Faculty of Engineering

Mechanical Engineering Department

Manufacturing Processes (0101407)

Chapter Two (Metal Casting)
Eng. Audai A. Al-Akailah
Casting??

Casting is a manufacturing process involves the pouring of molten metal into a

mold that has a hollow-cavity of the desired shape, and then allowing the
molten metal to solidify and harden, the solidified part is known as casting, and
it can be ejected from the mold or broken out the mold to complete the process.

Castability??
Is the term that is used to describe the ease with which a metal can be cast to
produce a part with good quality.
Feeding system consists
of the pouring basin,
sprue, runner, and the
gate.

Molten metal flows through the feeding system to the mold cavity.
Importance of casting process??

1. Can be used to create complex internal and external part geometries.

2. Some casting processes can produce parts to net shape.
3. Can produce very large parts (weight > 100 tons).
4. Can be used with any metal that can be heated to its liquid phase.
5. Some types of casting are suited to mass production.
6. Casting can utilize materials that are difficult or uneconomical to process by
other means.
7. The casting process can be economically competitive with other
manufacturing processes.
Requirements of casting process??

1. Mold cavity with the desired shape and size.

2. Melting process to provide molten metal.
3. Pouring process to introduce the molten metal into the mold.
4. Controlled- solidification process to prevent defects formation.
5. Ability to remove the casting from the mold.
6. Cleaning, finishing and inspection operations.
Main considerations in casting process??

1. Fluidity of molten metal.

2. Fluid flow.

3. Solidification of molten metal.

4. Cooling rate.

5. Heat transfer.
Fluidity of molten metal??

Fluidity of molten metal can be defined as the capability of molten metal to fill
the mold cavities.

Fluidity of molten metal depends on:

1. Characteristics of the molten metal, such as viscosity, surface tension,

inclusions, and solidification pattern of the alloy.

2. Casting parameters, such as mold design, mold material and its surface
characteristics, degree of superheat, rate of pouring, and heat transfer .
Fluidity of molten metal??

Fluidity of molten metal is measured using fluidity index and it is the length of
the solidified metal in the spiral channel at room temperature. The greater the
length of the solidified metal, the greater is the metals fluidity.

Length of solidified metal is a function of

the thermal properties of the metal and the
mold, as well as of the design of the channel.

Fluidity tests are useful and simulate casting

situations to a reasonable degree.
Fluid flow??

Flow of molten metal should be well controlled to ensure the fabrication of

high quality castings.
Laminar flow of molten metal minimizes the defects content in produced
castings.
Feeding system should be well designed such that the molten metal flows
through it in laminar manner.
Turbulent flow of molten metals damages the mold walls, entraps the
presented gases inside the castings (high porosity content), increases
contaminations content.
Solidification of molten metal??

Pure metals solidify at a constant temperature; alloys solidify within a

temperature range.
Effect of cooling rate??

Slow cooling rates (on the order of 10^2 K/s) or long local solidification
times result in coarse dendritic structures with large spacing between
dendrite arms.
Higher cooling rates (on the order of 10^4 K/s) or short local solidification
times, the structure becomes finer with smaller dendrite arm spacing.
Higher cooling rates (on the order of from 106 to 108 K/s) the structures
developed are amorphous.
The structures developed and the resulting grain size influence the
properties of the casting.
Heat transfer??

Heat flow at different locations in the system is a complex phenomenon and

depends on several factors relating to the material cast and the mold and
process parameters.

A typical temperature distribution at

the mold liquid-metal interface is shown
in Figure.

The shape of the curve depends on

the thermal properties of the molten
metal and the mold.
Casting Processes??

Various casting processes have been developed over time, each with its own
characteristics and applications.
A large variety of parts and components are made by casting, such as engine
blocks, crankshafts, automotive components and powertrains.
Mechanization and automation of the casting process has led to significant
changes in the use of equipment and labor. where the advanced machinery
and automated process-control systems have replaced traditional methods of
casting.
High-quality castings with close dimensional tolerances are required for
varied engineering applications.
Casting Processes??
Summary of Casting Processes??
Casting Processes??
General Characteristics of Casting Processes??
Casting Processes??
Major categories of casting processes??

1. Expendable molds

Expendable molds are typically made of sand, plaster, ceramics, and similar
materials and generally are mixed with various binders (bonding agents) for
improved properties.

Mold materials are refractories and they are capable of withstanding the
high temperatures of molten metals.

After the casting has solidified, the mold is broken up to remove the casting.
Casting Processes??
Major categories of casting processes??

The mold is produced from a pattern that may be permanent or expendable.

For sand and shell casting, the mold is expendable, but the pattern is
reused to produce several molds. Such processes are referred to as
expendable-mold, permanent-pattern casting processes.

Investment and lost foam casting consume a pattern for each mold. These
processes are known as expendable-mold, expendable pattern processes.
Casting Processes??
Major categories of casting processes??

2. Permanent molds

Permanent molds are typically made of metals that maintain their strength at
high temperatures.

Permanent molds are used repeatedly and are designed in such a way that
the casting can be removed easily and the mold used for the next casting.

Metal molds are better heat conductors than expendable nonmetallic molds
(higher cooling rate which affects the microstructure and grain size Within
the casting).
Casting Processes??
Major categories of casting processes??

3. Composite molds

Composite molds are typically made of two or more different materials

(such as sand, graphite, and metal) combining the advantages of each
material.

Composite molds have a permanent and an expendable portion.

Composite molds are used in various casting processes to improve mold

strength, control the cooling rates, and optimize the overall economics of the
casting process.
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??

Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting operation.

Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Sand

Sand is inexpensive and is suitable as a mold material because of its high-

temperature characteristics and high melting point.

The general types of sand are naturally bonded (bank sand) and synthetic
(lake sand).

Synthetic sand is preferred by most foundries, because its composition can

be controlled more accurately

Several factors are important in the selection of sand for molds such as the
strength, permeability, and collapsibility.
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Types of Sand Mold

1. Green-sand molds
Mixture of sand, clay, and water.
Green" means mold contains moisture at time of pouring.

2. Dry-sand mold
Organic binders are used rather than clay.
The mold is baked to improve strength.

3. Skin-dried mold
Drying mold-cavity surface of a green-sand mold to a depth of 10 to 25
mm, using torches or heating lamps.
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Patterns

Pattern is a replica of the object to be cast, used to prepare the cavity into
which molten material will be poured during the casting process.

Pattern is made of wood, plastic, or metal, depending on the size and shape
of the casting, the dimensional accuracy and the quantity of castings
required, and the molding process.

Different aspects should be considered during the design of patterns such as

metal shrinkage, proper flow of molten metal in the mold cavity, ease of
patterns removal after molding using certain geometric features.
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Patterns

Because patterns are used repeatedly to make molds, the strength and
durability of the materials selected must reflect the number of castings that
the mold will produce.

Patterns may be made of a combination of materials to reduce wear in

critical regions.

Patterns are usually coated with a parting agent to facilitate their removal
from the molds.
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Types of Patterns

1. One-piece patterns

They are also called loose or solid patterns.

They are used for simple shapes and low-quantity production.
They are generally made of wood and are inexpensive.
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Types of Patterns

2. Split patterns

They are also known as two-piece patterns.

They are made in two parts and these two parts of the pattern are joined
together with the help of dowel pins.
Used for castings of intricate shape.
For a more complex casting, the pattern
may be split in more than two parts.
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Types of Patterns
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Types of Patterns

2. Match-plate patterns

They are used for mass production.

A match plate pattern is a split pattern having the cope and drags portions
mounted on opposite sides of a plate (usually metallic), called the match
plate.
The gates and runners are also mounted on the match plate, so that very
little hand work is required. This results in higher productivity.
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Types of Patterns
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Patterns

Pattern design is a critical aspect of the total casting operation. The design
should provide for metal shrinkage, permit proper metal flow in the mold
cavity, and allow the pattern to be easily removed from the sand mold by
means of a taper or draft or some other geometric feature.
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Cores

A core is a device used in casting and molding processes to form the

interior surfaces of the casting and are removed from the finished part
during shakeout and further processing.

The core is anchored by core prints, which support the core and provide
vents for the escape of gases.

cores must posses strength, permeability, ability to withstand heat, and

collapsibility; hence, cores are made of sand aggregates
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Cores

The core is anchored by core prints, which are recesses added to the
pattern to locate and support the core and to provide vents for the escape of
gases.

Chaplets are small metal supports that bridge the gap between the mold
surface and the core.

Chaplets must be of the same or similar material as the metal being cast.
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Cores

Examples of sand cores showing core prints and chaplets to support cores.
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Molding Machines

The oldest known method of molding (still used) is to compact the sand by
hand hammering it around the pattern.

For most operations, the sand mixture is compacted around the pattern by
molding machines.
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Molding Machines

1. Vertical Flaskless Molding

Vertical flaskless molding. (a) Sand is squeezed between two halves of the
pattern. (b) Assembled molds pass along an assembly line for pouring.
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Molding Machines

2. Squeeze Heads Molding Machines.

1. Conventional.
2. Profile head.
3. equalizing squeeze pistons.
4. Flexible diaphragm
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Sequence of Operations for Sand Casting

Schematic illustration of the

sequence of operations for
sand casting.
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Sequence of Operations for Sand Casting

(a) A mechanical drawing of the part is used to generate a design for the
pattern. Considerations such as part shrinkage and draft must be built into the
drawing.

(b-c) Patterns have been mounted on plates equipped with pins for alignment.
Note the presence of core prints designed to hold the core in place.

(d-e) Core boxes produce core halves, which are pasted together. The cores
will be used to produce the hollow area of the part.
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Sequence of Operations for Sand Casting

(f) The cope half of the mold is assembled by securing the cope pattern plate to
the flask with aligning pins and attaching inserts to form the sprue and risers.

(g) The flask is rammed with sand and the plate and inserts are removed.

(h) The drag half is produced in a similar manner with the pattern inserted. A
bottom board is placed below the drag and aligned with pins.

(i) The pattern , flask, and bottom board are inverted; and the pattern is
withdrawn, leaving the appropriate imprint.
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Sequence of Operations for Sand Casting

(j) The core is set in place within the drag cavity.

(k) The mold is closed by placing the cope on top of the drag and securing the
assembly with pins. The flasks the are subjected to pressure to counteract
buoyant forces in the liquid, which might lift the cope.

(l) After the metal solidifies, the casting is removed from the mold.

(m) The sprue and risers are cut off and recycled, and the casting is cleaned,
inspected, and heat treated (when necessary).
Casting Processes .. Sand Casting??
Rammed Graphite Molding

Rammed graphite process is used to make molds for casting reactive metals,
such as titanium and zirconium. Sand cannot be used because these metals react
with silica. The molds are packed like sand molds, air dried, baked at
vigorously175C, fired at 870C, and then stored under controlled humidity
and temperature. The casting procedures are similar to those for sand molds.
Casting Processes .. Shell-mold Casting??

It can produce many types of castings with close dimensional tolerances and
a good surface finish at low cost.

Shell-molding applications include small mechanical parts requiring high

precision, such as gear housings, cylinder heads, and connecting rods.

The process also is used widely in producing high-precision molding cores.

Casting Processes .. Shell-mold Casting??

The shell-molding
process, also called
dump-box technique.
Casting Processes .. Shell-mold Casting??

In this process, a mounted pattern made of a ferrous metal or aluminum is

(a) heated to a range of 175 to 37OC, (b) coated with a parting agent (such
as silicone), and (c) clamped to a box or chamber.

The box contains fine sand, mixed with 2.5 to 4% of a thermosetting resin
binder (such as phenol-formaldehyde) that coats the sand particles.

The box is either rotated upside down or the sand mixture is blown over the
pattern, to coat the pattern.

The assembly is then placed in an oven for a short period of time to

complete the curing of the resin.
Casting Processes .. Shell-mold Casting??

The shell hardens around the pattern and is removed from the pattern using
built-in ejector pins.

Two half-shells are made in this manner and are bonded or clamped
together in preparation for pouring.

The thickness of the shell can be determined accurately by controlling the

time that the pattern is in contact With the mold. In this way, the shell can
be formed with the required strength and rigidity to hold the Weight of the
molten liquid.

Complex shapes can be produced with less labor, and the process can be
automated fairly easily.
Casting Processes .. Shell-mold Casting??

The shells are light and thin (usually 5-10 mm), and consequently their
thermal characteristics are different from those for thicker mold.
Shell sand has a much lower permeability than sand used for green-sand
molding, because finer sand is used for shell casting.
The decomposition of the shell-sand binder produces a high volume of gas;
unless the molds are properly vented, trapped air and gas can cause serious
problems in shell molding of ferrous castings.
The high quality of the finished casting can reduce cleaning, machining, and
the finishing costs significantly.
Casting Processes .. Plaster-mold Casting??

The mold is made of plaster of paris (gypsum or calcium sulfate) with the
addition of talc and silica flour to improve strength and to control the time
required for the plaster to set.
These components (plaster of paris, talc, and silica flour ) are mixed with
water, and the resulting slurry is poured over the pattern.
After the plaster sets (usually within 15 minutes) it is removed, and the mold
halves are dried at a temperature range of 120o C to 260o C to remove the
moisture.
The mold halves are assembled to form the mold cavity and are preheated to
about 120o C. The molten is then poured into the mold.
Casting Processes .. Plaster-mold Casting??

Plaster mold casting is an expendable mold process.

Since there is a limit to the maximum temperature that the plaster mold can
withstand (about 1200o C), plaster-mold casting is used only for aluminum,
magnesium, zinc, and some copper-based alloys.

The castings have a good surface finish with fine details.

Because plaster molds have lower thermal conductivity than other mold
materials, the castings cool slowly, and thus a more uniform grain structure
is obtained with less warpage.
Casting Processes .. Plaster-mold Casting??
Casting Processes .. Ceramic-mold Casting??

It is similar to the plaster-mold process with the exception that it uses

refractory materials suitable for high-temperature applications.
The slurry is a mixture of fine-grained zircon (ZrSiO4) , aluminum oxide,
and fused silica, which are mixed with bonding agent and poured over the
pattern, which has been placed in a flask.
After setting, the molds (ceramic facings) are removed, dried, ignited to
burn off volatile matter, and baked.
The high-temperature resistance of the refractory molding materials allows
these molds to be used for casting ferrous and other high-temperature alloys,
stainless steels, and tool steels.
Casting Processes .. Ceramic-mold Casting??

Although the process is somewhat expensive, the castings have good

dimensional accuracy and surface finish over a wide range of sizes and
intricate shapes.

Sequence of operations in making a ceramic mold.

Casting Processes .. Evaporative-pattern Casting (Lost-foam
Casting)??
Processing

1. Uses a polystyrene pattern, which evaporates upon contact with molten

metal to form a cavity for the casting.
2. Raw expendable polystyrene (EPS) beads, containing 5% to 8% pentane (a
volatile hydrocarbon), are placed in a preheated die which is usually made
of aluminum.
3. The polystyrene expands and takes the shape of the die cavity.
4. Additional heat is applied to fuse and bond the beads together.
5. The die is then cooled and opened, and the polystyrene pattern is removed.
Casting Processes .. Evaporative-pattern Casting (Lost-foam
Casting)??
Processing
6. The pattern is coated with water-based refractory slurry, dried, and placed in
a flask.
7. The flask is filled with loose fine sand, which surrounds and supports the
pattern and may be dried or mixed with bonding agents to give it additional
strength.
8. The sand is periodically compacted, without removing the polystyrene
pattern; then the molten metal is poured into the mold.
9. The molten metal vaporizes the pattern and fills the mold cavity, completely
replacing the space previously occupied by the polystyrene. Any
degradation products from the polystyrene are vented into the surrounding
sand.
Casting Processes .. Evaporative-pattern Casting (Lost-foam
Casting)??

Schematic illustration of the expendable-pattern casting process,

also known as lost-foam or evaporative casting.
Casting Processes .. Evaporative-pattern Casting (Lost-foam
Casting)??
Advantages

1. Complex patterns may be made by bonding various individual pattern

sections using hot-melt adhesive.
2. Relatively simple because there are no parting lines, cores, or riser
systems, hence it has design flexibility.
3. Inexpensive flasks are sufficient for the process.
4. Polysterene is inexpensive and can be easily processed into patterns having
complex shapes, various sizes, and fine surface detail.
5. The casting requires minimum finishing and cleaning operation.
6. The process can be automated and is economical for long production runs.
Casting Processes .. Investment Casting (Lost-wax Process)??

It is suitable for casting high-melting-point alloys with good surface finish

and close dimensional tolerances.

A number of patterns can be joined to make one mold, called a tree,

significantly increasing the production rate.

Typical parts made are components for office equipment, as well as

mechanical components such as gears, cams, valves, and ratchets.

Parts up to 1.5 m in diameter and weighing as much as 1140 kg have been

cast successfully by this process.
Casting Processes .. Investment Casting (Lost-wax Process)??
Processing

1. The pattern is made of wax or of a plastic (such as polystyrene) by molding

or rapid prototyping techniques.

2. The pattern is then dipped into a slurry of refractory material such as very
fine silica and binders, including water, ethyl silicate, and acids.

3. After this initial coating has dried, the pattern is coated repeatedly to
increase its thickness.

4. The mold is dried in air and heated to a temp. of 90oC175oC, while held in
an inverted position for about 12 hours to melt out the wax.
Casting Processes .. Investment Casting (Lost-wax Process)??
Processing

5. The mold is then fired to 650oC1050oC for about 4 hours, to drive off the
water of crystallization and burn off any residual wax.
6. After the metal has been poured and has solidified, the mold is broken up
and the casting is removed.
Casting Processes .. Investment Casting (Lost-wax Process)??

Schematic illustration of
investment casting (lost-
wax) process. Castings
by this method can be
made with very fine
detail and from a variety
of metals.
Casting Processes .. Permanent-mold Casting??
Permanent mold casting is also called hard-mold casting (gravity casting).

Two halves of a mold are made from materials such as cast iron, steel,
bronze, graphite, or refractory metal alloys.

The mold cavity and gating system are machined into the mold and thus
become an integral part of it.

To produce castings with internal cavities, cores made of metal, or sand

aggregate are placed in the mold prior to casting.

In order to increase the life of permanent molds, the surfaces of the mold
cavity usually are coated with a refractory slurry (such as sodium silicate
and clay) or sprayed with graphite every few castings.
Casting Processes .. Permanent-mold Casting??

Mold-cavity coatings also serve as parting agents and as thermal barriers,

controlling the rate of cooling of the casting.

Mechanical ejectors may be needed for removal of complex castings.

The molds are clamped together by mechanical means and heated to about
150oC 200oC to facilitate metal flow and reduce thermal damage to the
dies due to high-temperature gradients.

After solidification, the molds are opened and the casting is removed.
Casting Processes .. Permanent-mold Casting??
Permanent-mold casting operation can be performed manually, it is often
automated for large production runs.
Casting Processes .. Permanent-mold Casting??

This process is used mostly for aluminum, magnesium, copper alloys, and
gray iron because of their generally lower melting points.

Steels can also be cast using graphite or heat-resistant metal molds.

Permanent-mold casting produces castings with a good surface finish, close

dimensional tolerances, uniform and good mechanical properties, and at
high production rates.

The process is not economical for small production runs and is not suitable
for intricate shapes, because of the difficulty in removing the casting from
the mold.