguishes between common cause and special cause variations. The Dow Jones Industrial
Average is a good example of a control chart.

6. Histograms

Histograms are bar chart pictures of data that shows patterns that fall within typical process
conditions. Changes in a process should trigger new collection of data.

A minimum of 50-75 data points should be gathered to ensure an adequate number of data points
have been collected. The patterns that are detected demonstrate an analysis that helps understand
variation.

In this example, it shows that the receptionist received the most phone calls about contribution
statements for that period.

7. Scatter diagrams

Scatter diagrams are graphs that show the relationship between variables. Variables often
represent possible causes and effect.

As an example, a scatter diagram might show the relationship between how satisfied volunteers
are that attend orientation training. The diagram shows the relationship between volunteer
satisfaction scores and volunteer orientation training.

Each of these quality tools has unique advantages for certain situations. And, not all tools are used
for all problem solving.

Once a tool is learned, it can be adapted to different problem solving opportunities. Additionally,
as with anything else, using tools properly takes practice and experience. Simply start using each
of the tools, and over time, you will become proficient and a great problem solver!
 56
(e) Common defect in concrete and their remedies
Defect Cause
1) Segregation & bleeding mix is lean,
Over vibration
2) Permeability & shrinkage high water content in
mix,
lack of compaction,
improper grading
3) blow holes on exposed improper mix design,
faces Inadequate cover
between
Reinforcement and
mould face
Which restrains local flow
Of concrete between
them,
lack of sufficient
vibration
4) plastic cracks During compaction
higher particles tend to
settle down and water
rise up and collects
below certain points of
concrete, remaining
higher due to arching or
interlocking. This
causes cracks during
suggested solution
use richer mix,
avoid over vibration
reduce water content
ratio,
resort to sufficient
compaction
Use correct water
cement ratio, use air
entraining to improve
workability,
use Inadequate cover
for
Reinforcement,
use lager and cubical
coarse aggregate and
sufficient sand,
resort to adequate
mechanical vibration ,
Resort to knifing at the
contact face of mould,
resort to vigorous
tamping with a wooden
mallet on all sides of
formwork as the
concreting proceeds.
Use cohesive mix
Place and compact
concrete in layers,
avoiding any local
points of arching.

5) crazing
6) Efflorescence
7) spalling
8) cement nor Harding
9) loss in workability and
Mix becoming harsh
57
drying below such
points.
Shrinkage of surface Reduce water cement
due to surface ratio
carbonation Use pozzolona cement
Resort to membrane
curing and keeping
surface covered
High water cement ratio Reduce water cement
Large quantity of free ratio
lime released during Use pozzolona cement
hydration
Use of concrete of low Use concrete of
strength sufficient strength
Form lining is not Use absorbent form
absorbent lining
Cement is used in slow Use cement of
setting appropriate setting time
Cement used is or use accelerations
adulterated In case of suspected
adulteration carry out
necessary field tests to
ascertain whether the
cement is adulterated or
not, prior to using it in
the work.
Evaporation of In case the initial
moisture in concrete setting time as has not
which is required for lapsed the concrete may
hydration due to sever be tempered with by
temperatures conditions adding a little quantity
couple with wind of water having regard
Improper grading or to the water cement
insufficient cement ration and then mixing
sand mortar in the mix before use.
58