Fundamentals of Automatic Control For Building Systems

Fundamentals of
Automatic Control for

Building Systems
AA-0019E
Fundamentals of Automatic Control for Building Systems
English translation by:

Communication Marketing Department
Building Systems Company
Azbil Corporation
2011-2012 Azbil Corporation All Rights Reserved.
This book may not be reproduced in any form without permission of Azbil Corporation.
Published by Azbil Corporation in 2012. Printed in Japan.
The original Japanese edition:

Kankyou Kyousei Jidai No Kenchikusetsubi No Jidouseigyo Nyuumon (Japanese)
Written by Tadao Matsumoto & Shigeru Tazaki
Published by Japan Industrial Publishing Co., Ltd. in 2010
Copyright 2010 by Japan Industrial Publishing Co., Ltd
AA-0019E
CONTENTS
01. CHARACTERISTICS OF AIR ................................................................................................... 1-1

01.1 INDOOR AIR QUALITY (IAQ) MANAGEMENT .................................................................. 1-1
01.2 FLOW OF AIR AND WATER IN HAVC SYSTEMS ................................................................ 1-2
02. PID CONTROL 2-1

02.1 AUTOMATIC CONTROLS ..................................................................................................... 2-1
02.2 FEEDBACK CONTROL .......................................................................................................... 2-1
02.3 STEP RESPONSES IN FIRST-ORDER-LAG -SYSTEMS ..................................................... 2-2
02.4 PID CONTROL ........................................................................................................................ 2-6
03. PSYCHROMETRIC CHART 3-1

03.1 PROPERTIES OF MOIST AIR ................................................................................................ 3-1
03.2 PCYCHROMETRIC CHART .................................................................................................. 3-2
03.3 CHANGES IN MOIST AIR ....................................................................................................... 3-4
03.4 PROCESSES IN AIR HANDLING SYSTEMS......................................................................... 3-9
03.5 PROCESSES WHEN LOAD VARIES......................................................................................3-11
04. SENSORS 4-1

04.1 ROOM TEMPERATURE/HUMIDITY SENSORS ................................................................. 4-1
04.2 DUCT-INSERTION TYPE TEMPERATURE/HUMIDITY SENSORS .................................. 4-5
04.3 PIPE-INSERTION TYPE TEMPERATURE SENSORS ......................................................... 4-5
04.4 PRESSURE SENSORS AND DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE SENSORS ............................... 4-6
04.5 FLOW METERS ...................................................................................................................... 4-8
05. CONTROL VALVES AND DAMPERS 5-1

05.1 STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTROL VALVES ................................... 5-1
05.2 SELECTING CONTROL VALVES ........................................................................................... 5-6
05.3 DAMPERS AND ACTUATORS ............................................................................................ 5-12
06. STRUCTURE OF AIR HANDLING UNITS (AHUS) 6-1

06.1 COMPONENTS OF AIR HANDLING UNITS ......................................................................... 6-1
i
07. CHARACTERISTICS AND CONTROLS OF AHUS 7-1
07.1 FANS .........................................................................................................................................7-1
07.2 COOLING AND HEATING COILS .........................................................................................7-5
07.3 HUMIDIFIERS .........................................................................................................................7-6
07.4 TOTAL HEAT EXCHANGERS (ECONOMIZERS) ..................................................................7-7
08. ROOM TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEMS 8-1

08.1 HOW ROOM TEMPERATURE CONTROL OPERATES .........................................................8-1
08.2 CONSTANT AIR VOLUME SYSTEMS AND VARIABLE AIR VOLUME SYSTEMS .......8-2
09. TYPES OF AIR HANDLING SYSTEMS 9-1

09.1 TYPES OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM FOR OFFICE BUILDINGS .............................9-1
09.2 SINGLE-DUCT CONSTANT AIR VOLUME (CAV) SYSTEMS ...........................................9-1
09.3 SINGLE-DUCT VARIABLE AIR VOLUME (VAV) SYSTEMS .............................................9-2
09.4 DUAL-DUCT VARIABLE AIR VOLUME SYSTEMS ...........................................................9-3
09.5 PAIR -DUCT SYSTEMS ..........................................................................................................9-4
09.6 UNDERFLOOR DISCHARGE AIRFLOW SYSTEMS ...........................................................9-5
09.7 COMBINATION OF AN OUTDOOR AHU AND TERMINAL AHUS ...................................9-6
09.8 FAN COIL UNIT (FCU) SYSTEMS .........................................................................................9-6
09.9 MULT-UNIT HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS ....................................................................................9-8
09.10 HEAT PUMP PACKAGED AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS ............................................9-9
10. ONE-COIL AND TWO-COIL AIR HANDLING UNITS 10-1

10.1 TYPES OF AIR HANDLING UNITS BY THE NUMBER OF COILS .................................10-1
11. SYSTEM SCHEMATICS 11-1

11.1 SYSTEM SCHEMATICS FOR A CONSTANT AIR VOLUME AHU ...................................11-1
11.2 HOW TO READ SYSTEM SCHEMATICS ...........................................................................11-3
12. TEMPERATURE CONTROL 12-1

12.1 CONTROL SEQUENCE...........................................................................................................12-1
12.2 EXPLANATION OF TEMPERATURE CONTROL ON PSYCHROMETRIC CHART .......12-1
12.3 METHODS OF RESETTING ROOM TEPMPERATURE .....................................................12-3
12.4 TYPES OF TEMPERATURE CONTROLS ............................................................................12-3
12.5 DISCHARGE AIR TEMPERATURE CONTROL ..................................................................12-5
13. HUMIDITY CONTROL 13-1
13.1 HUMIDIFICATION CONTROL .............................................................................................13-1
ii
13.2 DEHUMIDIFICATION CONTROL ....................................................................................... 13-2
14. OUTDOOR AIR CONTROL 14-1

14.1 TYPES OF OUTDOOR AIR CONTROL ............................................................................... 14-1
14.2 OUTDOOR AIR COOLING .................................................................................................. 14-2
14.3 MINIMUM OUTDOOR AIR (CO2) CONTROL ................................................................... 14-2
15. CONTROLS RELATED TO START/STOP OF AIR HANDLING UNIT 15-1

15.1 OPTIMUM START CONTROL ............................................................................................. 15-1
15.2 COOL-DOWN/WARM-UP CONTROL .................................................................................. 15-1
15.3 INTERLOCK CONTROLS WITH AIR HANDLING UNITS OFF ...................................... 15-1
15.4 CONTROL SEQUENCE OF AN AIR HANDLING UNIT ..................................................... 15-1
16. CONFIGURAITON AND CONTROL PROGRAMS

OF DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROLLERS (DDCS) 16-1
16.1 CONSTRUCTION OF A DDC................................................................................................. 16-1
16.2 CONFIGURATION OF INPUT/OUTPUT MODULES ........................................................ 16-2
16.3 CONTROL PROGRAM DIAGRAMS ................................................................................... 16-7
17. ELECTRIC CONTROL SYSTEMS 17-1

17.1 SYSTEM SCHEMATICS ....................................................................................................... 17-1
17.2 ELECTRIC CONTROLLERS ................................................................................................ 17-1
17.3 CONTROL PANEL CIRCUIT AND OPERATIONS ............................................................. 17-2
18. ELECTRONIC CONTROL SYSTEMS 18-1

18.1 SYSTEM SCHEMATICS ....................................................................................................... 18-1
18.2 CONFIGURAITON OF ELECTRONIC CONTROLLERS .................................................. 18-1
18.3 CONTROL PANEL CIRCUIT AND OPERATIONS ............................................................. 18-3
19. VARIABLE AIR VOLUME AIR HANDLING UNIT CONTROL SYSTEMS 19-1
19.1 SYTEM SCHEMATIC ........................................................................................................... 19-1
19.2 HOW TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER WORKS ............................................................... 19-1
20. TEMPERATURE/HUMIDITY CONTROL FOR A VAV-AHU 20-1

20.1 ROOM TEMPERATURE CONTROL ................................................................................... 20-1
20.2 DISCHARGE AIR TEMPERATURE CONTROL ................................................................. 20-1
20.3 DISCHAREG AIR DEW POINT CONTROL ........................................................................ 20-1
iii
20.4 DISCHARGE AIR TEMPERATURE OPTIMUM RESET (LOAD RESET) .........................20-2
21. FAN SPEED CONTROL OF VAV-AHUS 21-1

21.1 SUPPLY/EXHAUST FAN SPEED CONTROL ......................................................................21-1
21.2 WIRING BETWEEN A VAV CONTROLLER AND VAV UNITS...........................................21-2
22. CONFIGURATION OF HEAT SOURCE SYSTEMS 22-1

22.1 HEAT SOURCE SYSTEMS ...................................................................................................22-1
22.2 COOLING LOADS AND CHILLER CONTROL SYSTEMS .................................................22-2
23. TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF HEAT SOURCE EQUIPMENT 23-1

23.1 TYPES OF HEAT SOURCE EQUIPMENT ...........................................................................23-1
23.2 COMBINATION OF HEAT SOURCE EQUIPMENT ............................................................23-5
23.3 COOLING TOWERS ..............................................................................................................23-5
24. CHILLED/HOT WATER PINPING AND HEAT SOURCE SYSTEMS 24-1

24.1 PIPING OF HEAT SOURCE SYSTEMS ................................................................................24-1
24.2 CLOSED PIPING SYSTEMS .................................................................................................24-1
24.3 OPEN PIPING SYSTEMS ......................................................................................................24-2
25. PUMPS AND PIPING SYSTEMS 25-1

25.1 RESISTANCE (PRESSURE LOSS) OF PIPING ...................................................................25-1
25.2 CHANGES IN PIPING LOSS WHEN VALVE POSITION VARIES ......................................25-1
25.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF PUMPS .........................................................................................25-2
25.4 OPERATING POINT OF A PUMP ...........................................................................................25-2
25.5 FLOW CONTROL BY A CONTROL VALVE .......................................................................25-3
25.6 FLOW CONTROL BY PUMP SPEED .....................................................................................25-3
26. PRESSURE CHARTS FOR PIPING SYSTEMS 26-1

26.1 HOW TO DRAW PRESSURE CHARTS ................................................................................26-1
26.2 HOW TO READ PRESSURE CHARTS .................................................................................26-2
27. CONTROLS FOR CLOSED HEAT SOURCE SYSTEMS 27-1

27.1 CONTROLS FOR PRIMARY-ONLY SYSTEMS ....................................................................27-1
27.2 CONTROLS FOR PRIMARY-SECONDARY SYSTEMS.......................................................27-2
27.3 STAGING CONTROL FOR CHILLERS AND SECONDARY PUMPS .................................27-2
27.4 CONTROL SIGNAL INTERFACES RELATED TO CHILLER START/STOP ....................27-4
iv
28. SECONDARY PUMP DISCHARGE WATER PRESSURE CONTROL 28-1
28.1 PURPOSE OF SECONDARY PUMP DISCHARGE WATER PRESSURE CONTROL ...... 28-1
28.2 TYPES OF SECONDARY PUMP DISCHARGE PRESSURE CONTROL .......................... 28-1
28.3 CAUTIONS FOR PARALLEL OPERATION OF CONSTANT SPEED PUMPS
AND VARIABLE SPEED PUMPS ......................................................................................... 28-5
29. CONTROL OF COOLING TOWERS 29-1

29.1 ROLES OF COOLING TOWERS .......................................................................................... 29-1
29.2 SYSTEM SCHEMATIC AND CONTROL APPLICAITIONS .............................................. 29-1
30. HEAT EXCHAGER (CONVERTER) CONTROL 30-1

30.1 TYPES AND ROLES OF HEAT EXCHANGERS ................................................................ 30-1
30.2 WATER-WATER HEAT EXCHANGER CONTROL SYSTEMS ........................................... 30-1
30.3 STEAM-TO-HOT WATER HEAT CONVERTER CONTROL SYSTEMS............................. 30-2
31. SELECTING CONTROL VALVES FOR HEAT SOURCE SYSTEMS 31-1

31.1 SELECTINGS VALVES FOR HEADER DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE CONROL IN
PRIMARY-ONLYYSTEMS ................................................................................................... 31-1
31.2 SELECTING VALVES FOR DISCHARGE PRESSURE CONTROL IN
PRIMARY-SECONDARY PUMP SYSTEMS ......................................................................... 31-2
31.3 SELECTING A MINIMUM FLOW BYPASS VALVE
IN PRIMARY-SECONDARY SYSTEMS .............................................................................. 31-3
31.4 SELECTING VALVES FOR CONDENSER WATER TEMPERATURE CONTROL
IN A COOLING TOWER ....................................................................................................... 31-4
32.SELECTING PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS AND FLOW METERS 32-1

32.1 SELECTING PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS ....................................................................... 32-1
32.2 SELECTING ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METERS ...................................................... 32-2
33. CHILLER CONTROLLERS 33-1

33.1 TYPES OF CHILLER CONTROLLERS ............................................................................... 33-1
33.2 FUNCTIONS OF CHILLER CONTROLLERS ..................................................................... 33-2
34. PUMP CONTROLLERS 34-1

34.1 TYPES OF PUMP CONTROLLERS ..................................................................................... 34-1
34.2 PUMP CONTROLLER FUNCTIONS ..................................................................................... 34-1
v
35. AN OVERVIES OF BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 35-1
36. SYSTEM CONFIGURATION 36-1

36.1 DISTRIBUTED SYSTEM ......................................................................................................36-1
36.2 INFORMATION/COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ...................................................36-1
36.3 BACnet ..................................................................................................................................36-2
36.4 PRODUCT EXAMPLE OF BMS ...........................................................................................36-5
37. SYSTEM FUNCTIONS 37-1

37.1 SYSTEM FUNCTIONS ..........................................................................................................37-1
37.2 FUNCTIONS OF MONITORING PC ....................................................................................37-3
37.3 MONITORING AND OPERATING EQUIPMENT ...............................................................37-4
37.4 ENERGY MANAGEMENT ...................................................................................................37-6
38. DESIGNING BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 38-1

38.1 DESIGNING NETWORKS ....................................................................................................38-1
38.2 DESIGNING INPUT AND OUTPUT POINTS ......................................................................38-3
38.3 DESIGNING GRAPHICS .......................................................................................................38-5
vi
01. CHARACTERISTICS OF AIR
01. CHARCTERISTICS OF AIR
GENERAL
This chapter describes the properties of air, and how HVAC (heating ventilating and air-conditioning)
systems maintain these properties at desired levels.
01.1 INDOOR AIR QUALITY (IAQ) MANAGEMENT
The purpose of HVAC system is to provide occupants with a comfortable environment through
conditioning the four properties of air; temperature, humidity, air velocity, and cleanliness, and distributing
air to rooms evenly. For example, according to a Japanese code related to indoor air quality, the
recommended conditions for properties of air for buildings with many occupants (e.g., office buildings
with 30,000 square meters or larger) are as listed in Table 01.1.
Table 01.1 Indoor air quality management requirements
Indicator Requirement
1. Air bourn particles Below 0.15 mg per 1 m3 of air
2. Carbon monoxide Below 10 ppm
3. Carbon dioxide Below 1000 ppm
4. Temperature 17 to 28
5. Relative humidity 40% to 70%
6. Air velocity Below 0.5 m per second
7. Formaldehyde Below 0.1 mg per 1 m3 of air
1) Temperature
Indicates occupants feeling of hotness and coldness, and is usually represented by dry-bulb temperature.
2) Humidity
Indicates the amount of moisture in the air and is usually represented by relative humidity. Relative
humidity is the ratio of the amount of moisture in the air to the maximum amount of moisture the air can
hold at the same temperature and pressure.
3) Air velocity
Occupants may feel uncomfortable when air velocity is higher than 0.3 m per second. High air velocity
may cause problems of difficulty to adjust body-temperature, or thermal discomfort, while low air
velocity may cause remaining harmful contaminants or respiratory discomfort. For example, a Japanese
IAQ code regulates air velocity to be below 0.5 m per second.
4) Cleanliness
Indoor air is polluted due to inhalation, smoking, combustion, or substance emitted from building
materials, therefore, it must be diluted by ventilation.
For example, the Building Management Law of Japan defines contaminants to be limited: airborne
particles, carbon monooxide, carbon dioxide, and formaldehyde.
AA-0019E 1-1
01. CHARACTERISTICS OF AIR
RETURN DUCT SUPPLY DUCT
COOLING TOWER
ROOM
RETURN AIR
(RA)
CONDENSER
WATER PIPING RETURN
EXHAUST AIR
(EA) FAN
SUPPLY AIR
(SA)
HOT WATER
PIPING
SUPPLY WATER
OUTDOOR AIR
(OA) CHILLED
WATER
PUMP HUMIDIFIER
CONDENSER COOLING COIL

WATER PUMP HOT
WATER
BOILER CHILLED WATER FILTER FAN
PIPING HEATING COIL
AIR HANDLING UNIT

REFRIGERATOR
HOT WATER
HOT WATER PUMP
Figure 01.1 Air handling system overview
01.2 FLOW OF AIR AND WATER IN HVAC SYSTEMS
1) Flow of Air
Figure 01.1 illustrates airflow from an air handling unit (AHU) to a room. Air conditioned by the AHU
is delivered to the room through the duct (SA: supplied Air). The supplied air circulates within the room,
then the part of it is exhausted to outdoor (EA: Exhaust Air), while the rest of the air returns to the AHU
for reuse of heat. (RA: Return Air). Outdoor air is brought in as fresh air to replenish oxygen supply to
the room and maintain cleanliness (OA: Outdoor Air). Thus the air circulating around the AHU system
provides a comfortable environment.
2) Flow of Water
The AHU is equipped with a cooling-coil, a heating coil, and a humidifier to condition temperature and
humidity of the air. Heat source equipment that produces and then distributes chilled or hot water to the
AHU coils includes: a chiller producing chilled water, and a hot water boiler producing hot water.
Chilled or hot water produced by heat source equipment is distributed through the chilled or hot water
piping, then removes heat from or adds heat to the air at the chilled or hot water coil to produce cold or
warm air respectively. The absorbed heat is returned to the chiller, then distributed to the cooling tower
to be dissipated to outdoor air. Thus, a HVAC system consists of AHUs; heat sources; cooling towers;
pipes and pumps to distribute water; fans and ducts to distribute air.
1-2 AA-0019E
02. PID CONTROL
02. PID CONTROL

GENERAL
PID controls are applied to control variables such as temperature, relative humidity, or pressure, and are
used for local control loops in air handling systems, therefore, proper tuning of PID parameters is a basic
engineering work for air handling systems. PID control has a long history and its theory has been
established, but for engineers its mathematical expression is usually difficult to understand. However,
today, PC-based simulation techniques have become available and help engineers to observe the system
behavior in response to changes in PID parameters or inputs.
This chapter provides practical knowledge on tuning PID parameters by Transient Response Method.
02.1 AUTOMATIC CONTROLS

This section explains how an automatic control works by an example of a room temperature control system.
The purpose of room temperature control is to match the temperature to the desired value and keep it there.
Figure 02.1 is a room temperature control system with chilled water through a cooling coil. The control
sequence of the room temperature in this example is as follows:
1) The temperature sensor (TE) measures the room temperature and then transmits an input signal
to the temperature controller (TIC).
2) The temperature controller (TIC) compares the input signal to the setpoint and then determines
an output to the chilled water valve (MV) to regulate chilled water flow.
3) Air cooled by the chilled water coil is distributed to the room, and is mixed with the room air to
change the room temperature.
If the chilled water valve opens too wide, the room temperature falls below the setpoint. If too narrow the
heat generated in the room or transmitted through the walls is not adequately removed resulting in the
room temperature above the setpoint. To keep the room temperature at the setpoint, it is required to
modulate the chilled water valve properly in response to varying room conditions. As this example, an
operation to maintain a controlled object in the desired condition is called a control, and when it is done
by devices, not manually, is called an automatic control.
.
TIC
COMPARISON
/DECISION
RA
MV
MANIPULATION
OA FAN SA TE
RESPONSE DETECTION
HEAT ENTER
ROOM INDOOR LOAD /LEAVE
Figure 02.1 Room temperature control
02.2 FEEDBACK CONTROL

As in the previous room temperature control example, a control method that compares the value of the
controlled variable, which is a result of operation, to the desired value, and then determines the value of the
manipulated variable to match the value of the controlled variable to the setpoint is called a feedback
AA-0019E 2-1
02. PID CONTROL
control or a closed-loop control. Feedback controls have various configurations and methods of
calculating the value of the manipulated variable, and the PID control is one type of feedback control.
Figure 02.2 shows a signal flow diagram for the room temperature control in Figure 02.1. This diagram,
called a block diagram, represents configurations and characteristics of control systems using
signal-processing elements and signal flows and is used for designing automatic control systems. Table
02.1 lists terms and abbreviations of these variables. Using these terms, a feedback control can be defined
as a control that changes the value of the manipulated variable to eliminate the deviation. Disturbances in a
room temperature systems include; indoor loads generated by office machinery, lighting, or occupants; heat
entering/leaving the room, and changes in outdoor air temperature or chiller water temperature.
DISTURBANCE d
CONTROLLER CONTROLLED OBJECT
SETPOINT ERROR (DEVIATION) MANIPULATION CONTROLLED

SIGNAL
SP e CONTROL
MV
MANIPULATION CONTOLLED VARIABLE
MODULE MODULE
(CHILLED WATER
OBJECT
(CONTROLLER)
VALVE) (COIL, ROOM)
MANIPULATED
VARIABLE
PROCESS
VALUE
DETECTION
PV MODULE
(SENSOR)
Figure 02.2 Room temperature control block diagram
Table 02.1 Terms of feedback control
Abbreviation Term
SP Set point (desired value)
PV Process variable (controlled variable)
MV Manipulated variable: a controller signal sent to an actuator
e Error (deviation): setpoint minus the value of a process variable
d Disturbance: External elements that disturb the control system
02.3 STEP RESPONSES IN FIRST-ORDER-LAG SYSTEMS
02.3.1 First-Order-Lag Systems

A steam heating system (Fig. 02.3) is an example of a first-order-lag system. The amount of heat leaving
the room is proportional to the temperature difference between indoor and outdoor air. The heat balance
during a short time period (dt) is;
dx
C u k ( x xo )
dt
Where:
x (C)= room temperature
u(J/min)= heat supplied
xo (C)= outdoor temperature
C(J/sec)= heat capacitance of the room
2-2 AA-0019E
02. PID CONTROL
K(J/C) = heat transmission coefficient through the wall

Room temperature reaches a stable state when the heat gain by steam is equal to the heat loss due to the
difference between indoor and outdoor temperature.
dx
0 , u k ( x xo ) .
dt
For simplicity, assuming outdoor temperature (xo) remains constant:
dx
C kx u
dt
When an input changes instantly from one value to another it is called a step-input. The output of the
step-input is called a step-response. An example of the step response is the rise in room temperature
when a steam valve opens instantly.
Substituting 1/k to k and C/k to T, the response to a unit input (u=1) is:
t

x K (1 e T
)
1
K= is called a gain. T is called a time constant.
k
When t = 0: x(0) = 0
1
When t = : x =K=
MODEL SYSTEM HEAT CAPACITANCE C
k
ROOM TEMPERATURE x
OUTDOOR AIR
SUPPLED HEAT u TEMPERATURE x0
STEAM
Figure 02.3 First order lag system

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(Explanation)
dx
C kx u
dt
By Laplace transformation:
C(s) X(s) + kX(s) = U(s)
X ( s) 1

U ( s ) Cs k
1 C
If K , T:
k k
X ( s) 1
K( )
U (s) Ts 1
1
Since for a step input: U(s) =
s
AA-0019E 2-3
02. PID CONTROL
1 1
X (s ) = K( )( )
Ts 1 s
1 1
= K( )
s 1
s
T
By Inverse Laplace transformation:
t

x(t ) = K (1 e T
)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
As in the example, a first-order lag system is a system where the relationship between an input and an
output is expressed in a first-order-linear derivative equation.
Although actual controlled systems are expressed in non-linear high order derivative equations they can be
expressed approximately by a gain, a time-constant, and a lag, and can be handled as first-order-lag
systems when applying PID control.
02.3.2 OPEN-LOOP STEP RESPONSES IN A FIRST-ORDER-LAG SYSTEM
1) Open-Loop Step Responses in First-Order-Lag Systems

The step response of a first-order-lag system (Figure 02.4 ) is commonly used to analyze the behavior of
controlled objects in PID control. As the room temperature (controlled variable) rises, the valve
(manipulated variable) opens, so this example system is a heating mode. The step-response of a controlled
variable alone is called an open-loop step response, and the step-response of a feedback loop is called a
closed-loop step response. A dead time (L) is the time between the time of the input and the time the
change of output begins. A time-constant (T) is a time between the time the change of output begins and
the time the output reaches 63.2 % of the total response. A gain (K) is the ratio of the total response to the
step-input.
T

* x(t ) K (1 e t
) K (1 e 1 ) 0.632 K
since x K , x(T ) / x 0.632
STEP INPUT
STEP RESPONSE
MAXIMUM SLOPE
INPUT BAND
OUTPUT
63.2% OF
INPUT
OUTPUT BAND
OUTPUT BAND
GAIN
TIME
DEAD TIME TIME CONSTANT
Figure 02.4 First order lag + dead time system step open loop step response
2-4 AA-0019E
02. PID CONTROL
2) Responses in various first-order-lag systems

This section explains a gain, a time constant, and a dead time by comparing responses with different
system parameters.
1. Gains:
Figure 02.5 shows responses of a controlled variable with different gains. As shown in the graph, when
the gain doubles or triples, the magnitude of the response doubles or triples respectively. The time to
reach 63.2% of a total response, or the speed of the response (time constant) remains constant. For
example, in a temperature control, a gain depends on the capacity of a coil or a heater.
STEP INPUT
THREE TIMES
OF GAIN
TIME OF REACH
63.2% UNCHANGED
OUTPUT
INPUT
TWICE OF GAIN
INITIAL GAIN
TIME
Figure 02.5 First order lag + dead time system step open loop step response with different gains
2. Time Constant:
Figure 02.6 illustrates responses of a first-order-lag system with different time constants. When the time
constant doubles or triples, the time between startup of the output and the time the output reaches 63.2%
of a total response doubles or triples respectively, but the total response remains constant. For example,
in the temperature control, the time constant relates to heat capacitance.
STEP INPUT
INITIAL
TIME CONSTANT
FINAL VALUE
OUTPUT
UNCHANGED
INPUT
THREE TIMES OF
TIME CONSTANT
TWICE OF
TIME CONSTANT
TIME
Figure 02.6 First order lag + dead time system step open loop step response with different time
constants
AA-0019E 2-5
02. PID CONTROL
3 Dead Time:
Figure 02.7 illustrates responses of a first-order-lag system for different dead time. When the dead time
doubles or triples, while the shape of the response is unchanged, the time between the time of input and the
time the response begins doubles or triples respectively. For example, in a temperature control system, the
dead time depends on duct length.
STEP INPUT
PATTEN
UNCHANGED
OUTPUT
INITIAL
INPUT
DEAD TIME
THREE TIMES
OF DEAD TIME
TWICE OF
DEAD TIME
TIME
Figure 02.7 First order lag + dead time system step open loop step response with different dead
time
02.4 PID CONTROL
02.4.1 PID control

A PID control uses a single controlled variable to determine the value of the manipulated variable.
Because PID parameters are intuitive and easy to understand, PID control is used in most control loops
in both industrial and building applications. The name PID comes from the head letters of calculation to
the deviation (e) to find the values of manipulated variables, i.e., Proportional, Integral, and Derivative..
The output signal is determined as the sum of the calculation results (Fig. 02.8). The relationship
between the amount of the deviation (e) and the value of the manipulated variable (m) is provided by the
following equation:
Kp t de
m K pe
Ti edt K
0
p Td
dt
m0
Where: m0 is a base value, or a manual reset value, of the manipulated variable (m).
ERROR MANIPULATED VARIABLE
Figure 02.8 PID control structure
2-6 AA-0019E
02. PID CONTROL
02.4.2 Proportional (P) action

A proportional action outputs a value proportional to the amount of the deviation. A proportional band
(PB%), which is an inverse of proportional gain (Kp) is usually used in lieu of a proportional gain in
controllers. In Figure 02.9, the proportional band is 10 in 50 full-span or (20% full-span). In this
case, the proportional gain is determined: Kp = 100%/20% =5. The following explains the relationship
between a proportional band and an offset. In a system with a load line (Figure 02.9), assuming when the
steam control valve output is 50% and the room temperature is 20, the heat gain and loss balance, then
if the setpoint is changed from 20 to 25, the valve opens to eliminate the 5 deviation. The
operating point moves upward on the load line, the system balances at the intersection of the control line
and load line where the manipulation output is 66.7% of the setpoint (23.3). A deviation of 1.7
between the setpoint and measured value, called an offset, remains.
CONTROL CHARACTERISTICS
LINE (2)
CONTROL CHARACTERISTICS
LINE (1) LOAD CHARCTERISITCS
LINE
OFFSET
PROPORTIONAL BAND (10C)
Figure 02.9 Offset of P-control
02.4.3 Integral (I) action

An integral action can be expressed as; dm/dt =(Kp /Ti)e
This means that the rate of manipulated variable is proportional to the amount of the deviation, and the
output signal keeps changing as long as the deviation exists. With the I-action alone, the corrective action
delays, therefore, usually the I-action is used together with a P-action to eliminate the offset which is
created by the P-action.
Figure 02.10 (a) illustrates the output of the I-action. The I-action outputs a signal that is proportional to
integral of the deviation (e), therefore if the deviation is constant, the output is linear. A reset time (Ti) is
the time between the time of a step input and the time the output reaches the output of the P-action.
AA-0019E 2-7
02. PID CONTROL
CONTROLLED
VARIABLE
ERROR
PROPORTIONAL DERIVATIVE
P-ACTION
m m
INTEGRAL PROPORTIONAL
I-ACTION
MAIPULAED VARIABLE: I-CONTROL MAIPULAED VARIABLE: D-CONTROL
D-ACTION
Figure 02.10 Reset time/rate time

02.4.4 Derivative (D) action Figure 02.11 PID manipulation output
de
m K p Td
dt
The output is proportional to the rate of the deviation, therefore the D-action quickly responds to the
changes in the deviation. The D-action does not have an ability to match the value of the controlled
variable to the setpoint, so it is used together with a P-action. Since the output of the D-action is
proportional to the derivative of the deviation (e) as shown in Figure 02.10 (b), if the changes in the
deviation is linear (a lamp change), the output is constant. A rate time is the time between the time of a
lamp input and the time the output equals the output of the proportional control. Figure 02.11 illustrates
the output of PID control in response to the changes in controlled variable (x). The P-action outputs a
manipulated variable (m) in the same direction as the deviation (e). If the deviation (e) is zero, the
manipulated variable (m) is zero. The I-action increases the manipulated variable (m) as long as the
deviation (e) is plus, and when the deviation (e) becomes minus, the manipulated variable (m) begins
decreasing. The I-action determines the output based not on the current deviation, but on accumulated
deviations, therefore, at start-up of the control, the accumulated deviation must be initialized. (=0). The
output of the D-action is minus when the deviation (e) keeps decreasing.
02.4.5 Transient responses of PID control

The transient response method is used to evaluate control performance based on the responses to a
step-input applied to a feedback loop. Figure 02.12 lists evaluation items for step responses. The purpose
of control is to stabilize the controlled variable within an allowable range as quickly as possible.
Assuming initial values are zero, recommended evaluation criteria are as follows:
Overshoot: the ratio of the peak value to the setpoint.
Overshoot time: the time between the time of an input and the first peak.
Damping ratio: the ratio of the second peak to the first peak (typically 25%).
Stabilization time: the time between the time of an input and the time at which the output reaches an
allowable range. (about 5% of the total value.)
2-8 AA-0019E
02. PID CONTROL
SETPOINT/CONTROLLED VARIABLE
COPNTROLLED VARIABLE OVERSHOOT=a1/A
DAMPING RATIO=a2/a1
STABILIZED VALUE
SETPOINT ALLOWABLE RANGE
OFFSET
OVERSHOOT TIME
STABILIZED TIME
Figure 02.12 Control performance evaluation by transient step response method

The following describes transient responses to the step change of a setpoint (Fig. 02.13), assuming the
controlled system is a first-order-lag system with the following parameters:
Gain (K) = 1.0, time constant (T) = 5.0 lag (L) = 2.0 s
(a) P-Control
Kp=1 The output is proportional to the deviation. The response starts after the dead time. The offset
remains.
Kp=2 As the gain (Kp) becomes larger, the offset becomes smaller.
Kp =3 As the gain (Kp) becomes further larger, an oscillation occurs.
(b) PI-Control
Kp =1, Ti=9s The I-action eliminates the offset.
Kp =2, Ti =6s As the reset-time becomes smaller, the control variable reaches the setpoint faster.
Kp =1, Ti = 3s As the reset-time becomes further smaller, an oscillation occurs.
(c) PID Control
Kp =1, Ti =15s, Td = 3s The D-action provides a fast rise.
Kp =1, Ti =15s, Td =3s As the rate-time becomes larger, an oscillation occurs.
Note: Theoretically the output of a derivative action is without a width and does not have energy to drive
actuators, therefore this example uses a Derivative D-action with a certain width.
(d) Tuning PID Parameters Based on Ziegler-Nichols Method.
A response by PID parameters which are determined according to Ziegler-Nichols Tuning Method is
shown in which a 25% of damping ratio is the goal.
Kp =1.2T/KL=3.0, Ti =2.0, L=3s, Td =0.5L=1.0s
AA-0019E 2-9
02. PID CONTROL
P-CONTROL
PI-CONTROL
PID-CONTROL
ZIEGLER-NICHOLS METHOD
Figure 02.13 PID transient response
02.4.6 Procedure of tuning PID parameter

PID parameters are tuned at the job site in the following steps.
1. Assuming the system is a first-order-lag system, determine a gain (K), constant (T) and dead time
(L) from an open loop step response.
2. Determine a proportional gain (K), a reset time (Ti), and a rate time (Td) according to
Ziegler-Nichols tuning method. (Table 02.2).
3. Observe the transient responses of a closed-loop output signal and tune PID parameters so that they
match the desired response in terms of speed, stability, and offset.
.
Table 02.2 Ziegler-Nichols optimal tuning rule by step response

PROPORTIONAL GAIN RESET TIME RATE TIME
CONTROL ACTION
Kp Ti Td
P T / (KL)
PI 0.9T / (KL) 3.3L
PID 1.2T / (KL) 2.0L 0.5L
2-10 AA-0019E
03. PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

GENERAL
A psychrometric chart is a basic tool for designing HVAC systems because it allows engineers to find the
condition of air and calculate the amount of energy required for changes in processes such as heating, or
cooling. HVAC systems are designed to satisfy design loads, while automatic control typically handles
system behavior in the medium load conditions. It is important to understand psychrometric charts when
designing automatic control systems to know the behavior of HVAC systems from energy conservation and
comfort viewpoint.
03.1 PROPERTIES OF MOIST AIR

(1) Configuration of moist air
Air consists of, in volume, about 75% of nitrogen, 21% of oxygen, and 1% of other gasses. In addition,
moist air includes 1 to 2% of water vapor in mass. Since the amount of moisture varies in humidification
and dehumidification processes, air without moisture, or dry air, is used for quantitative calculation of air.
For example, x kg(DA) of moisture content (humidity ratio or absolute humidity) is x kg of moisture
contained in 1 kg of dry air.
(2) Saturated air
The maximum amount of water vapor contained in moist air depends on dry-bulb temperature. The
higher the dry-bulb temperature, the more amount of water vapor can be contained in the air. The air that
contains the maximum amount of water vapor at the temperature is called saturated air.
(3) Heat of Moist Air
Heat contained in moist air is the sum of heat of dry air and water vapor. Specific enthalpy h
[kJ/kg(DA)] is defined as heat assuming the heat at 0 is zero.
h = h a +x h w (03.1)
Where:
h = specific enthalpy of moist air [kJ/kg(DA)]
ha = specific enthalpy of dry air [kJ/kg(DA)]
x = moisture content (or absolute humidity ) [kg/kg(DA)]
h w = specific enthalpy of water vapor [kJ/kg(DA)]
h a = c pa t = 1.006t
c pa = specific heat of dry air at constant pressure (kJ/kgC)
t = dry bulb temperature (C)
h w = H w +C pw t =2501+1.846t
Hw = heat of evaporation (kJ/kg)

c pw = specific heat of water vapor at constant pressure (kJ/kgC)
(4) Sensible heat and latent heat

Heat of moist air contains sensible heat that changes dry-bulb temperature and latent heat, or heat of
vaporization, that does not change dry-bulb temperature. In a cooling process, when heat is removed
from the air, a decrease in the heat of dry air lowers dry-bulb temperature, and the vapor condenses to
water but it does not affect dry-bulb temperature. Heat that should be removed in cooling or added in
heating to maintain the room temperature is called a load.
(5) Representation of Moist Air
Conditions of moist air are represented by properties such as temperature, humidity, specific enthalpy,
specific volume. Table 03.1 lists definitions of these properties
AA-0019E 3-1
Table 03.1 Properties of moist air
Property Symbol Unit Definition

Dry-bulb temperature t C Value indicated by a temperature sensor with a dry
sensing element.
Wet-bulb temperature t C Value indicated by a temperature sensor with a wet
sensing element.
Absolute humidity x kg/kg(DA) Amount of water vapor in moist air per 1 kg dry air. Also
called moisture content or humidity ratio.
Water vapor pressure Pw kPa Partial water vapor pressure in moist air
Relative humidity % A ratio in percentage of water vapor pressure of the air to

the water vapor pressure of saturated air at the same
temperature.
Dew point temperature t C Temperature of saturated air with the same vapor
pressure.
Specific enthalpy h kJ/kg(DA) Total heat of moist air per 1 kg dry air assuming the total
heat of 0 dry air is zero.
Specific volume v M3/kg(DA) Volume of moist air per 1 kg dry air.
Specific heat at constant pressure Cp kJ/kg(DA) C Heat of moist air per 1 kg dry air under constant pressure.
03.2 PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

A psychrometric chart is a plane constructed by two axis; specific enthalpy (h) on a diagonal axis and
absolute humidity (x) on a vertical axis, also it can approximately be handled as a plane constructed by
dry-bulb temperature (t) on the X-axis, and absolute humidity (moisture content) on the Y-axis. The curve
of 100% relative humidity is the saturation curve. In addition, the chart has a scale for sensible heat factor
(SHF) in the right, and a protractor for enthalpy/water ratio (u) in the upper left corner (Fig. 03.1, 03.2).
Point A in Figure 03.3 represents the condition of air on the psychrometric chart. When any two variables
are given, the condition of air is established and other properties of air can be determined from the chart.
3-2 AA-0019E
Figure 03.1 Psychrometric chart
AA-0019E 3-3
HE
A
RA T/MO
TIO ISUT
UR
ON
E
I
RV RAT
PY
E
CU TU
Y
AL
IT
SA
TH
ID
HEAT RATIO
M
EN
SENSIBLE
HU
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
IC
VE
IF
EC
TI
LA
SP
RE
DRY-BULB
Figure 03.2 Psychrometric chart structure
HE
A
RA T/MO
TIO IS UT
UR
E
DI E
MI IV
TY
HU LAT
HEAT RATIO
PY
RE
AL
SENSIBLE
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
TH
EN
IC
IF
WE
EC
T-B
SP
U LB
SP
EC
IFIC
VO
LU
ME
DEW-POINT DRY-BULB
Figure 03.3 Condition on psychrometric chart
03.3 CHANGES IN MOIST AIR

03.3.1 Heating processes
When moist air is heated by a heating coil or an electric heater, since the amount of moisture in the air
remains constant, the condition of air changes on the line with constant absolute humidity (Line 1-2) as
shown in Figure 03.4. The amount of heat required for heating is found as follows:
q = G(h 2 -h 1 )/3600 (03.2)
= c p G(t 2 - t 1 )/3600 (03.3)
Where:
G : air flow in mass [kg (DA)/h]
3-4 AA-0019E
When volumetric flow (V) is used instead of mass flow (G), substitute V/v in G.
V : volumetric flow (m3/h)
v : specific volume of air m3/kg (DA)
However, as the specific volume (v) depends on the dry-bulb temperature, volumetric flow varies before
and after a heating processes. Therefore, usually standard air, or dry air at 20, (1.2 kg of density),
which is constant in the air distribution system is used to handle the volumetric flow. As the specific heat
of the standard air is 0.83 [m3/kg(DA)], the volumetric flow converted to the standard air is:
V0=0.83G, then
V0
q= (h 2 -h 1 )/3600 (03.4)
0.83
Also, the constant pressure specific heat of moist air can approximately be handled as cp=1.006:
q = 1.21 V0 (t 2 - t 1 )/3600 (03.5)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(Example)
when
t 1 = 12 (C), h 1 = 22.9 kg/kg(DA)
t 2 = 32 (C), h 2 = 43.2 kJ/kg(DA)
V 0 = 500 (m3/h)
From (03.5):
q= 3.36 (kW)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Figure 03.4 Heating process
03.3.2 Cooling Processes

When the surface temperature of a cooling coil is below the dew point temperature of the air, water
vapor in the air condenses, and air is cooled and dehumidified. The condition of air moves toward left on
Line1-2 in Figure 03.5. The temperature at the intersection of the Line 1-2 and the saturation curve is
called apparatus dew point. Also, the length of Line 2-P divided by the length of Line 1-P is called a
bypass factor. The amount of heat required for cooling is:
q = G (h 1 - h 2 )/3600 (03.6)
AA-0019E 3-5
V0
= (h 1 - h 2 )/3600 (03.7)
0.83
Where,
G: airflow in mass kg (DA)/h
The amount of water [kg/h] removed by the cooling coil is:
L = G(x 1 -x 2 )
V0
= (x 1 - x 2 ) (03.8)
0.83
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(Example)
When:
h 1 =71.6 kJ/kg(DA)x 1 =0.0162 kJ/kg(DA)
h 2 =37.3kJ/kg(DA) , x 2 =0.0092 kJ/kg(DA)
V 0 =10000 (m3/h)
From (03.7):
q=114.8 (kW)
From (03.8):
L=84.3 (kg/h)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Figure 03.5 Cooling process
When moist air is cooled by a cooling coil, if the surface temperature of the cooling coil is above the
dew point temperature of the air, water vapor in the air does not condense, then the condition of the air
moves to the left on a line with constant absolute humidity (Line 1-2) as shown in Figure 03.5. The
amount of heat required for cooling [q(kW)]is the same as in heating:
q = G (h 1 h 2 )/3600 (03.9)
V0
= (h 1 h 2 )/3600 (03.10)
0.83
or,
q = CPG (t 1 t 2 )/3600 (03.11)
= 1.21 V 0 (t 1 - t 2 )/3600 (03.12)
3-6 AA-0019E
Where:
G: airflow in masskg (DA)/h
03.3.3 Mixing Processes

When k1 (kg (DA)) of the air at Point 1 and k2 (kg (DA)) of the air at Point2 are mixed, the condition of
the mixed air (Point 3) can be found at k2 divided by (k1+k2) distance from Point1 on Line 1-2.
k1 h1 k 2 h2
h3 = (03.13)
k1 k 2
k1 x1 k 2 x 2
x3 = (03.14)
k1 k 2
k1 t 1 k 2 t 2
t3= (03.15)
k1 k 2
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(Example)
When:
t 1 =26 (C), h 1 =52.9 kJ/kg(DA), x 1 =0.0105 kJ/kg(DA)
t 2 =32 (C), h 2 =78.8 kJ/kg(DA), x 2 =0.0182 kJ/kg(DA)
k1 : k 2 = 8 : 2
From (03.13), (03.14), (03.15):
h 3 =58.1 kJ/kg(DA), x 3 =0.0120 kJ/kg(DA), t 3 =27.2 (C)
Figure 03.6 Mixing process
AA-0019E 3-7
03.3.4 Vaporizing Humidifiers

The condition of the air moves on Line 1-2 that is parallel with the line in which the enthalpy water ratio
(u) is equal to the enthalpy of humidifying water (hw) as shown in Figure 03.7.
h=4.1867t (kJ/kg)
t: temperature of water
This line can approximately be handled as a constant wet-bulb temperature line. Enthalpy-water ratio (u)
is expressed by the following equation;
h
u=
x
Where:
h= difference of enthalpy
x= difference of absolute humidity
The required water for humidification is:
L=G (x 2 - x 1 ) (03.16)
V0
= (x 2 - x 1 ) (03.17)
0.83
Where:
L= amount of water for humidification (kg/h)
G= airflow in mass [kg(DA)/h]
(Example)
x1 =0.0067 kg/kg(DA)
x2=0.0088 kg/kg(DA)
V0 =10000 (m3/h)
From formula (03.17):
L=25.3 (kg/h)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
HE
E
RA T/MO
TUR
TIO ISU
TU
RE
SU
RAT T/MOI
IO
HEA
Figure 03.7 Vaporizing/steam jet humidification
3-8 AA-0019E
03.3.5 Steam-Jet Humidifiers

The condition of the air moves on Line 1-2 in Figure 03.7 that is parallel with the enthalpy-water ratio
of steam (hv). The amount of humidifying heat is:
L=G(x 2 - x 1 ) (03.18)
V0
= (x 2 - x 1 ) (03.19)
0.83
Where:
hv : specific enthalpy of steam for humidification (kJ/kg)
The specific enthalpy of steam is 2,674 at 100 (typical temperature for steam-jet humidifiers). The
amount of steam for humidification is found the same way as vaporizing humidifiers:
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(Example)
x =0.0060 kg/kg(DA)
x =0.0120 kg/kg(DA)
V 0 =15000 m3/h
From (03.19)
L=108 (kg/h)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
03.4 PROCESSES IN AIR HANDLING SYSTEMS

Processes of air handling systems depend on the type of system and loads. This section describes
processes in a single-duct system at the design cooling loads.
03.4.1 Sensible heat factor

(1) Definition
The sensible heat factor (SHF) is defined as follows::
qs qs
SHF
qT q s q L
Where:
qs: indoor sensible load (kW): A heat gain in the cooling mode or heat loss in the heating mode in a room
that changes the dry-bulb temperature.
qL: Indoor latent heat (kW): Load that does not change dry-bulb temperature. In the cooling mode, it is
heat of vaporization emitted by occupants, etc. In the heating mode, latent heat can be neglected.
qT: Indoor total load kW): The sum of indoor sensible and latent loads.
(2) Process Line (SHF line)
The condition of air supplied to the room must be on the line of the sensible heat factor (SHF) for the
room to maintain the desired temperature and humidity. A psychrometric chart has a SHF scale on the
right, and the reference point (+) at 26 dry-bulb temperature and 50% relative humidity. A SHF line is
given by projecting a line from the reference point to the desired sensible heat ratio on the scale, then,
drawing a line parallel with that SHF line from the point at the given temperature and humidity.
AA-0019E 3-9
03.4.2 Cooling Processes

In Figure 03.8, The sensible heat ratio SHF = qs/(qs + ql)
Where:
qs: sensible load (kW)
ql: latent load (kW)
The condition of the supply air to the room (Point 5) is on the line that is parallel with the sensible heat
factor SHF line. The relationship between the sensible load(qs) and the volume of the supply air [m3/h]
is expressed by the following equation:
q s 1.21V0 (t1 t 5 ) / 3600
The temperature difference between Point 4 and 5 is a temperature rise due to the supply air fan. The
cooling coil cools and dehumidifies the air from the mixed condition (Point 3) of return air (Point 1) and
outdoor air (Point 2) to Point 4, and the amount of heat (qc [kW]) needed for this process is:
V0
qc = (h 3 -h 4 )/3600
0.83
SUPPLY AIR
FAN
HEAT RATIO
SENSIBLE
OUTDOOR RETURN ROOM
AIR AIR
Figure 03.8 Cooling process in air handling unit

03.4.3 Heating Processes
The temperature difference between Point 5 and 6 in Figure 03.9 is small and usually can be neglected
because the temperature rise due to the fan and the heat loss in the duct cancel each other. The process in
a steam-jet humidifier or a vaporizing humidifier is Line 4-5 or Line 4-5, and the amount of heating in
heating coil is along the Line 3-4, or Line 3-4 respectively.
The amount of heating in the heating coil is:
q h =1.21 V 0 (t 4 - t 3 )/3600 (steam-jet humidifier)
q h =1.21 V 0 (t 4 - t 3 )/3600 (vaporizing humidifier)
The amount of humidifying water is:
L=G (x 5 - x 4 )
V0
= (x 5 - x 4 )
0.83
SUPPLY AIR
FAN
HEAT RATIO
SENSIBLE
HUMIDIFIER
OUTDOOR ROOM
AIR RETURN
AIR
Figure 03.9 Heating process in air handling unit
3-10 AA-0019E
03.5 PROCESSES WHEN LOAD VARIES

(1) Cooling processes (at changes in outdoor air load)
In Figure 03.10, assuming the condition in the room is at Point 1, outdoor air at Point 2, then the mixed
air is at Point 3, and the heat rise due to heat gain in the duct is negligible, the condition of air after cooled
and dehumidified is at Point 4 on Line 5-3 due to the bypass factor of the cooling coil. When the outdoor
air load increases and the condition of outdoor air moves to Point 2, with the position of the chilled water
valve unchanged, the discharge air temperature rises to Point 4, the room temperature rises to t1. The
controller opens the chilled water valve based on the temperature difference between t1 and t1,
consequently the apparatus dew point returns to Point 5, the supply air to Point 4, and the room
temperature to the setpoint (t1).
Figure 03.10 Cooling process (Outdoor air load varies)
(2) Heating Processes (at changes in outdoor air load)

In Figure. 03.11, assuming the condition of the room is at Point 1, outdoor air at Point 2, then mixed air
is at Point 3, the mixed air is heated to Point 4 by the heating coil, humidified by the steam humidifier,
then the condition of the supply air becomes Point 5. When the condition of the outdoor air becomes
Point 2, with the hot water valve position unchanged, the supply air falls to Point 5, room air at Point
1. The hot water valve opens based on the difference between t1 and t1, the discharge air returns to
Point 5, then the room temperature to t1.
Figure 03.11 Heating process (Outdoor air load varies)
AA-0019E 3-11
This blank page is added fro page layout purposes.
3-12 AA-0019E
04. SENSORS
04. SENSORS
GENERAL
This chapter provides information on commonly used sensing elements for variables in HVAC systems
such as temperature, or humidity, and how to use these sensors.
04.1 ROOM TEMPERATURE/HUMIDITY SENSORS
Room temperature/humidity sensors are wall-mounted in rooms (Fig. 04.1, 04.2). There are two types: a
sensor incorporating either temperature or humidity sensor, or both in a single case. Platinum resistance
temperature devices (RTDs) are commonly used to measure temperature. Polymer thin-film are used to
measure relative humidity.
[Locations for installation]
At 1.5 m above the floor where representative temperature or humidity can be measured.
At the location where air circulation is not disturbed by furniture or doors, and heat from office
machinery, etc., does not remain.
Note: Appropriate ambient air velocity at the installed location is 0.1 to 0.2 m/s.
Avoid locations affected by infiltration, down airflow, heat radiation from cold/hot water piping
or duct, and solar radiation.
Without oscillation
Without water spray.
Without condensation.
WALL-DIRECT
MOUNTING KIT
MOUNTING
UNIT SURFACE
Figure 04.1 Room temperature/humidity

sensor (HTY043)
Figure 04.2 Room temperature/humidity sensor (HTY043) Size
04.1.1 Platinum Resistance Temperature Devices (RTDs)

(1) Characteristics
Platinum RTDs are a mainstream of RTDs with a base resistance of 100 ohm at 0 (Fig. 04.3)
[Features]
A large output gain is available. An RTD with 100 ohms at 0 has a gain of 0.4 ohms per 1.
Good stability. Within 0.1 stability over time.
High linearity.
AA-0019E 4-1
04. SENSORS
RESISTANCE
TEMPERATURE
Figure 04.3 Platinum resistance temperature device characteristic
(2) Detection Circuit

Operations of an RTD as a combination with a controller is described as follows;
The detection circuit is a Wheatstone bridge shown in Figure 04.4. When voltage (E) is added across
Point a and b, the balancing condition is as follows:
R 1 R 4 = R 2 R 3 (04.1)
Voltage difference across Pint c and Point a, Point d and Point a are equal so the current does not flow
between Point c and d, and the the needle of the galvanometer (G) does not move.
When the resistance temperature element Rx replaces R2 as shown in Fig. 04.4 (b), the balancing
condition of the bridge becomes as follows:
R 1 R 4 = R 3 R x (04.2)
When the ambient temperature of the RTD rises, the resistance of the RTD increases,
R1R 4 < R 3 R x
then R1R4 becomes less than R3Rx. Consequently, the voltage at Point c becomes higher than at Point d,
then current I0 flows from Point c to Point d, and the needle of the galvanometer (G) moves toward plus.
If temperature is scaled instead of ampere in this galvanometer, temperature can be read.
(a)n (b)
Figure 04.4 Wheatstone bridge circuit

(3) Two-Wire and Three-Wire Temperature Sensors
This section discusses the effect of the wire resistance of an RTD. In a two-wire sensor in Figure 04.5 (a)
assuming wire resistance Rl1, Rl2, are equal to Rl , the balancing condition of the bridge is as follows:
R 1 R 4 = R 3 (R l1 +R x + R l 2 ) = R 3 (R x +2 R l ) (04.3)
4-2 AA-0019E
04. SENSORS
Where:
Rx: resistance temperature element
Since the current does not flow through Point c-Point d, current I1 flows through Point a - Point c, and
Point c - Point b, and current I2 flows through Point d - Point b, and between Point a - Point d.
Comparing to Equation 04.2, 2Rl is added to the balancing condition of the bridge, consequently a
voltage drop (I12Rl) occurs and causes an error, and does not allow longer wiring length. With a
three-wire system, as shown in Figure 04.5 (b), assuming wiring length Rl1, Rl2, Rl3 are equal, the
balancing condition of the bridge becomes as follows:
R 1 (R 4 + R l 2 ) = R 3 (R l1 + R x ) (04.4)
Where:
Rx = resistance temperature element
R l1 , R l 2 , R l 3 = resistance of wire
When the bridge is balanced, current I1 flows through Rl1, and current I2 flows through Rl2. Since the
voltage drop IRl3 due to Rl3 is included in the power supply circuit, it does not affect the balancing
condition, and allows longer wiring length. From this reason, when high accuracy for indicating and
recording of temperature is required, three-wires circuit is usually used.
racy for indicating and recording of temperature is required, three-wire circuit is usually used.
(a) (b)
Figure 04.5 Two-wire/three-wire circuit
04.1.2 Polymer Thin-Film Humidity Elements

(1) Principle (Fig. 04.6)
Moisture in the air penetrates into the upper electrode which allows water vapor to pass through, and is
absorbed in the polymer film. The amount of absorbed moisture is proportional to the relative humidity
of the air. Absorption and release of the moisture is reversible and quickly establishes an equilibrium
condition. The static-electric capacitance of the element is proportional to the amount of water
molecules that is absorbed in the polymer film in response to changes in relative humidity.
UPPER ELECTRODE
HIGH POLYMER
LEAD WIRE
LOWER ELECTRODE
GLASS PLATE
Figure 04.6 Polymer thin film element principle
AA-0019E 4-3
04. SENSORS
(2) Characteristics
[Strength]
. Quick response
. Relatively less expensive
. Easy to handle
. Reliable over time
. Small changes in characteristic over time
[Weaknesses]
. Limitations in ambient air (Table 04.1)
[Sensing range]
Relative humidity 0-100 %RH (at 15-35 C)
Accuracy 3 %RH (at 15-30 C, 30-70 %RH)
5 %RH (at 15-30 C, 20-80 %RH)
Table 04.1 Environmental tolerance of polymer thin film element
Measured environment Environmental tolerance
Environment not affecting human or animal (e.g., office) A
Cigarette particles B
Formalin (less than 100 ppm) B
Carbon dioxide (less than 2000 ppm) A
Formalin famigation (less than 400 ppm) A
Ultraviolet irradiation B
Ethylene oxide gas (less than 500 ppm) D

Anti-bacteria
Alcohol atomization C
processing
Methyl bromide (less than 200 ppm) C
Carbon tetrachloride (less than 300 ppm) C
Ozone D
Organized solvent D
Acrylic paint B
Epoxy paint B
Ulethan paint B
Hydro carbon dry cleaning solvent D
Chloride solution D
Environment containing chloride D
Flammable gas D
Condensable environment D
Legend: A: Applicable B: Applicable with a certain error C: Applicable depending on the case
D: Not applicable
4-4 AA-0019E
04. SENSORS
04.2 DUCT-INSERTION TYPE TEMPERATURE/HUMIDITY SENSORS

Measures temperature and humidity in ducts. The following are cautions for installation,
Install the sensor at location where average temperature and humidity of airflow in the duct can be
detected.
Do not install the sensor where turbulent flow occurs (e.g., immediate downstream from elbows or
dampers). Figure 04.7 shows a photograph and 04.8 a outlook of a duct-insertion type
temperature/humidity sensor.
UNIT
Figure 04.7 Insertion type
temperature/humidity sensor (HTY7803)
Figure 04.8 Insertion type

temperature/humidity sensor (HTY7803) Size
04.3 PIPE-INSERTION TYPE TEMPERATURE SENSORS

Pipe-insertion type sensors with a Pt100 ohm RTD is used to measure temperature of various fluid in pipes,
tanks, or heat exchangers for controlling, indicating, and recording purpose. (Fig. 04.9, 04.10)
[How to select]
1) Length of Sensing Elements
Select a sensing element that reaches the center of the pipe.
Note: The minimum length of insertion is 100mm, and about 50mm for mounting socket must be
considered.
2) Locations for Installation
Install the sensor at locations that meet the following conditions.
. Where water flow does not stagnate.
. Locations that meet the purpose of measurement (e.g., water flow is well mixed).
. If there are elbows, tees, valves upstream from the sensor, install the sensor a distance of 10 D
(diameter) away.
3) How to Install
In water pipes, install the sensor from above the horizontal line (to prevent water condensation on the
pipe from entering the head cover of the sensor). Figure 03.11 illustrates the installation condition of a
pipe-insertion type sensor.
AA-0019E 4-5
04. SENSORS
INSERTION LENGTH
SCREW CONNECTION
UNIT TERMINAL BOX
Figure 04.9 Pipe insertion type sensor (TY783)

Figure 04.10 Pipe insertion type sensor (TY783) Size
PULICA TUBE PULICA TUBE

SOCKET SOCKET
WELDERING WELDERING
PIPE
PROTECT TUBE
FLOW DIRECTION PROTECT TUBE
INSTALLATION ON STRAIGHT PART

INSTALLATION ON ELBOW
Figure 04.11 Pipe insertion type temperature/humidity sensor installation
04.4 PRESSURE SENSORS AND DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE SENSORS

Pressure sensors are used to measure the pressure of chilled/hot water or steam. Differential pressure
sensors are used to measure the differential pressure in ducts or headers. Although static-electric
capacitance type sensors with a silicon diaphragm are used for some type of low-differential pressure
sensors, today most of the pressure sensors and differential sensors use semiconductor distorting-gage-type
elements based on Piezzo-effect. Piezzo effect is a phenomenon in which the electric resistance of a
semiconductor gage changes when mechanical force is applied (Fig. 04.12). The resistance of a
semiconductor gage, which is deposited on a silicon diaphragm changes when the diaphragm is distorted
by pressure, and voltage changes are detected by a bridge circuit and then amplified and sent as an output
signal.
STRAIN GAUGE
WIRING
DIAPHRAM
4-6 Figure 04.12 Semiconductor distorting gage sensor principle AA-0019E

04. SENSORS
04.4.1 Low-Differential Pressure Sensors

Low-differential pressure sensors are used typically to measure static pressure in ducts or rooms. Since
atmospheric pressure drastically varies (about 950 to 1030 hPa) due to climate change, static pressure in
ducts or rooms are measured as a difference from atmospheric pressure. Also this type of sensor is used
to control differential pressure between rooms. Low-differential pressure sensors are classified into a
static electric capacitance type or semiconductor distorting gage type as shown in Table 04.2.
[Caution for installation]
To detect positive pressure, the low pressure port is open to atmospheric pressure. To detect negative
pressure, the high pressure port is open to the atmospheric pressure.
The atmospheric pressure must be measured at a location in a room that is open to outdoor air and
where the static pressure does not fluctuate due to start/stop of fans or direct wind.
To detect differential pressure between rooms pressure at one of the rooms must be controlled
constant or open to atmosphere.
Table 04.2 Duct/room micro-pressure transmitters
Product number PY8000D STD910

Principle Static electric capacitance Semiconductor distort gauge
Measuring span 0-0.05 kPa, 0-2 kPa 0-0.1 kPa, 0-2 kPa
Accuracy 1 %FS 0.1 %FS
Photo
04.4.2 Pressure Sensors and Differential Pressure Sensors

Pressure sensors and differential pressure sensors for chilled/hot water or steam are shown in Table 04.2.
[Caution for installation]
To detect pressure or differential pressure of cold fluids, install sensors with a siphon to avoid
condensation on the sensor body.
To detect steam pressure, use a siphon to prevent heat from entering the sensor body.
AA-0019E 4-7
04. SENSORS
Table 04.3 Chilled/hot water, steam pressure/differential pressure transmitters
Pressure transmitter Differential pressure transmitter

Product number PY7100A STG940 STD931
Principle Semiconductor distort gauge
Measuring span 0-2.0 MPa 0-3.5 MPa 0-0.7 MPa
Accuracy 0.5 %FS 0.1 %FS 0.1 %FS
Photo
04.5 FLOW METERS

Flow meters are used to measure flow rate of chilled/hot water or steam. Electromagnetic flow meters are
typically used for chilled/hot water. Vortex flow meters are typically used for steam. Ultrasonic flow
meters are used for both chilled/hot water and steam. Characteristics and appearance of the types of flow
meters are shown in Table 04.4 and 04.5.
(1) Electromagnetic Flow Meters
This type of flow meter detects the flow velocity based on the Faradys law of induction in which
conductive material passing through a magnetic flux induces a voltage that is proportional to the flow
velocity.
E=BDV
Where:
E= voltage
B= magnetic flux density
D= diameter
V= velocity
(2) Vortex flow meters
In downstream from a triangle pole that is placed perpendicularly to the flow in a pipe, Karmans
vortexes generate alternatively in the both sides of the triangle pole. Flow is measured by detecting the
frequency of the vortexes. (Fig.04.14)
f=S t v/d
Where:
f = frequency
v= velocity
S t =Strouhal number
d = width of triangle pole facing the flow
(3) Ultrasonic Flow Meters
When a ultrasonic wave enters a pipe from an angled direction, the difference of times for it to move
back and forth across the pipe varies with the flow rate. This type of flow meter measures flow based on
this phenomenon.
4-8 AA-0019E
04. SENSORS
l 1 1
v = ( )
2 cos t1 t 2
Where:
v : fluid velocity
l : distance between probes
:: angle of ultra sonic wave to the pipe center
t1 : travel time in forward direction
t 2 : travel time in backward direction
[Cautions for installation of flow meters]

Keep a certain length of a straight pipe up- and downstream from the flow meter.
Install the flow meter at the location where fluid is always filed and air bubbles are not generated.
Table 04.4 Characteristics of flow meters
Magnetic flow meter Vortex flow meter Ultrasonic flow meter

Water (more than 300 s/m Steam, gas, liquid Steam, gas, liquid
Fluid conductance)
Flow20%: 0.5 % of indication 1 % of indication 1 % of full span 1 % of full span

Flow20%: 0.1% of scale
Accuracy (maximum flow velocity: 0-10 m/s)
Rangeability 100:1 20:1 20:1
Pressure loss none Small none
Straight parts Upstream:5D Downstrean:2D Upstream:15-20D Downstrean:10D Upstream:10D

of piping Downstrean:5D
required
No pressure loss.
The zero-point dose not vary due to
No pressure loss.
Can measure fluid containing no movable parts.
Relatively inexpensive
contaminants.
Small pressure loss. for large size.
Characteristics Cannot measure fluid with low
Inexpensive for large size.
Needs a long straight
electric conductivity.
Needs a long straight part of piping. part of piping.
Chilled, hot water flow.

Saturated steam flow.
Chilled, hot water or
Chilled water flow received at
Condensate water. Measure steam steam.
Applications in
sub stations from DHC plants. flow at sub stations from DHC
buildings
plants.
AA-0019E 4-9
04. SENSORS
Table 04.5 Flow meters
Vortex flow meter

Flow meter Magnetic flow meter (MagneW3000)
(Vortexor3000)
Product number Detector MGG18 Converter MGG14C VXW, VFX
Measured object Chilled/hot water Steam
Integral type Separated type
Photograph
Figure 04.13 Electromagnetic flow meter principle Figure 04.14 Vortex flow meter principle
Figure 04.15 Ultrasonic flow meter principle
4-10 AA-0019E
05. CONTROL VALVES AND DAMPERS

GENERAL:
This chapter provides information on types and characteristics of valves controlling flow of chilled water,
hot water, or steam, and dampers controlling air flow and how to select valves and dampers.
05.1 STRUCTURES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTROL VALVES

Figure 05.1 describes names of components of a control valve. Control valves are classified into globe
valves moving the stem up and down and rotary valves rotating the stem to modulate the fluid flow. Table
05.1 lists characteristics and applications of the types of valves. Table 05.2 lists typical materials for valve
body and the types of valves using these materials.
PLUG STEM
BONNET
BODY
SEAT
VALVE SIZE
PORT SIZE
Figure 05.1 Control valve components names
AA-0019E 5-1
Table 05.1 Types, characteristics, and applications of control valves
Types Characteristics Primary applications

Small leakage in valve seat.
Steam.
Single-seated valve

Low allowable differential pressure.
Chilled/hot water (up to 40A
(V5053)
valve size).

Large leakage in valve seat.
Chilled/hot water (above 40A).
Globe Double-seated valve

Large permissive differential
valve (V5054)
pressure.

High allowable difference pressure.
High pressure/high differential
Cage valve (HCB)
Soft-seat specification can eliminate pressure steam, chilled/hot
leakage. water.

Compact in size compared to globe
Steam.
Two-way Electric rotary valve valves.
Chilled/hot water.
valve (Actival)
Small leakage in valve seat.

High allowable differential pressure.

Low pressure loss, large valve
Chilled/hot water
capacity.
Switching.
Rotary

A wide variety of types ranging from
large-sized pipes (above 100A).
valve Butterfly valve
two-position to proportional
Proportional control for
control. large-sized (above 100A).

Small piping space.

Good close-off characteristics.
Chilled/hot water
Ball valve (VY6300)
Low leakage.
Switching small-sized pipes
(below 50A).
Globe
Low allowable differential pressure.
Chilled/hot water in constant
valve flow control.
Mixing valve (V5065)

Chiller condenser water
Three-way
control.
valve
Rotary
Compact in size compared to glove
Chilled/hot water in constant
Diverting/mixing
valve valve. flow systems.
(Actival)

High allowable differential pressure.
Table 05.2 Body material, and applications of control valves
Material
Name Applications
symbols
CAC406 Cast bronze Ball valve
FC200 Gray cast iron Body with pressure rating JIS10K
FCD450 Nodular graphite cast iron Body with pressure rating JIS20K
SCPH2 High temperature, high pressure cast steel Body of cage valve
SCS13 or Stainless steel Body of cage valve
SCS14
5-2 AA-0019E
05.1.1 Types Classified by the Number of Ports

(1) Two-way valves
A two-way valve has one inlet port and one outlet port as shown in Figure 05.2. This type of valve can
modulate fluid flow by moving the plug up and down or rotating the plug. Two-way valves are applied
to variables flow systems in which pump power can be reduced by pump staging control or pump speed
controls. Two-way valves are used in many HVAC applications such as temperature controls for air
handling units or heat exchangers.
(2) Three-way valves

Three-way valves are classified into mixing valves and diverting valves (Fig. 05.3). A mixing valve has
two inlet ports (A and B) and one outlet port (AB) to mix the fluid flow. A diverting three-way valve has
one inlet port and two outlet ports. Most of the three-way valves are mixing valves because they are
simpler in structure and less expensive than diverting valves. Three-way valves are applied to constant
flow systems, but do not provide energy savings. Mixing valves generally can not be applied to diverting
valve applications and vice versa. If they are used wrongly, when the plug nears the full closed position,
it is pulled toward the seat, and this may cause noise, or even destruction.
FLOW
Figure 05.2 Two-way valve

MIXING DIVERTING
Figure 05.3 Three-way valve
05.1.2 Types Classified by trims
(1) Single-Seated Valves (Fig. 05.4)

Structure: A single-seated valve consists of one valve seat and one plug to regulate flow.
Characteristics: Due to a simple structure, this type of valve is most commonly used. They cannot
withstand a large differential pressure because the plug accepts the force of fluid flow in the full-closed
position so they are not appropriate for large differential pressure applications, or large sized pipes.
Leakage in the full-closed position is about 0.01 % of Cv.
(2) Double-Seated Valves (Fig. 05.5)

Structure: This type of valve consist of two valve-seats and corresponding two plugs to regulate flow.
Characteristics: Double-seated valves withstand a large differential pressure because forces on the upper
and lower plugs cancel each other, therefore products with larger size than single-seated valves are
available. Due to large leakage in the full-closed position (about 0.5% of Cv), they can not be applied to
steam applications.
AA-0019E 5-3
FLOW FLOW
Figure 05.4 Single-seated valve (V5063) Figure 05.5 Double-seated valve (V5064)
(3) Cage Valves (Figure 05.6)

Structure: This type of valve regulates fluid flow by moving a cylindrical plug.
Features: Since even in larger sizes the actuator force to close off the fluid flow is large, they can be
used in large differential pressure applications. Pressure-balance types exerts low pressure on the stem.
This type of valve generates less noise or cavitation.
(4) Rotary Valves (Figure 05.7))

Structure: This type of valve rotates the valve-stem up to 90 degrees to control the fluid flow.
Characteristics: Rotary valves suite for proportional control due to a wide control range (large
rangeability).
FLOW
Figure 05.6 Cage valve (HCB)
(5) Butterfly valves (Figure 05.8) Figure 05.7 Rotary type electric valve (ACTIVAL)
Structure: Rotates a disc around a valve-stem.
Characteristics: This type of valve is usually used as a switching valve. Butterfly valves are typically
with large valve sizes, a small pressure loss and allows large fluid flow, but the rangeability is not large.
Figure 05.8 Butterfly valve
5-4 AA-0019E
05.1.3 Flow Characteristics of Control Valves

(1) Linear characteristics
The fluid flow changes linearly as the stroke changes as shown in Fig. 05.9. The linear characteristic is
used for three-way valves.
FLOW
FLOW
STROKE STROKE
Figure 05.9 Linear characteristics Figure 05.10 Equal percentage characteristics
(2) Equal-Percentage Characteristics

In equal-percentage characteristics, the fluid flow changes equal percentage to the same change in the
stroke. This characteristic is used for proportional control of two-way valves. In a flow to heat output
relationship expressed in a graph with flow on the X-axis, and heat output on the Y-axis, changes in heat
output is small when the flow is large. Combination of the equal-percentage characteristic and the flow
to heat output relationship makes the relationship between strokes and heat approximately linear and this
provides good controllability.
05.1.4 Valve Authority and Flow Characteristics

A valve authority is a ratio of pressure drop across a valve to the pressure drop across a valve plus a coil
and is determined by the following formula:
P Pv
P=
Pv P L P
Where:
Pv : pressure drop across a valve with a valve full-open
P L : pressure drop across a coil with the valve full-open
P : Pressure drop across a valve plus a coil with the valve full-open
A valve authority affects the flow characteristics of the valve. Figures 05.12 and 05.13 show flow
characteristics for different valve authorities. Valve authorities greater than 0.5 are recommended for
good controllability.
CONTROL VALVE PIPING PRESSURE DROP
Figure 05.11 Valve authority
AA-0019E 5-5
FLOW
FLOW
STROKE STROKE
Figure 05.12 Linear characteristics Figure 05.13 Equal percentage characteristics

relating to valve authority relating to Valve authority varied
05.2 SELECTING CONTROL VALVES
05.2.1 Flow Coefficient (Cv)

Sizing is particularly important in selecting a control valve. Installing a valve with a too large size
causes a hunting or an unstable control. The capacity of a valve is represented by a flow coefficient Cv.
To determine the port size of a valve, first, calculate the Cv based on the given condition of the fluid
flow, then select the valve port size with the next larger Cv than the calculated Cv from the valve
product list.
Definition of Cv:
Flow of water in US gallon per minute at 60F with one pound per square inch pressure drop across the
valve.
Q
CV 0.7 (Q=l/min, P=kPa)
P
05.2.2 Calculating Cv
Calculation of a Cv depends on whether the fluid is water or steam.
(For water applications)
0.7 x Q
CV =
P
Where:
P: pressure difference between primary and secondary ports (kPa)
Q: volumetric flow (l/min)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(Example)
when P=30 kPa, Q=500 l/min
0.7 x 500
CV = = 63.9
30
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(For steam applications)
In general, the larger the pressure drop across a valve, the more fluid flow. However, when the pressure
drop across the valve reaches 50% of the absolute pressure at the primary port, flow does not increase
5-6 AA-0019E
further even if the differential pressure across the valve increase. Therefore the Cv is calculated
separately depending on whether or not the differential pressure (P) is larger than 50% of the primary
pressure. Usually the valve is sized so that the pressure loss is below 50% of the primary pressure.
Note: Absolute pressure: Pressure from a complete vacuum (zero), usually is denoted abs.
Gage pressure: Pressure from an atmospheric pressure.
0 kPa gauge pressure (G) = absolute pressure 101 kPa (abs)
P1
When P <
2
W W
CV = =
0.1391 P1 P2
2 2
0.1391 P ( P1 P2 )
P1
When P
2
W
CV =
0.1205P1
Where:
P1: primary absolute pressure (kPa)
P2: secondary absolute pressure (kPa)
W: mass flow (kg/h):
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(Example)
P 1 = 201 kPa, P 2 =141 kPa, W = 60 kg/h
P1
P = P 1 -P 2 = 60kPa <
2
60
CV = = 3.01
0.1391 60(201+141)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 05.3 lists typical values forP of air handler control values.
Table 05.3 P for valve selection
Name of control P
Chilled/hot water valve 30-50 kPa

Steam, humidification valve (Gauge pressure at primary side) x 0.6
Air handler
(Differential pressure between primary and secondary, or in a case open to the
Steam coil
air, gauge pressure at primary side) x 0.4
AA-0019E 5-7
05.2.3 Effect of differential pressure (P)

Differential pressure (P) used for calculating a Cv is a pressure drop with the valve full-open at design
(max) flow. Since the differential pressure across an air handling unit coil plus a control valve located at
the furthest air handling unit in a piping system is 60 to 100 kPa, a P of 30 to 50 kPa (3 to 5 m) is
used for valve sizing with a valve authority of 0.5.
Controllability and pump power depends on the P and there is a trade-off relationship between them
when selecting a control valve of the air handling unit as shown in Table 05.4. A larger P results in
more pump power, while a smaller P results in poor controllability.
Table 05.4 Effects of P in valve selection
Selected
P Calculated CV Controllability Pump running power
valve size
High Small Small Good effective flow characteristics, Increase in control valve
effective range ability, and resistance, pump head, and
controllability of a control valve. pump power.
Low Large Large Low effective flow characteristics, Decrease in control valve
effective range ability, and resistance, pump head, and
controllability of a control valve. pump power.
1. Controllability
An effective rangeability is a range ability for actual flow. Selecting a control valve with a larger Cv
than required results in a smaller effective rangeability. For example, a control valve with 50 : 1
reangeability has a 30 : 1 of effective ranageability.
2. Pump power
In direct return systems that are applied to most of the todays buildings, the pressure drop across an air
handling unit coil plus a control valve in every floor is higher than 100 kPa, therefore, the P of the
control valve can be specified to be higher than 30 to 50 kPa. While in reverse-return systems (Fig.
05.14 (b)), since the pressure drop across the control valve in ever floor is equal, the P of the control
valve must not be specified to be higher than 30 to 50 kPa.
(1) 3. Piping Systems and P
In direct return systems that are applied to most of the todays buildings, the pressure drop across an air
handling unit coil plus a control valve in every floor is higher than 100 kPa, therefore, the P of the
control valve can be specified to be higher than 30 to 50 kPa. While in reverse-return systems (Fig.
05.14 (b)), since the pressure drop across the control valve in ever floor is equal, the P of the control
valve must not be specified to be higher than 30 to 50 kPa.
AIR HANDLING UNIT AIR HANDLING UNIT
AIR HANDLING UNIT AIR HANDLING UNIT
HEATING/COOLING CHILLED/HOT HEATING/COOLING CHILLED/HOT

SOURCE WATER PUMP SOURCE WATER PUMP
DIRECT RETURN SYSTEM REVERSE RETURN SYSTEM
Figure 05.14 Direct return/reverse return piping system
5-8 AA-0019E
05.2.4 Close-Off-Rating
A close-off-rating is the maximum permissive pressure drop across the valve in the full-closed position.
The pressure difference (P) of the valve multiplied by the port area is the force exerted on the valve
stem, and when this force is less than the actuator force needed to close the valve, the valve can keep full
closed.
Note: For the close-off-rating of a three-way mixing valve, select the greater pressure drop between
either of the two inlets ports and the outlet port for a mixing valve, and the inlet port and the greater
pressure drop between either of the two outlet ports for a three-way diverting valve.
1. How to Check Close-Off Ratings
To select a control valve, check if the close-off-rating is greater than the maximum pressure drop across
a valve (Pmax) which is determined by a pressure chart. Refer to 26 Pressure Charts of a Piping
Systems, and 31 Selecting Control Valves for Heat Sources.
2. Valve Size and Close-Off Ratings
A close-off-rating of a valve depends on the actuator as well as the port size. The larger the valve size,
the smaller the close-off-rating for the same actuator.
05.2.5 Rangeability
A rangeability is a ratio of maximum flow (qmax) to minimum flow (qmin) that are controllable, and
usually is expressed as R1:1. Rangeabilities of 30:1 to 50:1 are usually used. From the definition, a valve
with a larger rangeability can control the fluid flow of a wider range.
For example, assuming the maximum controllable flow is 100l/min with a constant pressure drop, an
Actival (VY5100, rangeability 50:1) can control as low as 2l/min flow.
05.2.6 Pressure Ratings (withstanding pressure) of Control Valves

Pressure ratings are used to select a control valves that withstand given fluid pressure. They are
classified into 2K, 5K, 10K, 16K, 20K, 30K, 40K, 64K to state the maximum operating pressure
depending on body materials, conditions of flow, and fluid temperature. For selecting pressure ratings,
refer to [31 Selecting Control Valves for Heat Source Systems].
05.2.7 Cavitation and Erosion of Control Valves

Pump bypass control in an open heat source system with a thermal storage tank shown in Figure 05.15
may cause damages to control valves marked in the figure and piping downstream from the control
valves. When the fluid pressure nears the saturated vapor pressure of the fluid, bubbles are generated in
the contraction flow between the plug and seat valve. The bubbles slam into the inner wall of the valve
body or pipes, then noise or oscillations occur by the pressure generated when the bubbles collapse. This
phenomenon is called cavitaion and damages to inner wall of the valve body or pipes is called
erosion (Fig. 05.16). Whether cavitation occurs or not is determined from the following equation.
When the cavitation coefficient (kc) is greater than 0.5, cavitation can occur.
P1 P2
KC
P1 Pv
where:
K C : cavitation coefficient
P1 inlet pressurekPaabs
P2 outlet pressurekPaabs
Pv saturated vapor pressure at the fluid temperature (kPaabs)
AA-0019E 5-9
From the equation, the larger as the differential pressure across the control valve, or the lower the
downstream pressure with the same inlet pressure, the lager kc resulting in more possible occurrence of
cavitation. To use a control valve under the conditions in which cavitation can occur, the following
measures must be considered to avoid damages by cavitation-erosion,
Select materials, usually stainless steel, for the valve body and pipes that withstand bumping
pressure.
Select larger sized valve body and pipe, usually 1 to 2 size up, so that bubbles do not bump into the
valve body.
Connect two valves in series so that the pressure drop for each valve becomes lower. This is
effective especially when the pressure drop is 1 Mpa or higher.
In addition to pump-bypass valves, or pressure holding valves in the return piping of the thermal storage
systems, care must be taken when the heat source equipment is located on the roof, because pressure at
downstream from the pump-bypass valve is low and it may cause cavitation.
AIR HANDLING UNIT

HEAT PUMP
PRIMARY PUMP
SECONDARY
PUMP
CHILLED WATER CHILLED WATER STORAGE TANK CHILLED WATER

(LOW TEMPERATURE) (HIGH TEMPERATURE)
CONTROL VALVE WITH POSSIBLE CAVITATION/EROSION
Figure 05.15 Open heating/cooling system

VALE SIZE
COMPRESSED FLOW PART
CONTROL VALVE STRUCTURE
DIFFERENTIAL
PRESSURE
PRESSURE INLET PRESSURE
OUTLET PRESSURE
SATURATED STEAM PRESSURE
AT THE FLUID TEMPERATURE
CAVITY GENRATES CAVITY DIMINISHES
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
Figure 05.16 Control valve structure and pressure distribution at high

differential pressure controlled flow
5-10 AA-0019E
05.2.8 Considerations for Selecting Control Valves

Common considerations for selecting control valves are listed in Table 05.5.
Table 05.5 Consideration in valve selection
Item Considerations
Fluid flow Flow rate through coils in air handling units or heat exchangers is necessary for Cv
calculation. But it is often revised during the process from design through completion in
building projects, so acquire the latest data.
Differential pressure A P for Cv calculation should be properly determined and the valve authority should
(P) be greater than 0.5.
For water flow, determine an appropriateP based on pump heads and pressure losses in
the piping system.
For steam flow, determine an appropriateP based on the pressure upstream from the
control valve (primary-side) and the pressure required by equipment located downstream
from the valve (secondary-side).
Valve type Globe valves, motorized valves, or cage valves are usually used for proportional control of
variables, such as temperature, humidity, pressure or differential pressure. Ball valves or
butterfly valves are used for two-position control or as switching valves.
Valve seat leakage Valve seat leakage is below 0.5 % Cv for double-seated valves and below 0.01% Cv for
single-seated valves, or motorized rotary valves. For complete shut-off applications such
as steam flow, use valves for shut-off features. For steam flow, select control valves with
valve seat leakage below 0.01 % Cv.
Fluid temperature Fluid temperature must be within the allowable temperature range of the control valve. For
cold fluid below -0.5 such as brine, the body material must be SUS or SCS as means to
avoid low temperature fragility.
For saturated steam at 0.8 Mpa, and about 170, it is recommended to select stainless
steel for body material to improve reliability. (The allowable temperature is 175 for a
motorized rotary valve or globe valve with JIS10K pressure rating and FC200 body
material).
Differential pressure and When the differential pressure across the operating valve is high and the downstream
downstream pressure pressure is low (below 100 kPa), cavitation or erosion may occur. Care must be taken to
select the body size, body material, and valve type.
AA-0019E 5-11
05.3 Dampers and Actuators

Dampers are used to regulate airflow through ducts. Dampers are installed in outdoor, return, and exhaust
air ducts to control the airflow. Today, a variable air volume (VAV) unit with an integral airflow velocity
sensor are used in the outdoor air duct of a VAV air handling unit as a constant air volume (CA) unit
instead of a damper to maintain a minimum outdoor air volume during light load conditions.
1. Types of Dampers
There are two types of dampers; parallel blade dampers (Fig. 05.17(a)) and opposed-blade dampers.
Usually opposed-blade dampers are used for proportional control due to good flow controllability, while
parallel blade dampers are used for two-position control.
2. Damper Actuators
Electric direct-coupled damper actuators (Fig, 05.18) are used to actuate dampers. There are types of
damper actuators; two-position, proportional, spring-return, and high-torque. Select types that meet the
given control specification. Also, select actuators with a margin for increased torque over time. Figure
05.19 illustrates damper actuators.
PARALLEL BLADE DAMPER OPPOSED BLADE DAMPER
Figure 05.17 Air flow control damper
Figure 05.19 Damper actuator (MY9050) Size

Figure 05.18 Damper actuator (MY9050)
5-12 AA-0019E
06. STRUCTURE OF AIR HANDLING UNITS
06. STRUCTURE OF AIR HANDLING UNITS (AHUS)

GENERAL:
An air handling unit (AHU) consists of various components. This chapter gives information on functions
of these components.
06.1 COMPONENTS OF AIR HANDLING UNITS

An AHU cools, heats, humidifies, dehumidifies, cleanses, and transports air to maintain the room comfort.
The AHU shown in Figure 06.1 consists of dampers, a filter, a chilled water coil, a hot water coil, a
humidifier, and a supply fan. The system is a single-duct constant airflow system. The following describes
operations of each component along the airflow.
The outdoor air damper introduces fresh outdoor air.
The filter removes dusts and particles contained in the outdoor air.
The chilled and hot water coils remove heat from and add heat to the air.
The humidifier humidifies the air.
The supply fan delivers the conditioned air to the room through diffusers.
The return fan re-circulates air to the AHU.
The rest of the air is exhausted through the exhaust damper.
The return air is mixed with fresh outdoor air.
The AHU repeats above cycle.
Figure 06.2 through 06.5 show appearance of components of air handing units.
EXHAUST DAMPER
RETURN FAN
EXHAUST AIR (EA) RETURN AIR (RA)
RETURN AIR (RA)

RETURN DAMPER CONTROL VALVE
HUMIDIFIER
ROOM
SUPPLY AIR (SA)
OUTDOOR AIR (OA)
OUTDOOR AIR DAMPER

ROLL FILTER SUPPLY FAN
CHILLED WATER COIL HOT WATER COIL
Figure 06.1 Air handling unit structure
AA-0019E 6-1
06. STRUCTURE OF AIR HANDLING UNITS
FILTER
DAMPER
DAMPER
AUTOMATIC
ACTUATOR
REWIDER
Figure 06.2 Outdoor air damper and actuator
Figure 06.3 Roll filter
HOT WATER
COIL MOTOR
DUCT
HUMIDIFIER
FAN
Figure 06.4 Hot water coil and humidifier Figure 06.5 Supply fan
6-2 AA-0019E
07. CHARACTERISTICS AND CONTROLS OF AHUS

GENERAL
This chapter gives information on components of AHUs; fans, coils, humidifiers, economizers, and also on
basic control methods for these components.
07.1 FANS
(1) Types and Characteristics of Fans
Fans used in AHUs are classified into multi-blade fans (scirocco fans), limit-load fans, or turbo-fans.
Multi-blade (scirocco) fans are commonly used in AHUs with static pressure up to 1000 Pa. Turbo-fans
and limit-load fans are used for static pressure above 1000 Pa. Table 07.1 shows characteristics of the
multi-blade and limit-load fans.
Turbo-fans have characteristics similar to limit-load fans, but are used when higher static pressure is
required.
Table 07.1 Characteristics of multiple bade fan and limit load fans
Multiple blade fan

Limit load fan
(scirocco fans)
Blade structure
Forward-inclined blades to rotation Backward-inclined blades to rotation
Static pressure 100 1100 Pa 600 1800 Pa
Air flow 10 3000 m3/min 20 3000 m3/min
Efficiency 45 60 % 55 65 %
Shaft power As air flow increases, the shaft power When airflow increases, the shaft power
characteristics (power consumption) increases. increases, but after a peak, decreases.
Applications Low speed duct High speed duct
RESISTANCE CURVE RESISTANCE CURVE

STATIC PRESSURE STATIC PRESSURE
STATIC PRESSURE
STATIC PRESSURE
OPERATING OPERATING
POINT POINT
POWER
POWER
Characteristic curve and AXITIAL POWER AXITIAL POWER

operation point
FLOW FLOW
AA-0019E 7-1
(2) Airflow rate control

Today, airflow rate is controlled by varying fan motor speed (rotation). Three-phased induction motors
are commonly used for fans. The motor speed is varied by the electric frequency. The relationship
between the frequency and the speed is determined by the following equation:
120 f
N=
p
Where:
N= motor speed (rpm: return per minute)
f:= power frequency (Hz)
p:= number of poles of motor
Four-pole motors are commonly used for AHU fans. The motor speed is about 1500 RPM at 50 Hz and
900 RPM at 30 Hz. Actually, the speed is below a theoretical value due to slippage of the motor and the
pulley ration of a V-belt.
.
[Fan characteristics by speed control]
Fan curves (Q-Ps curves) corresponding to the speed n1 through n3 are shown in Figure 07.1. Assuming
the duct resistance curve is unchanged, as a fan speed decreases, airflow varies from Q1 to Q2, then to Q3,
fan power decreases from W1 to W2 then to W3 based on the following equations:
1. Airflow varies with fan speed. Q = f (n)
2. Static pressure varies as the square of fan speed. Ps = f (n2)
3. Fan power varies as the cube of fan speed. W = f (n3)
Where:
W= fan power
Q= air flow
Ps= static pressure
n= fan speed
Also, fan power varies with the air flow multiplied by the static pressure:
W = f ( Q Ps )
This means that fan speed control by a variable frequency drive (VFD) can reduce airflow, however if
the static pressure remains constant the fan power is not reduced sufficiently. It is necessary to reduce
the static pressure as low as possible. Since duct system resistance is proportional to the square of
airflow, fan power is reduced effectively by reducing the static pressure proportionally to the square of
airflow. (Fig. 07.3).
In constant static pressure (Ps) control, when the damper is closed, the duct resistance becomes from R2
to R3, the fan speed becomes from n2 to n3, the airflow becomes from Q2 to Q3 respectively. In the
control method that varies the static pressure setpoint, when airflow becomes from Q2 to Q3, the speed
becomes from n3 to n4 respectively. The variable static pressure control can reduce more speed at the
same airflow rate, and then provides a large reduction of the fan power. (Fig. 07.3)
7-2 AA-0019E
CHARACTERISTICS (n1)
DUCT RESISTANCE CURVE
STATIC PRESSURE
AXITIAL POWER
SPEED
FLOW
FLOW
Figure 07.1 Fan characteristic change Figure 07.2 Power characteristic change
by speed control by speed control
CHARACTERISTICS
STATIC PRESSURE CONSTANT DUCT RESISTANCE

NOMINAL OPERATING POINT
STATIC PRESSURE SPEED
STATIC PRESSURE CHANGE
FLOW
Figure 07.3 Static pressure setting and fan speed
(3) Fan speed control

Traditionally, fan speed control has been based on the duct static pressure (Fig. 07.4). Today, this type of
control is applied only to outdoor air handling units (Table 07.2). In variable air volume (VAV) AHUs,
fan speed control based on information sent from VAV units including airflow demand and damper
positions is widely used (Fig. 07.5). The VAV information-based-control first determines the fan speed
based on the sum of demand airflow of each VAV unit, then adjusts the speed based on the current
damper positions of VAV units. Since fan speed is adjusted to keep VAV unit dampers as open as
possible to reduce the resistance, VAV-information-based-fan-speed-control reduces the fan power more
than static pressure-based control.
AA-0019E 7-3
Table 07.2 Fan speed control
Fan speed control

Control method Characteristics Applications
method
Control Proportionally controls the Constant duct static pressure control does not Outdoor air
method based fan speed (PI) based on the reduce fan power significantly. handling units
on the duct supply duct static pressure. Since the duct static pressure is kept (when supply flow
static pressure constant, the control is not affected by load varies)
(Fig. 07.4) changes in other zones.
Control based Receives data from each Reduces fan speed until at least one VAV Most VAV air
on VAV VAV controller including unit damper is full open resulting in reduced handling units.
airflow (Fig. demand airflow and current fan power.
07.5) damper positions. Since the fan speed varies in response to the
Summarizes these data to load changes in a single zone, static pressure
determine the load of the at one zone can be affected by load changes
air handling unit group and in other zones.
modulates the fan speed.
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE SENSOR
Figure 07.4 Fan speed control based on duct static pressure
FLOW DEMAND
POSITION DATA
Figure 07.5 Fan speed control based on VAV information
(4) Types and Selection of Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)

There are two types of VFDs that are used in air handling equipment;, pulse width modulation (PWM),
which is commonly used in air handling systems and pulse amplitude modulation (PAM). Since PAM
features in low motor noise to electric circuits, they are used especially in retrofit jobs.
7-4 AA-0019E
07.2 COOLING AND HEATING COILS

(1) Types of coils
Coils in AHUs are classified into; cooling coils, heating coils, and cooling/heating coils as shown in
Table 07.3.
Cooling/heating coils are used in buildings in which either chilled water or hot water through the same
piping is distributed depending on seasons. Cooling coils are classified into chilled water coils or direct
expansion coils. In a direct expansion coil system, the refrigerant is compressed, condensed, expanded at
the expansion valve and the supply air is cooled when the refrigerant evaporates at the coil. Temperature
control methods include compressor staging control, fan speed control, un-loading, and proportional
control of the refrigerant valve. These controls are usually built-in the equipment.
A dry coil is a type of chilled water coils in which chilled water at relatively high temperature (13 to
15 ) is supplied to avoid the dehumidification, and is typically used for cooling in semiconductor
production rooms. Heating coils are classified into hot water coils, steam coils, or electric heaters.
Control of an electric heater by a thyrister (SCR) provides the most accurate temperature control, while
steam coils are the most difficult to control. Since electric heaters may cause fire accidents due to
overheat, protective measures must be furnished (e.g., interlocked off with the AHU off, or an alarm and
power-off at over-heat detection by a thermostat). When the hot water temperature is above 60 ,
temperature difference from the supply air is large, so precise temperature control is difficult.
Table 07.3 Coil types and easiness of control

Application Heat medium Heat medium or heat source Easiness of temperature con
Chilled water coil Chilled water (5-10 C) B
Cooling coil
Direct expansion coil Refrigerant C
Hot water coil Hot water (40-45 C) B
Heating coil Steam coil Steam (50-200 kPa) D
Electric heater Three-phased electric power A
Summer: chilled water (5-10 C)
Cooling/heating coil Chilled/hot water coil B
Winter: hot water (40-45 C)
Legend: A: the easiest to control B: easy to control C: difficult to control D: the most difficult to control
(2) Characteristics of Temperature Control for Steam Coils

Temperature control of steam coils is difficult because the temperature difference from the discharge air
temperature is large and also control is affected by steam traps. A steam trap is installed at the outlet of a
steam coil to exhaust only condensed water for an effective use of latent heat that is generated when
vapor condenses to hot water. The condensed water stored in a steam trap is exhausted by the differential
pressure between inlet and outlet of the steam trap. When steam flow is low, the system repeats the
following cycle causing the discharge air temperature of the air handling unit to become unstable and the
room temperature to exceed the permissive range.
Steam within the coil is cooled, its volume is contracted, the pressure reduces, then the condensate
tends to remain inside the coil.
Consequently the amount of steam supply reduces, the discharge air temperature decreases.
Due to the low discharge air temperature, the control valve opens, the pressure within the coil rises
again. The condensed water is exhausted, the amount of steam increases, and then the discharge air
temperature rises again.
When the discharge temperature further rises, the control valve closes, the amount of steam reduces,
then the condensed water remains within the coil.
Therefore, for precise temperature control, measures must be considered (e.g., avoiding a steam coil at
the final process of an AHU).
AA-0019E 7-5
(3) Temperature Difference between Inlet and Outlet of a Chilled Water Coil.
Figure 07.6 illustrates a heat transfer characteristic of a chilled water coil in an AHU with a constant
amount of discharge air. As shown in the graph, the less water flow, the larger the temperature difference
of water between entering and leaving the coil, conversely the more water flow, the less the
temperature difference. Selecting too large-sized control valve results in too high chilled water flow in
the full-open position and too a small temperature difference of water. Therefore control valves must be
properly sized. Also in room or return air temperature control, if the deviation from the setpoint remains,
the control valve tends to be full-open due to an integral windup, resulting in the less temperature
difference of water. In these cases, a discharge air temperature cascade control using a discharge air
temperature sensor is effective to maintain water flow through the control valve within the capacity of
the coil.
INLET/OUTLET
TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENCE
TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENCE
COOLING
CAPACITY
AIR FLOW
CHILLED WATER
INLET TEMPERATURE
INLET AIR TEMPERATURE
INLET AIR ABSOLUTE
HUMIDITY
NUMBER OF COILS
CHILLED WATER FLOW
Figure 07.6 Characteristics of air handling unit chilled water coil
07.3 HUMIDIFIERS
Typical humidifiers used in AHUs can be classified into; vaporization, direct steam-jet, and electrode
steam-jet humidifiers. To determine the control system for humidification, the type of humidifier must be
checked. Table 07.4 shows examples of control operations of typical humidifiers used in HVAC systems.
Vaporizing humidifiers are commonly used in office buildings. Direct steam-jet, or electrode steam-jet
humidifiers are commonly used for constant temperature and humidity rooms. Since control of vaporizing
humidifiers generally is two-position, vaporizing humidifiers cannot to be applied to discharge air
humidity (dew point) control where a fast response is required, but applied to room or return air humidity
control.
Table 07.4 Types and characteristics of humidifiers
Direct steam jet Electrode steam jet

Type of humidifier Vaporizing humidifier
humidifier humidifier
SPRAY NOZZLE STEAM
HUMIDIFICATION AIR STEAM
ELEMENT SUPPLY WATER ELECTRODE
CONTROL VALVE
ELECTRIC BALL VALVE
Principle
SUPPLY WATER
STEAM
Applica- Two-position control Yes Yes No
tion Proportional control No Yes Yes

Legend: Yes: Applicable, No: Not applicable
7-6 AA-0019E
07.4 TOTAL HEAT EXCHANGERS (ECONOMIZERS)

Total heat exchangers transfer both sensible and latent heat at the same time. Rotating types (Fig. 07.01)
are applied in AHUs. A rotor rotates a heat transfer element at low speed to transfer heat between exhaust
air and outdoor air passing through it. The total exchanger pre-cools and dehumidifies outdoor air in
summer, and pre-heats and humidifies outdoor air in winter using reclaimed heat from the exhaust air.
Materials of elements include; paper, fiber, aluminum, or stainless steel. A total heat transfer ratio (ihta),
is found from the following equation when the outdoor and exhaust air condition are as in Figure 07.8,
G s ( h c hD )
=
G E (hC h A )
Where:
GS = outdoor air flow (kg/h)
GE = exhaust air flow (kg/h) SATURATION CURVE
SPECIFIC ENTHALPY
SUPPLY AIR TO THE ROOM

EXHAUST AIR
OUTDOOR AIR
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
INLET
EXHAUST AIR
SUMMER
SEPARATER OUTLET
OUTDOOR AIR
SEPARATER OUTLET
EXHAUST AIR INLET

EXHAUST AIR EXHAUST AIR FROM THE ROOM FROM ROOM
ELEMENT
MOTOR ROTOR
DRY-BULB
Figure 07.7 Rotary type total heat exchanger Figure 07.8 Heat exchange of air in total heat
exchanger during summer season
AA-0019E 7-7
This blank page is added for page layout purposes.
7-8 AA-0019E
08. ROOM TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEMS

GENERAL:
To maintain the room temperature, an AHU must add heat to or remove heat from the room air to make up
the heat entering and leaving the room. To vary the amount of supplied heat, two methods are available;
varying either the supply air temperature or the volume of supply air.
08.1 HOW ROOM TEMPERATURE CONTROL OPERATES

The sensible heat loads entering or leaving the room can be determined by Equation 08.1.
q s = q i +q w +q l +q p +q e (08.1)
Where:
q s = heat supplied by the AHU
q i = heat of infiltration
q w = heat from the wall
q l = heat from lightings
q p = heat generated by occupants
q e = heat generated by equipment
The amount of sensible heat supplied by the AHU is determined from Equation 08.2. To change the
amount of sensible heat (qs) supplied to the room, there are two methods; changing either supply air
dry-bulb temperature (ts), or the volume of the supply air (Gs).
q s c p G s (t s t i ) (08.2)
Where:
c p = constant pressure specific heat of air
G s = volume of supply air

t a = supply air dry-bulb temperature
t i = room air dry-bulb temperature
AIR HANDLING UNIT
OUTDOOR AIR
Figure 08.1 Room sensible heat balance
AA-0019E 8-1
08.2 CONSTANT AIR VOLUME SYSTEMS AND VARIABLE AIR VOLUME SYSTEMS
CAV systems vary the supply air dry-bulb temperature (ts) with a constant air volume, while VAV system
vary the volume of supply air (Gs) with constant supply air dry-bulb temperature (ts). A CAV system
modulates a chilled or a hot water valve and varies the discharge air dry-bulb temperature to maintain the
room temperature. In a VAV system a VAV unit modulates its damper to regulate the volume of supply air
to rooms to maintain the room temperature. When the VAV system cannot respond to changes in the indoor
loads due to the minimum setting of VAV airflow rate, the controller resets the discharge air dry-bulb
temperature setpoint.
8-2 AA-0019E
09. TYPES OF AIR HANDLING SYSTEMS

GENERAL
This chapter provides information on characteristics of air handling systems in office buildings and an
overview of control methods.
09.1 TYPES OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS IN OFFICE BUILDINGS

In office buildings, types of air handling systems depend on the use or operations of the zones. Table 09.1
shows typical air handling systems and zones they serve. In mid-sized to large office buildings, since
characteristics of loads depend on whether the zone is interior or perimeter, separate air handling systems
are designed for interior zones and perimeter zones. For interior zones in mid-sized to large office
buildings, single-duct VAV systems are commonly applied, while in perimeter zones, various systems are
applied. Today, perimeter-less systems that reduce peripheral loads by architectural solution are
increasing.
Table 09.1 Typical air handling systems in office buildings
Application for air

Heating/cooling
Name of types handling zone Notes
medium
Interior Perimeter
Single-duct constant air volume
Single-duct variable air volume
Dual-duct variable air volume

All air
Pair-duct air handling system -
Under floor air distribution system -

Outdoor air handling unit + terminal

air handling units system
Water Fan coil unit -
Primarily applied in small
Multi-unit heat pump buildings without
Refrigerant interior/perimeter zoning
Heat pump package
09.2 SINGLE-DUCT CONSTANT AIR VOLUME (CAV) SYSTEMS

Figure 09.1 illustrates a single-duct CAV system that supplies constant air volume to the room through a
single-duct. The controller sequences a chilled water valve, a hot water valve, and a steam valve to
maintain the room or return air temperature. This system assumes zones with the same load profiles.
[Characteristics]
When a single room is served by an AHU, this system provides proper temperature, or humidity
control responding to the load.
When an AHU serves multiple rooms with different load characteristics, proper temperature control is
not provided except the room with a temperature sensor installed.
AA-0019E 9-1
Since the AHU supplies constant airflow, the system does not provide fan power savings during light
load conditions.
[Applications]
Standard floors, entrance halls, cafeterias, large meeting rooms, or halls in office buildings.
Constant temperature/humidity control in factories with an AHU serving a single room.
[Cautions for control]

Install sensors inside rooms whenever possible to measure accurate temperature or humidity.
ROOM ROOM
Figure 09.1 Singl-duct constant air handling system
09.3 SINGLE-DUCT VARIABLE AIR VOLUME (VAV) SYSTEMS

Figure 09.2 illustrates configuration of a single-duct VAV system. In this system VAV units are placed at
branches in a single-supply air duct to supply air to the room. The discharge air is maintained at a proper
temperature and each VAV unit serving a corresponding zone varies airflow rate to maintain the room
temperature. Today, VAV units equipped with a built-in air velocity sensor (Fig. 09.3) are commonly used.
[Characteristics]
Even with load variance between zones, the system provides proper temperature control.
Airflow rate is reduced as loads decrease, resulting in fan power savings.
Without means to bring in outdoor air, the amount of fresh outdoor air becomes insufficient, which
results in lower air quality.
[Applications]
These system are commonly applied in interior zones of mid to large-sized office buildings, sometimes
in perimeter zones.
[Key points for control]

When the load variance among rooms is large, the system cannot provide appropriate temperature
control. In that case, zoning plans must be changed.
When there are extremely different room temperature setpoints in rooms served by the same AHU,
it cannot provide proper temperature control, In this case, the setpoint must be reset within 1 of a
base value.
9-2 AA-0019E
ROOM ROOM
Figure 09.2 Single duct variable air volume system
DAMPER MOTOR
AIR VELOCITY
SENSOR
CONTROL PART
Figure 09.3 VAV unit with air velocity sensor
09.4 DUAL-DUCT VARIABLE AIR VOLUME SYSTEMS

Figure 09.4 illustrates a configuration of a dual-duct VAV system which has dual-duct VAV units supplying
air to rooms. This system controls the cold and warm discharge air temperature separately and the VAV
unit in each room regulates the airflow rate to maintain room temperature. This type of system is the
highest quality air handling system to achieve the desired temperature, however, since it cannot achieve
energy savings, today, these systems are rare.
[Characteristics]
Even with a load variance among rooms, the room temperature is properly controlled.
Without proper control of cold or warm air discharge temperature, a mixing loss occurs.
[Applications]
Rooms requiring high-level comfort such as executive rooms in owner-buildings.

Since a mixing loss between cold and warm air occurs, the discharge air temperature setpoints for the
cold and warm air must be reset properly to satisfy the indoor loads.
HOT AIR
MIXING BOX
COLD AIR
ROOM ROOM
Figure 9.4 Dual duct variable air volume system
AA-0019E 9-3
09.5 PAIR-DUCT SYSTEMS

A pair-duct system is a combination of a single-duct CAV-AHU for outdoor loads and a single-duct
VAV-AHU for indoor sensible load. This type of system serves interior zones of standard floors in office
buildings, and solves the problems of insufficient outdoor air during light load conditions that occurs in a
single-duct VAV systems. Each AHU properly controls discharge air temperature. The CAV-AHU supplies
constant airflow to the room, and the VAV controllers modulate the VAV unit dampers to handle indoor
loads.
[Characteristics]
Since the CAV-AHU supplies a fixed amount of outdoor air, this system maintains an indoor air
quality during light load conditions.
High first cost due to large duct spaces.
To apply outdoor air cooling, the design airflow of CAV-AHU must cover airflow required for
outdoor air cooling.
[Applications]
Standard floors in office buildings.

Discharge air temperature of a CAV-AHU must be controlled properly to prevent a mixing loss with the
VAV-AHU.
CONSTANT AIR HANDLING UNIT
MIXING BOX
ROOM
VARIBLE AIR HANDLING UNIT
Figure 09.5 Pair duct air handling system
9-4 AA-0019E
09.6 UNDERFLOOR DISCHARGE AIRFLOW SYSTEMS

Under-floor discharge airflow systems supply air to rooms through the double-layered under-floor
chambers. This type of system maintains the room temperature by controlling the discharge air at a proper
temperature and adjusting airflow through diffusers installed in the floor. Under floor systems are classified
into equivalent-pressure-chamber systems which have diffusers with a fan, and pressurized-chamber
systems which have diffusers without a fan. Pressurized-chamber systems maintain the pressure difference
between the chamber and the room within 15 to 20 Pa to supply air to the room.
[Characteristics]
The direction of the discharge airflow matches the room airflow. (Warm air flows upward in the
room.)
Diffuser can be relocated and the airflow rate is adjustable, therefore this type of system is flexible
to the load changes (e.g., addition of office machines). However, usually airflow rate is not
controlled automatically, so precise temperature control in not available.
Cold drafts may occur in the cooling periods. In that case, temperature difference between the room
and discharge air must be reduced.
When the thermal insulation of the floor is not sufficient, it may cause occupants complaint due to
longer cool-down/warm-up time, especially when distances between the AHU and the diffuser is
large.
[Applications]
Standard floors in office buildings.

Discharge air temperature is reset based on the output signal of the room temperature control and its
low limit is about 19 to avoid cold drafts.
On startup of an AHU in winter, heat is absorbed in the floor, resulting in a longer warm-up time.
CEILING PLENUM
ROOM
CEILING PLENUM
EQUAL PRESSURE
PLENUM SA
EQUAL PRESSURE PLENUM METHOD
ROOM
CEILING PLENUM
ROOM
FREE ACCESS
PRESSURED
PLENUM SA
PRESSURED PLENUM METHOD
Figure 09.6 Underfloor airflow system
AA-0019E 9-5
09.7 COMBINATION OF AN OUTDOOR AHU AND TERMINAL AHUS

Figure 09.7 illustrates a system consisting of an outdoor AHU handling outdoor loads, and small-sized
terminal AHUs handling indoor loads. Discharge air temperature of the outdoor AHU is maintained at
appropriate temperature, and terminal AHUs maintain a constant room temperature.
[Characteristics]
This type of system easily responds to varying loads in each room or zone.
This type of system needs duct spaces for outdoor air.
An outdoor AHU must operate even when only one terminal unit is operating (e.g., during overtime
hours).
[Applications]
Standard floors in office buildings or broadcast buildings.
[Key point for control]

Discharge air temperature of the outdoor air AHU must be properly reset to avoid mixing losses
between the outdoor AHU and terminal AHUs (e.g., when the room is cooling, reset the discharge
air temperature so that the outdoor AHU operates in the cooling mode).
TERMINAL AIR HANDLER
ROOM ROOM
OUTDOOR AIR PROCESSING AIR HANDLER
Figure 09.7 A combination of an outdoor air AHUunit and terminal AHUs
09.8 FAN COIL UNIT (FCU) SYSTEMS

Fan coils units (FCU) are installed under windows in perimeter zone or in ceilings of interior zones. In
office buildings, they have been used as air handling systems serving perimeter zones in single-duct CAV
systems and VAV systems. However, today the installation of FCUs are decreasing because laying water
piping inside rooms are not preferred. Fan-coil systems are classified by the number of pipes into two-pipe
and four-pipe systems. A two-pipe system has a single coil either for chilled or hot water that is switched
depending on the season. A four-pipe system has two separate coils for chilled and hot water to provide
both cooling and heating at the same time. Figures 09.8 and 09.9 show a two-pipe and a four-pipe FCU
system respectively. Control methods are classified into individual control with one controller serving one
FCU, and zone control serving multiple FCUs as a group. Characteristics of these two methods are shown
in Table 09.1.
[Characteristics]
Since the heat medium is water, a small-sized unit can handle large loads. (it is particularly effective
for warming up north-side perimeter zones in winter.)
Water piping may damage the room due to water leakage.
9-6 AA-0019E
[Applications]
Perimeter zones of standard floors in office buildings.
Individual rooms in hotels and hospitals.

When FCUs are equipped with a fan-speed switching function (high, medium, low), specification must
be checked at job meetings about signal interfaces with the FCU, mounting locations for the temperature
sensors and operator panel, and power supply.
DISPLAY
SETTING
COMMUNICATION
TO BMS
POWER
DISTRIBUTION
PANEL
START/STOP SIGNAL
INDIVIDUAL CONTROL
ZONE CONTROL
Figure 09.8 Two-pipe fan coil unit
DISPLAY
A
COMMUNICATION SETTING
TO BMA
POWER
DISTRIBUTION
PANEL
START/STOP SIGNAL
ZONE CONTROL
INDIVIDUAL CONTROL
Figure 09.9 Four-pipe fan coil unit
Table 09.2 Characteristics and applications for two-pipe, four-pipe system
Application
Characteristics
Individual control Zone control
Ether cooling or heating is available Individual rooms in office Standard floors in office
depending on that water delivered to buildings. buildings.
Two-pipe
the fan coil is whether chilled or hot Hotel guest rooms. Perimeter zones.
water.
When both chilled and hot water are Guest rooms in quality Standard floors in office
supplied, both cooling and heating are hotels. buildings.
available to meet any desired Perimeter zones.
Four-pipe temperature.
Compared to two-pipe systems, initial
and operating costs are large.
AA-0019E 9-7
09.9 MULTI-UNIT HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS

A multi-unit heat-pump-packaged air handling system (Fig. 09.10) comprises an outdoor unit with a
compressor and multiple indoor units installed in rooms and connected by refrigerant pipes to the outdoor
air unit. Today, a type of system is available in which with a single outdoor unit, some of indoor units
operate in the cooling mode, while at the same time the rest of indoor units operate in the heating mode.
Fans to bring in outdoor air are installed separately usually with a total heat exchanger.
Since this type of system does not need heat source equipment and individual operation is available, they
are used for in small to mid-sized office buildings.
[Characteristics]
Heat source equipment is not required.
Individual operation is available.
Fans to introduce outdoor air must be installed separately.
[Applications]
Small to mid-sized office buildings.

Installation of the system is done by the manufacturer, therefore, it is not included in the scope of
automatic control. If the system is monitored by a building management system, interfacing devices are
required.
OUTDOOR UNIT OUTDOOR AIR FAN
INDOOR UNIT INDOOR UNIT
INDOOR UNIT INDOOR UNIT

CONDENSER
(EVAPORATOR)
COMPRESSOR
INDOOR UNIT INDOOR UNIT INDOOR INDOOR INDOOR
UNIT UNIT UNIT
OUTDOOR UNIT
AIR HANDLING SYSTEM SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
Figure 09.10 Multiple unit heat pump
9-8 AA-0019E
09.10 HEAT PUMP PACKAGED AIR HANDLING SYSTEMS

A heat pump packaged air handling system (Fig. 09.11) consists of indoor units which incorporate a
compressor, an evaporator, a condenser; and outdoor units which incorporate a condenser, and an
evaporator, and they are connected by refrigerant pipes. Indoor unit are usually equipped with a humidifier.
Since this type of system does not need a heat source equipment and can operate individually, they are
applied to spot cooling in office buildings or restaurants.
[Characteristics]
Heat source equipment is not necessary.
Individual operation is available
[Applications]
Fire command centers in office buildings. Restaurants..

Temperature control is typically built-in.
When humidity control is required, it must be determined according to the type of humidifier.
SUMMER WINTER
SUPPLY
FAN
AUXIALLY ELECTRIC HEATER
EVAPORATOR (CONDENSER)
CONDENSER
(EVAPORATOR)
COMPRESSOR REFRIGERANT PIPING
COOLING
INDOOR UNIT OUTDOOR UNIT

SCHEMATIC
SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
Figure 09.11 Heat pump package air handling system
AA-0019E 9-9
9-10 AA-0019E
10. ONE-COIL AND TWO-COIL OF AIR HANDING UNITS
10. ONE-COIL AND TWO-COIL AIR HANDLING

UNITS
GENERAL
Air handling units are classified by number of coils: one-coil or two-coil type. This chapter describes
characteristics of these types and cautions for designing control systems.
10.1 TYPE OF AIR HANDLING UNITS BY THE NUMBER OF COILS

Figure 10.1 illustrates an air handling unit equipped with one chilled/hot water coil. Figure 10.2 illustrates
an air handling unit with one chilled water coil and one hot water coil (or steam coil). Since temperature
and humidity control methods depend on these two types, it is important to understand their characteristics
prior to designing control systems.

CHILLED/HOT WATER COIL
Figure 10.1 Chilled/hot water coil air handling unit

CHLLED WATER COIL HOT WATER COIL
Figure 10.2 Chilled water coil and hot water coil air handling unit
AA-0019E 10-1
10. ONE-COIL AND TWO-COIL OF AIR HANDING UNITS
Table 10.1 Structures and characteristics of a chilled/hot water air handler, chilled or hot water
(steam) coil air handler
One-coil AHU Two-coil AHU

Structure Chilled water flows during the cooling Has two separate coils for chilled water and
season, hot water during the heating season hot water (or steam)
through a single pipe.
Heat source Heat source provides chilled water during Heat source system must supply both
the cooling season, hot water during chilled and hot water at the same time.
heating season.
Characteristics
Low cost due to a simple structure.
High cost

Either cooling or heating is available.
Cooling and heating are always available

Duct structure and control system must
Dehumidification control is available.
enable outdoor air cooling for the cooling (Over-cooling dehumidification and
load during the hot water period. reheat is available.)
Cautions
Direct/reverse action of a controller is When a dehumidification control program
required for switching chilled/hot water. is implemented and heating source is not

Since the control valve is sized for chilled operated, the room temperature will drop
water flow, it may result in too large size without reheat, therefore, prohibition of
for hot water flow and unstable temperature dehumidification must be implemented.
control in the heating season.
10-2 AA-0019E
11. SYSTEM SCHEMATICS

GENERAL
This chapter describes how to read system schematics.
11.1 SYSTEM SCHEMATIC FOR A CONSTANT AIR VOLUME AHU

A system schematic is graphical representation of an automatic control system. Figure 11.1 is an example
of system schematic for a typical constant-air-volume air handling unit based on a DDC control. The air
handling unit has a chilled water coil and a hot water coil separately. Today usually automatic control of air
handling units are controlled by DDCs and a sequence of operation describes control details.
COMMUNICATION TO BMS
Figure 11.1 System schematic of constant air volume air handler
Sequence of operation:
1. Room temperature control

A chilled water valve, hot water valve, and outdoor air damper are proportionally controlled based on
room temperature.
HOT WATER OUTDOOR AIR CHILLED WATER

VALVE DAMPER VALVE
OPENING
FREE COOLING
MINIMUM OPENING
TEMPERATURE
HEATING FREE COOLING
SETPOINT COOLING SETPOINT
SETPOINT
2. Room humidity control

(Humidification)
A humidifier is two-position/proportional controlled based on the room relative humidity. The
AA-0019E 11-1
humidifier valve is shut off when the discharge air temperature is below the low limit.
(Dehumidification)
A chilled water valve is proportionally controlled based on the room relative humidity and reheat is
applied based on the room temperature.
CHILLED WATER
OPENING
VALVE
CONDITION
HUMIDIFIER
HUMIDITY
HUMIDIFICATION DEHUMIDIFICATION
SETPOINT SETPOINT
3. Discharge air temperature limit control

Discharge air temperature is maintained within the high/low limits to prevent condensation and cold
drafts.
4. Cool-down/warm-up control
During the startup period, outdoor and exhaust air dampers are closed and the return damper are opened
for cool-down/warm-up, and the humidifier is shut off.
5. Interlock with AHU off (Controlled objects: dampers, two-way valves, humidifier)
6. Outdoor air cooling

When outdoor air is cooling source, the outdoor air damper is proportionally controlled based on the
room temperature.
7. Communication between a building management system

(Start/stop, setting, measuring, monitoring)
Table Equipment list
Symbol Name Symbol Name
DDC Digital controller dPS Differential pressure switch
THE Room temperature/ humidity sensor H/C Hot water coil
TED Duct temperature sensor C/C Chilled water coil
MV Rotary type electric two-way valve SF Supply fan
BV Small-sized electric two-way ball Valve RF Return fan
MD Motor damper
Table Valve size
Application Fluid Flow Cv Size (A) Note
Cooling Chilled water 120 l/min 30 25 (Cv: 16)
Heating Hot water 60 l/min 30 25 (Cv: 10)
Humidification Water 50 l/min 20 Valve size is equal to pipe size
11-2 AA-0019E
11.2 HOW TO READ SYSTEM SCHEMATICS

Standard symbols that are used in system schematics. An example of schematics are shown in Figure
11.1. and typical symbols are listed in Table 11.1.
EXHAUST DUCT RETURN FAN RETURN DUCT
SHOWS COMMUNICATION POWER

TO BMS PANEL
DIRECT DIGITAL
COMMUNICATION TO BMS CONTROLLER HUTCHED SYMBOLS REPRESENT
DEVICES INSTALLED IN THE CONTROL PANEL
ELECRIC MOTOR VALVE/

INPUT/OUTPUT TO DDC DAMPER OPERATION POWER
POWER FOR SENSOR
RELAY
AC100/AC200
RETURN DUCT
POWER NOT HUTCHED MEANS

PANEL INSTALLATION IN EITHER
DAMPER MECHANICAL ROOM OR ROOM
ACTUATOR
FILTER
HOT WATER
COIL
CHILLED WATER
COIL
VAPORIZED
SUPPLY DUCT
HUMIDIFIER
AIR HANDLING CHILLED WATER HOT WATER

UNIT PIPING SUPPLY FAN
PIPING
AC24V ELECTRIC VALVE/
DAMPER ACTUATOR POWER
AC100/AC200
AC24V FOR SENSOR
Figure 11.2 How to read schematics
Table 11.1 Symbols for schematics
Symbol Code Name Symbol Code Name

TE TR
HE Room temperature (humidity) sensor Transformer
AT
THE
TED Duct insertion temperature sensor MD Damper actuator
dPS Differential pressure switch MV Motorized valve
R Relay BV Ball valve
AA-0019E 11-3
11-4 AA-0019E
12. TEMPERATURE CONTROL

GENERAL
This chapter describes a general principle of temperature control, and characteristics and logics for various
DDC-related temperature controls.
12.1 CONTROL SEQUENCE

A chilled water valve, a hot water valve, and a damper are sequenced to maintain the room temperature at
setpoint. Figure 12.1 illustrates the control sequence.
CONTROL VALVE/DAMPER OPENING (%)
FREE COOLING AVAILABLE FREE COOLING NOT AVAILABLE
HOT WATER VALVE

CHILLED WATER VALVE
OUTDOOR
AIR DAMPER
MINIMUM OPENING
(FREE COOLING NOT AVAILABLE)
ROOM TEMPERATURE
Figure 12.1 Room temperature control
12.2 EXPLANATION OF TEMPERATURE CONTROL ON A PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

For a constant-air-volume air handling unit in Figure 12.2, psychrometric charts for the cooling design load
and the heating design load are illustrated in Figures 12.3 and 12.4 respectively..
STEAM JET
HUMIDIFIER
CHILLED HOT
WATER COIL WATER COIL
ROOM
Figure 12.2 Constant air volume air handling system
(1) Cooling Processes

Figure 12.3 shows processes in the cooling mode (dehumidification and reheat). Assuming a design
sensible load (qs), and a design latent load (ql), Line 2-4 that is parallel to the SHF line is called a
process line. Point 7 on the process line is the condition of the supply air to the room. The
intersection of the process line and the saturation curve (4) is the apparatus dew point of the cooling
coil. For dehumidification, air is cooled from the mixed air (Point 3) of return air (2) and outdoor (1)
to the intersection with the saturation curve (4). Actually the air reaches Point 4 due to a bypass factor,
which is a ratio of air that bypasses the coil. The air is reheated by the hot water coil and the
temperature rises from Point 4 to Point 5. The controller adjusts the temperature difference (dt) by
AA-0019E 12-1
varying the amount of reheat to maintain the room temperature. The temperature rise from Point 5 to
Point 7 in the supply duct can be ignored.
SPECIFIC ENTHALPY
SENSIBLE HEAT FACTOR

SATURATION CURVE
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
REFERENCE POINT
SENSIBLE
HEAT FACTOR LINE
REHEAT
DRY-BULB
Figure 12.3 Cooling (reheating) process
(2) Heating Processes

Figure 12.4 shows the process in the heating mode. In the heating mode since the outdoor air is
humidification load due to low dew point, and the indoor latent load offsets a part of the
humidification load, SHF can be handled as 1 (one).
The process line is a horizontal line passing through Point 2, and the discharge air condition is on the
line. The hot water coil heats the mixed air (Point 3) of return air (2) and outdoor air (1) to Point 5. The
humidifier humidifies the air to Point 6 then the air is discharged to the room. The controller adjusts
the temperature difference between the room and discharge air by modulating the hot water valve to
maintain the room temperature. The temperature rise from 6 to 7 by the fan can be ignored due to the
heat loss in the duct. Also, in case of a steam-jet humidifier, the air moves upward on Line 5-6
(enthalpy-water ratio u=hv), while in case of a vaporizing humidifier on Line 5-6 (u=hw), and heating
process by a heating coil is on Line 3-5, or Line 3-5 respectively.
SENSIBLE HEAT FACTOR
HEAT/MOISTURE RATIO
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
SATURATION CURVE
DRY-BULB
Figure 12.4 Heating process
12-2 AA-0019E
12.3 METHODS FOR RESETTING ROOM TEMPERATURE

Cautions must be paid particularly for the method for resetting the room temperature control setpoint. In
general, the room temperature setpoint is reset from a building management system in owner buildings,
while it is reset freely by occupants in tenant buildings. Resetting by the occupant may cause extremely
high or low setpoints which may exceed the capacity of air handing system, or waste of energy, therefore
the controller usually limits the range of resetting. Typical methods for resetting are shown in Figure 12.5.
In Figure (a), the setpoint is at the center between the cooling and heating setpoints. In Figure (b), the
setpoint is at cooling setpoint. Both methods have a dead band of 2 to 4 (zero energy band) between
cooling and heating setpoints for energy savings. For example in a winter morning, the system starts in the
heating mode, then changes to the cooling mode, in this case, using a zero energy band prevents the system
from moving to the cooling mode immediately. Also, in case when interior zone are the cooling mode and
perimeter zones are the heating mode, it can reduce the mixing losses.
ZERO ENERGY BAND ZERO ENERGY BAND
VALVE OPENING
VALVE OPENING
HEATING COOLING HEATING COOLING
ROOM TEMPERATURE
HEATING SETPOINT COOLING SETPOINT HEATING SETPOINT COOLING SETPOINT
ROOM SETPOINT ROOM SETPOINT
CENTRAL SETPOINT METHOD COOLING SETPOINT METHOD
Figure 12.5 Room temperature setting
12.4 TYPES OF TEMPERATURE CONTROLS

Types of temperature controls are classified by sensor locations into room, return air, or discharge air
temperature control. Characteristics of these control methods and cautions for them are shown in Table
12.2. Select a method that meets the purpose and application of the AHU.
AA-0019E 12-3
Table 12.1 Characteristics and considerations of room temperature controls
Control name Room temperature control Return air temperature control Discharge air temperature control
Schematics
Operates based on the signal Control is based on the signal Control is based on the signal
from the temperature sensor. from the return air from the discharge air
Action
temperature sensor. temperature sensor.
A commonly used method to Assumes the return air Applied to the primary
maintain constant room temperature represents the temperature control in
temperature. room temperature. primary/secondary temperature
Characteristics The zone in which the sensor is Installation cost is lower than control system. (The secondary
installed is controlled at a room temperature control. system is room temperature
constant temperature. control)
Typically applied in a Applied to roughly control Applied in air handling systems

single-duct constant air volume room temperature, or when no with temperature control devices
air handling system. place is available to install the such as VAV units in the supply
Application sensor within the room. air duct (e.g., single-duct VAV air
volume systems, or outdoor air
handling units.)
In a large space, a large In a large space, a large A method to reset the discharge
response time causes large response time causes a large air temperature setpoint in
overshoot at startup. overshoot at startup. response to the varying loads
The measured temperature is must be incorporated to save
Considerations
higher than the room energy.
temperature and needs
adjustment.
12-4 AA-0019E
12.5 DISCHARGE AIR TEMPERATURE CONTROL

Control methods using a discharge air temperature sensor include: discharge air temperature cascade
control, and discharge air temperature compensation control. The purpose and control loops are shown in
Table 12.3.
Table 12.2 Discharge air temperature control
Control name Discharge air temperature cascade control Discharge air temperature compensation control
Prevents disturbances in chilled, hot water Prevents overshoot due to response delay in air
temperature, or pressure from affecting the room handling systems for a stable control.
Objective
temperature.
ROOM
TEMPERATURE
PREDICTION
Schematic
The room temperature controller resets the Modulates the control valve based on the assumed
discharge air temperature setpoint to maintain the room temperature calculated by the discharge air
Action
room temperature. temperature and time constant of the room.

Constant temperature/humidity air handling
Large spaces
unit.
Air handling systems with possible overshoot

Air handling unit where temperature difference due to a large response delay.
Application of chilled water must be maintained.

Air handling units with high/low limits of the
discharge air temperature.
AA-0019E 12-5
12-6 AA-0019E
13. HUMIDITY CONTROL

GENERAL
Various types of humidifiers are equipped in air handling units, and humidity control methods depend on
the type of humidifier. This chapter describes humidification/dehumidification controls for each type of
humidifier. (assuming DDC -based control).
13.1 HUMIDIFICATION CONTROL

The humidifier valve is modulated to maintain the room humidity either by proportional or two-position
control. (Figure 13.1)
CONROL VALVE POSITION
HUMIDIFIER
HUMIDIFICATION VALVE
HUMIDIFICATION SETPOINT ROOM TEMPERATURE HUMIDIFICATION SETPOINT ROOM RELATIVE HUMIDITY
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL TWO-POSITION CONTROL
Figure 13.1 Humidity control
(1) Humidification Control Systems

The type of humidifier must be checked prior to designing humidification control systems. Humidifiers
used in air handling units are classified into vaporizing, direct-steam-jet, and electrode-steam-jet
humidifiers. Direct-steam-jet and electrode- steam-jet humidifiers can apply proportional control. In
general, since control of vaporizing humidifiers is two-position, it cannot be applied in the discharge air
dew point control which allows proportional control only. Characteristics of and cautions for
humidification control methods are shown in Table 13.1. Two-position or proportional control of a
humidifier based on the room humidity is commonly used, while return air humidity control is used when
no place in the room is available to install the humidity sensor. Since steam-jet-humidifiers require fast
control response, while return air humidity control has a considerable time lag, and may cause
over-humidification in the supply duct or room, it is not recommended. In variable-air-volume air handling
units or an outdoor air handling units, a seam-jet-humidifier may cause over-humidification in the supply
duct at low airflow. Also the dry-bulb temperature drastically varies in the supply duct, so discharge air
dew point is controlled rather than relative humidity.
AA-0019E 13-1
Table 13.1 Characteristics of humidification control
Control name Room relative humidity control Return air relative humidity control Discharge dew point control
Schematics
Performs two-position, Performs two-position, proportional Proportional control based on the

proportional control based on the control based on the signal from the return signal from a discharge air dew
Action signal from the room air humidity air humidity sensor. point sensor.
sensor.
A common method to maintain the Assume the return air humidity represents Fast response prevents
constant room humidity. room humidity. over-humidification.
Characteristics
Installation cost is relatively low Two-position control is not
compared to room humidity control. allowed.
Commonly applied in a constant Applied to roughly control room Applied to systems that varies the
airflow system. humidity. supply airflow such as a variable
Application Applied when no place is available in the air volume air handling unit or an
room to install a sensor. outdoor air handling unit.
In case of a steam-jet humidifier, In case of a steam-jet humidifier,

Note overshoot at startup may be large. overshoot at startup may be large.
13.2 DEHUMIDIFICATION CONTROL

Dehumidification in an air handling unit is usually performed by cooling air to the apparatus dew point of
the cooling coil. Therefore, a heating coil in the AHU is required to reheat air after cooling. The cooling
coil valve is modulated to dehumidify air based on the greater signal between cooling and
dehumidification signals, and then the air is reheated based on the temperature control signal to maintain
the room temperature. The location of the sensor is either the room, return duct, or supply air duct the same
way as the temperature control. For an AHU without a heating coil, a control circuit to prohibit
dehumidification must be equipped to avoid too low room temperature.
HUMIDIFICAITTION/DEHUMIDIFICATION
VALVE POSITION
HUMIDIFICATION VALVE
COOLING VALVE
(DEHUMIDIFICATION)
ROOM RELATIVE HUMIDITY

HUMIDIFICATION SETPOINT DEHUMIDIFICATION SETPOINT
DEHUMIDIFICATION (COOLING), HUMIDIFICATION
HEATING AND COOLING
HEATING VALVE COOLING VALVE
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
ROOM TEMPERATURE
HEATING SETPOINT COOLING SETPOINT
HEATING, COOLING CONTROL VALVE
Figure 13.2 Dehumidification by over-cooling/reheating

13-2 AA-0019E
14. OUTDOOR AIR CONTROL

GENERAL
Outdoor air is brought in as much as possible when it is a cooling source. When outdoor air is a
cooling/heating load, the controller regulates the outdoor air as long as the CO2 is below the upper limit.
This chapter assumes a DDC-based control.
14.1 TYPES OF OUTDOOR AIR CONTROL

Outdoor air control modulates a motorized damper (MD) installed in the outdoor air duct, therefore first it
must be checked whether or not dampers are installed in the duct. Types of outdoor air controls are shown
in Table 14.1. The control sequence for outdoor air control is shown in Figure 14.1.
Table 14.1 Types of outdoor air control
Control name Outdoor air cooling Minimum outdoor air (CO2) control
When outdoor air is effective as a cooling source, When outdoor air is cooling/heating load, regulates
Purpose positively brings in outdoor air to reduce the outdoor airflow as less as possible to reduce the loads,
cooling loads. while keeping the room CO2 below the high limit.
The outdoor air duct must be sized for the design Outdoor air, exhaust air ducts are sized for the design
supply airflow. outdoor airflow.
Ducting system
When outdoor air satisfies the condition where MDs (OA, RA, EA) are controlled based on either
outdoor air can be used as cooling source (Fig. room or return air CO2.
Control strategy 14.2), MDs (OA, RA, EA) are modulated based
on either room temperature or discharge air
temperature.
FREE COOLING AVAILABLE FREE COOLING NOT AVAILABLE

VALVE/DAMPER POSITION (%)
HEATING VALVE
COOLING VALVE
OA-MD POSITION WHEN

CO2 CONTROL NOT AVAILABLE
OA-MD POSITION WHEN
CO2 CONTROL AVAILABLE
ROOM TEMPERATURE
Figure 14.1 Outdoor damper, heating valve, cooling valve during free cooling, CO2 control
AA-0019E 14-1
14.2 OUTDOOR AIR COOLING

When rooms call for cooling and outdoor air satisfies the following four conditions, the controller
determines so that the outdoor air cooling is available and modulates dampers. The effective area for
outdoor air cooling is indicated in Figure 14.2.
Outdoor air temperature is below the room temperature.
Outdoor air enthalpy is below the room enthalpy
Outdoor air temperature is above the outdoor air temperature low limit.
Outdoor air dew point is below the outdoor air dew point high limit.
The room temperature is maintained by supplying the mix of the outdoor and return (room) air with a
temperature difference (dt) to cover the indoor load.
SATURATION CURVE
ENTHALPY
ROOM RELATIVE HUMIDITY
DEW-POINT HIGH LIMIT
ROOM CONDITION
ROOM ENTHALPY
OUTDOOR AIR LOW LIMIT ROOM DRY-BULB

DRY-BUB
Figure 14.2 OA cooling effective area
14.3 MINIMUM OUTDOOR AIR (CO2) CONTROL

When the outdoor air is cooling/heating loads, the controller regulates the outdoor air as less as possible to
reduce the loads as long as the CO2 in the room or return air is below the limit. The control sequence is
illustrated in Figure 14.3. The low limit of the amount of introduced outdoor air must be equal to the
amount of exhaust air from the space, such as restrooms or hot water service rooms for an air balance. For
example, according to the Japanese IAQ code, CO2 level is recommended to be below 1000 ppm, and
usually it is 800 ppm.
DAMPER POSITION (%)
CO2 (ppm)
Figure 14.3 Outdoor air control based on CO2
14-2 AA-0019E
15. CONTROLS RELATED TO START/STOP OF AIR HANDLING UNITS
15. CONTROLS RELATED TO START/STOP OF AIR

HANDLING UNITS
GENERAL
Controls related to starting of air handling units include optimum start/stop, cool-down/warm-up control,
and interlocked control with the air handling unit off. This chapter assumes DDC-based control.
15.1 OPTIMUM START CONTROL

Air handling units in office buildings are turned on based on time schedule. In addition, optimum start
control is applied to shorten cool-down/warm-up time for energy savings. The control turns the air
handling unit is turned on so that the desired room temperature is achieved by the beginning of occupancy.
The stop-time is usually based on time schedule. The program determines todays AHU start time based on
the past temperature trends after AHU startup and the current room temperature.
ROOM TEMPERATURE
CONTROL SETPOINT
OPTIMUM START
CONTROL SETPOINT
ROOM
ROOM TEMPERATURE OCCUPANCY
AIR HANDLING UNIT START
AIR HANDLING UNIT STOP
OPTIMUM START TIME OCCUPANCY START OCCUPANCY END

TIME SCHEDULE TIME SCHEDULE
Figure 15.1 Optimum start control
15.2 COOL-DOWN/WARM-UP CONTROL

Outdoor air is shut off when it is a load during the cool-down/warm-up period. The outdoor air motorized
damper (MD) and exhaust air MD are positioned full closed, and the return air MD are positioned full open
as all-return air operation. Humidification control is prohibited because return air does not need
humidification. When outdoor air cooling is available, the outdoor air MD, and exhaust air MD, return air
MD are controlled in the same as the occupancy period.
15.3 INTERLOCK CONTORLS WITH AIR HANDLING UNITS OFF

When the air handling unit is off, the cooling coil, heating coil, outdoor air MD and exhaust air MD are
positioned full-closed. When the controller accommodates an integral control, the status of the air handling
unit is input to the controller to prevent accumulation of the output signal (integral windup) while the air
handling unit is off.
15.4 CONTROL SEQUENCE OF AIR HANDLING UNITS

DDC-based operation sequences of an AHU is shown in Figure 15.2.
The building management system sends a start/stop signal to the motor panel via the DDC through a
communication line. The motor panel starts/stops the air handling unit fan and return fan. The DDC
energizes temperature, humidity control based on the startup signal from the AHU motor panel.
AA-0019E 15-1
15. CONTROLS RELATED TO START/STOP OF AIR HANDLING UNITS
BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
COMMUNICATION LINE
TEMPERATUER HUMIDITY
CONTROL CONTROL
START/STOP
HUMIDIFICATION CHILLED
OUTPUT
OUTPUT
HOT OUTDOOR CHILLED VALVE WATER

WATER AIR MD WATER VALVE
VALVE VALVE DEHUMIDIFICATION
TEMPERATURE HUMIDITY
HOT WATER CHILLED WATER HUMIDIFCATION CHILLED WATER
VALVE OUPUT VALVE OUPUT VALVE OUTPUT VALVE OUPUT
OUTDOOR MD
OUTPUT
POWER PANEL
CHILLED WATER HOT WATER STEAM INTERLOCKED
MOTOR
AIR HANDLING SYSTEM
MOTOR
HIMIDITY TEMPERATURE
ROOM SENSOR SENSOR
RETURN FAN
SIGNAL CONVERSION MODULE

SIGNAL SELECT MODULE
HIGH SELECTOR MODULE
Figure 15.2 Air handling system operation flow chart
(2) Temperature Control

The PID module in the controller determines an output signal to sequence a hot water valve, outdoor air
MD, and a chilled water valve based on the measured room temperature. (This figure does not include
the control module that determines whether or not outdoor air cooling is available.)
(3) Humidity Control

The PID module in an controller determines an output signal to sequence a humidifier valve, and a
chilled water valve based on the measured room humidity. When the room temperature drops below the
setpoint due to dehumidification control, a hot water valve is modulated to reheat the air based on the
output of the PID module of temperature control.
(4) Interlock with the Air Handling Unit Off
A chilled water valve, a hot water valve, a humidifier valve, an outdoor air MD, and an exhaust air MD
are positioned full closed according to the signal sent from the motor panel indicating air handling unit is
off.
15-2 AA-0019E
16. CONFIGURATION AND CONTROL PROGRAMS OF DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROLLERS
16. CONFIGURATION AND CONTROL PROGRAMS

OF DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROLLERS (DDCS)
GENERAL
Today, DDCs are commonly used in HVAC systems. This chapter describes the configuration and control
methods of DDCs.
16.1 CONFIGURATION OF A DDC

Figure 16.1 is the appearance of a DDC that performs control by digital computation.
A DDC consists of inputs/outputs (I/O) modules and a control module. The input module converts signals
measured by sensors or contact signals from motor panels to digital numbers, while the output module
converts digital numbers to analog signals to actuate valves or motor dampers and sends control signals to
motor panels. The control module contains modules (operators) that perform functions, e.g., PID control,
timer, signal-reverse and signal-selection, and executes these modules periodically based on input signals,
and sends output signals to control valves or dampers through output modules. In addition, the DDC
accommodates communication protocols to talk to the other controllers or central system, modifies
programs or parameters via a data setting terminal, starts/stops AHUs, or resets temperature setpoints via
an central operator terminal.
CONTROL I/O MODULE

OPERATION
MODULE
Figure 16.1 DDC
AA-0019E 16-1
TO OTHER DDC
LEGEND
BUILDING MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM MEASURED SIGNAL INPUT
CONTROL SIGNAL OUPUT
CONTACT SIGNAL INPUT
CONTACT SGNAL OUTPUT
COMMUNICATION FILE
COMMUNICATION LINE
SUPPLY FAN
INPUT CONVERSION MODULE
OUTPUT CONVERSION MODULE

FILTER ALARM
CONTROL CALCULATION
RETURN FAN HUMIDIFIER
AIR HANDLING UNIT
INVERTER
TEMPERATURE/HUMIDITY
MODULE
SENSOR
DAMPER
TEMPERATURE/HUMIDITY
SENSOR
CONTROL VALVE
DATA SETTING FILE
OPERATOR TERMINAL
ENGENEER DATA TERMINAL
Figure 16.2 DDC configuration
16.2 CONFIGURATION OF INPUT/OUTPUT MODULES

(1) Point Types
Point types classify points including, monitoring points (e.g., motors), controlled points (e.g., actuators),
measurement points (e.g., temperature). Table 16.1 lists major point types. Compound points are
combination of multiple digital inputs or outputs. Table 16.2 describes how to use point types that are
operated or monitored by a building management system through DDCs.
16-2 AA-0019E
Table 16.1 Point type
Digital input/output
Analog input Analog output Latch ( Totalizer pulse
Digital input Momentary
a or b contact) input
AI SOP COPm Start/stop COPl TOT
Analog input Status point point Start/stop point Totalizer input
AOP CCPm CCPl
Alarm point Start/stop+ status Start/stop+ status
AO3 CAPm CAPl
SAP
Analog output Start/stop+ Start/stop+
Status+ alarm
Input / output M/M status+alarm status+alarm
type AO4
OOA
Analog output
On/off/auto
4-20 mA
AO5
HOL
Analog output
Hi/off/low
1-5 V, 2-10 V
[Symbols]
AI Analog Input COP Command Only Point
AO Analog Output HOL High/Off/Low
AOP Alarm Only Point OOA ON/OFF/AUTO
CAP Command with status and Alarm Point SAP Status and Alarm Point
CCP Command with status and COS Point SOP Status Only Point
COS Change Of State TOT Totalizer Input
m Momentary M/M Motor
l Latch
Re Remote
AA-0019E 16-3
Table 16.2 How to use start/stop, monitoring points
Command Monitoring input DDC

output decision Monitoring point
Point types Function
Status example
Start/stop Status Alarm
unmatch
Monitors status/alarm AHU fans
Start/stop1 inputs. Checks if the

(CAPm) central command
matches the status.
Does not input an Cooling/heating
alarm signal. changeover.
Start/stop2
Checks the central
(CCPm)
command matches the
status.
Monitors a status and Interlocked
an alarm. equipment (e.g.,
Status (SAP)
exhaust fans, chilled
water primary pumps)
Alarm Monitors only an Filter alarms

(AOP) alarm.
(2) Types of Input/Output Modules

Table 16.3 shows typical input/output (I/O) modules. Each I/O module has a fixed number of
input/output points for each point type. Therefore, the maximum number of I/O points in the controller is
determined by the configuration of I/O modules.
Table 16.3 Typical input/output modules
Product
Functions Point examples
number
RY5008S 8 Contact input Motor state, alarm contact
RY5008D 8 Contact output Start/stop command output to motor
RY5004P 4 Temperature input Pt resistance input (e.g, room/discharge temperature)
RY5004A 4 Voltage/current input Humidity, pressure input
RY5003F 3 Motor output Output to Control valve, MD actuator
RY5002M 2 Voltage/current output Output to fan inverter panel
(3) Connection of I/O modules

Analog Inputs and Outputs
Table 16.4 shows wiring for analog inputs and outputs.
16-4 AA-0019E
Table 16.4 Analog input/output interfaces example
Analog input (AI) Analog input (AI) Analog output (AO3)

Items
Temperature input Current input Motor output
Remote unit (RS or

CLOSE
DDC)
OPEN
External wiring
Field device
RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DEVICE
OPEN
CLOSE
CONVERTER
CONTROL MOTOR
TRANSMITTER
1. Input signal: Pt 100 ohm 1. Input signal: DC 4-20 mA 1. Control output:
2. Circuit voltage, current: DC1 2. Input impedance: 300 ohm SPST+SPST
Note V, 1 mA 2. Feedback resistance:
3. Measuring range: -20-80 C, nominal 135 ohm
0-50 C
Digital Inputs and Outputs

Table 16.5 illustrates wiring for digital inputs and outputs. The differences between momentary
contact (CAP-mo) and latched contacts (CAP-la) is shown in Table 16.5:
Momentary contacts (CAPm)
A momentary contact makes only when receiving a start/stop command, so when the motor panel
incidentally becomes power-off, the contact breaks and the motor will remain off on resumption of
power. To restart the motor, a start command should be issued from the building management
system.
Latched contacts (CAPl)
A latched contact keeps on loss of power, so it may be dangerous because a motor restarts on
resumption of power. Latched contacts are used when it is required to restart the motor on
resumption of power. Usually momentary contacts are specified.
AA-0019E 16-5
Table 16.5 Digital output, digital input wiring example
Start/stop, status, alarm (CAPm) Start/stop, status, alarm (CAPl)

Input/output item
Momentary contact Latch contact
Contact input Contact input
output output
Remote unit
(RS or DDC)
External wiring
Field device (motor panel,

distribution panel, control LOCAL REMOTE LOCAL REMOTE
OPERATIONAL CUICUIT
OPERATIONAL CUICUIT
panel)
1. Input contact for status acknowledge, use a contact of auxiliary relay (52X).
Note
2. For remote auxiliary relay (CX, TX) mount spark killer (e.g., diode)
(4) I/O Summary Forms

I/O summary forms specify attributes of points connected to DDCs (Table 16.6) including point names,
point types, whether centrally monitored or not, display symbols, measurement ranges, signal types, I/O
modules, or wiring terminals (I/O allocation).
16-6 AA-0019E
Table 16.6 Input/output point list example
Point Display
Input/
type IPD Input/output allocation
output
range
Point name Central Signal
type output
Input1 Input2
Low/
Symbol ID Symbol ID
high Slot I/O Slot I/O Slot I/O
No. No. No. No. No. No.
1 1-1 Air handler supply
CAPm 33 Off/on 106 1 9 1 10 1 1
fan
2 Normal/a
1-1 Filter alarm AOP 22 76 1 11
larm
3 1-1 Room temperature AI 1 C 24 0.050.0 Pt100 2 1
4 1-1 Room temperature

PRA 172 C 24 0.050.0
setpoint
5 1-1 Chilled water valve
AO3 13 %MV 40 0-100 M/M 3 1
output
6 1-1 Hot water valve
AO3 13 %MV 40 0-100 M/M 3 3
output
7 1-1 Room humidity AI 1 %RH 29 0-100 1-5 V 4 1
8 1-1 Room humidity

PRA 172 %RH 29 0-100
setpoint
9 1-1 Humidifier valve AO3 13 %MV 40 0-100 M/M 3 5
10 1-1 Outdoor air damper COPl 41 Off/on 106 1 3
16.3 CONTROL PROGRAM DIAGRAMS

Control program diagrams are developed by combining preprogrammed modules (operators) as readable
software document.
(1) Program Modules (Operators)
This section describes the types and functions of typical program modules.
PID: PID Module (Fig. 16.3)
Calculates the PID output of temperature or humidity control for an AHU.
SC2: Schedule Module (Fig. 16.4)
Determines the output from an input by a conversion table with an input signal on the X-axis, and an
output on the Y-axis. This module is typically used to divide a control output signal to sequence a
chilled water valve, a hot water valve and an outdoor air motor damper (MD).
SEL: Selector Module (Fig. 16.5)
Switches between input signals based on a contact signal input, e.g., an AHU on/off signal. By
connecting the AHU running status to s as a changeover signal, the PID output signal to V1, the
valve position with the AHU off to V2 (0%), the module outputs a signal to position the valve full
closed when the AHU is off.
AA-0019E 16-7
Symbol Signal name Symbol Signal name

PV Measurement signal input TI Reset time (min)
SP Setpoint TD Rate time (min)
TRK Tracking (previous input value) UR Reset value
ST Air handler status signal GAP Deviation gap
PB Proportional band DR Direct/reverse switch
(Direct:1, Reverse:0)
U Output value
Figure 16.3 PID module

V1 Input signal Y1 Value on Y axis responding to value 1 on X-axis
X1 Value 1 on X axis Y2 Value on Y axis responding to value 2 on X-axis
X2 Value 2 on X axis U Output value
Figure 16.4 Schedule module

V1 Input signal 1 S Switching signal
V2 Input signal 2 U Output value
Figure 16.5 Selector module
16-8 AA-0019E
(2) Software Wiring Diagrams

A software wiring diagram represents flows of control programs in the DDC by wiring program modules.
It includes control inputs, types of program modules, the proportional bands and reset time of PID,
parameters, output signals, etc.
In Figure 16.6, the room temperature is input to the PID module, the output signal is divided into for a
hot water valve and a chilled water valve by the SC2 module, the outdoor air damper is opened/closed
interlocked with of/off status of the AHU supply air fan.
DATA
ROOM TEMPERATURE X-AXIS-1 INPUT2
HOT WATER VALVE OUTPUT
DATA X-AXIS-2
ROOM TEMPERATURE SETPOINT
Y-AXIS-1
STATUS
PROPORTIONAL BAND
AIR HANDLING UNIT SUPPLY FAN Y-AXIS-2
RESET TIME (MIN)
DIRECT
RATE TIME (MIN)
OUTPUT SIGNAL MODULE
RESET VALUE (%)
HOT WATER
DEVIATION GAP VALVE
DIRECT/REVERSE SELECT
ROOM TEMPERATURE
MODULE
X-AXIS-1 INPUT2
OUTPUT SIGNAL
CHILLED WATER VALVE OUTPUT

X-AXIS-2
Y-AXIS-1
Y-AXIS-2
ROOM TEMPERATURE
MODULE
OUTPUT SIGNAL
CHILLED WATER
VALVE
ROOM TEMPERATURE
OUTDOOR DAMPER OUTPUT
Figure 16.6 Software wiring diagram
AA-0019E 16-9
16-10 AA-0019E
17. ELECTRIC CONTROL SYSTEMS

GENERAL
Electric control systems are simple systems that use an electric controller (thermostat, etc.,) and are applied
to temperature/humidity control of office rooms, warehouses, electric rooms, mechanical rooms in
mid-sized to large buildings.
17.1 SYSTEM SCHEMATICS

Figure 17.1 is a system schematic of an electric control system for a constant air volume AHU system. In
this system, since the AHU is equipped with a single coil used for both chilled water and hot water, the
room temperature controller should be switched between cooling and heating modes. For that purpose, this
system uses two temperature controllers to be switched by a seasonal changeover signal from the central.
(For details of the circuit, see [17.3 Control Circuits and Actions])
SYMBOL NAME MODEL

ROOM TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER
ROOM HUMIDITY CONTROLLER
COOLING/HEATING
SWITCH
MOTOR VALVE
FILTER ELECTRIC BALL VALVE
ALARM
DAMPER ACTUATOR MY6050A
TRANSFORMER
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE SWITCH
AXILIARY RELAY
SWITCH
TIMER
ROOM TEMPERATURE CONTROL

ROOM HUMIDITY CONTROL
(VAPORIZATION HUMIDIFIER) (TWO-POSITION)
PRE-COOLING/HEATING CONTROL
(MD FULL CLOSE, HUMIDIFIER OFF)
AIR HANDLER OFF INTERLOCK CONTROL
(MV.MD FULL CLOSE, HUMIDIFIER OFF)
Figure 17.1 Electric controller schematic of constant air flow air handler
17.2 ELECTRIC CONTROLLERS

(1) Principle
The electric controller shown in Figure 17.2, has a built-in sensing element that measures the value
of the controlled variable (e.g., a bellows or a diaphragm for temperature; a nylon ribbon for
humidity), drives the actuator based on the position of the potentiometer or a micro-switch contact
signal. Electric controllers are less expensive, but control accuracy is low.
SETTING SCREW
BALANCING LEVER POTENTIOMETER
POINT
TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE
MICRO-SWITCH
BELLOWS
TWO-POSITION ACTION PROPORTIONAL ACTION
Figure 17.2 Electric controller principle
AA-0019E 17-1
(2) Wiring Connection and Operations

The actuator (E-motor) has a driving motor and a balancing relay, and performs proportional control
based on a 135-ohm resistance input. Figure 17.3 illustrates a wiring diagram of an electric actuator
(control motor). When the resistance between W and R in the potentiometer of the controller decreases,
the current through the close-side of the balancing relay increases, the close-side contact makes, and
then the driving motor rotates toward closed. The wiper integral with the motor shaft moves across the
feedback potentiometer toward closed and then the close-side resistance decreases. When the increase in
resistance of the open-side of the feedback potentiometer becomes equal to the decrease in WR
resistance of controller potentiometer, the currents flowing through the open-coil and close-coil are
equal, and then the driving motor stops at that point. Thus this bridge circuit varies the position of the
control valve proportionally with the resistance of the temperature controller.
PROPORTINAL TEMPERATURE
CONTROLLER
TEMPERATURE
RISE
BALANCING RELAY
TRANSFORMER
CLOSE OPEN POWER
LIMIT LIMIT
BLUE WHITE
CONDENSER
DRIVING MOTOR
ELECTRIC ACTUATOR
(CONTROL MOTOR)
YELLOW WHITE
CLOSE OPEN
COIL COIL
RED
OPEN CLOSE
FEEDBACK POTENTIOMETER
Figure 17.3 Electric actuator (control motor) wiring diagram
17.3 CONTROL PANEL CIRCUITS AND OPERATIONS

Figure 17.4 is a control panel circuit drawing for the system schematic in Figure 17.1. The functions of
circuits are as follows;
Circuit Power Lamp Circuit
The control panel is powered by voltage of 100V ac, 50 Hz. The panel enclosure is grounded. When the
panel is powered, the white lamp (WL) lights on.
Circuit Power On/Off Circuit
When the circuit breaker (CB) is switched on, the circuit will be powered. The circuit breaker CB is a
safety measure to automatically shut off the circuit when downstream circuits shorts.
Circuit Fan Interlock Circuit
The interlock relay X1 and the timer TLR1 are energized by a signal of the air handling unit fan turned
on.
Circuit Room Temperature Control Circuit
Supplies 24V ac power to the motorized valve (MV) to be controlled by the room temperature controller
17-2 AA-0019E
(thermostat) (T). The thermostat is switched between cooling and heating modes by the contact of
cooling/heating switching signal relay (X4) in the circuit . When the AHU fan is off, the interlock
contact X1 breaks and positions the control valve MV full-closed.
Circuit Humidifier Control Circuit
The humidifier is turned on or off by the room humidity controller (H). The humidifier turns on when the
contact of the relay X5 makes. (when the system shuts off outdoor air, the humidifier must be off
because humidification is not needed.)
Since the contact of the room humidity controller cannot directly turn on or off the humidifier, the signal
is amplified by the relay X2.
Circuit Cooling/Heating Changeover Circuit from the Central
The cooling/heating mode changeover command is sent from the central as momentary contacts
(CCP-mo) to relay CX and TX. When the system is switched to cooling, the contact of CX makes, then
X3 and X4 makes and self-hold. The contact of relay X4 is used to switch between cooling and heating
of the temperature controller in the circuit . When the system is switched to heating, the relay TX is
energized, the contact TX of the self-holding circuit breaks, and then X3 and X4 are de-energized.
Circuit Interlock OA Damper and Humidifier Control during the Cool-down/Warm-up Periods.
During cool-down/warm-up period after the AHU is turned on, the switch SW is switched to the timer
TLR1 to shut off the OA damper and the humidifier. When the system open the OA damper and turns on
humidifier during the cool-down/warm-up periods the switch (SW) is reversed.
Circuit Filter Clogging Alarm Circuit
A filter clogging alarm is detected based on the differential pressure across the filter. Since it may
generate false alarms, when the air handling fan is turned on or off, the alarm is generated when the
alarm remains for 30 seconds-timer.
Circuit Outdoor Air Open/Close Circuit
Opens/closes the motorized damper (MD) by the contact of the relay X5 in the circuit .
HEATING COOLING
FAN INTERLOCK
EARTH
HUMIDIFIER
COOLING/HEATING SWITCH FROM BMS
FILTER ALARM TO BMS MY6050A
Figure 17.4 Electric control panel circuit diagram
AA-0019E 17-3
17-4 AA-0019E
18. ELECTRONIC CONTROL SYSTEMS

GENERAL
Electronic control systems use single loop electronic controllers. Due to easy-to-use and a high control
accuracy features, electronic control systems are used for simple AHU control systems in office buildings,
clean rooms or constant temperature/humidity controls in factories. This chapter describes functions of
electronic controllers.
18.1 SYSTEM SCHEMATICS

Figure 18.1 is an electronic system schematic for a constant air volume AHU system. Since this is a single
coil system the temperature controller switches between cooling and heating modes. In this system the
season changeover is based on a signal from a building management system. (See [18.3 Control panel
circuit and operations])
SYMBOL NAME MODEL

ROOM TEMPERATURE SENSOR
ROOM HUMIDITY CONTROLLER
COOLING/HEATING TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER
SWITCH
MOTOR VALVE
FILTER
ALARM ELECTRIC BALL VALVE
DAMPER ACTUATOR MY6050A
TRANSFORMER
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE SWITCH
AXILIARY RELAY
SWITCH
TIMER

(PROPORTIONAL)
ROOM HUMIDITY CONTROL
(VAPORIZATION HUMIDIFIER) (TWO-POSITION)
(MD FULL CLOSE, HUMIDIFIER OFF)
AIR HANDLER OFF INTERLOCK CONTROL
(MV.MD FULL CLOSE, HUMIDIFIER OFF)
Figure 18.1 Electronic controller schematic of constant air volume air handling unit
18.2 CONFIGURATION OF ELECTRONIC CONTROLLERS

Until the early 1990s, controllers with analog electronic circuits are called electronic controllers, and
systems using them were called electronic control systems. Today, controllers with analog electronic
circuits are not used in new buildings, and these controllers have become micro-processor-based, but since
appearance of microprocessor-based controllers look the same as analog circuit-based controllers except
the display is digital, they are still called electronic controllers.
1. Input/Output Configuration
Figure 18.2 shows the I/O configuration of an electronic controller.
AA-0019E 18-1
PROCESS VALUE (PV) INPUT CONTROL (MV) OUTPUT

RELAY CONTACT
CONTROL POSITION COMMAND,
TEMPERATURE, HUMIDITY, MOTOR DRIVE RELAY OUTPUT
SUPPLY FAN INVERTER FREQUENCY
DEW POINT, PRESSURE CURRENT OUTPUT COMMAND
COMMUNICAITON I/O
REMOTE SP (RSP) INPUT EVENT (EV) OUTPUT
TEMPERATURE SP, DEW POINT SP, TEMPERATURE HIGH ALARM,

PRESSURE SP FAN START COMMAND
CONTACT AUXLIARY (AUX) OUPUT

REMOTE SWITCH (RSW) INPUT POWER
RUN/READY SWITCH, ROOM TEMPERATURE,

AUTO/MANUAL SWITCH SUPPLY FAN SPEED,
INVERTER FREQENCY
CONTACT
Figure 18.2 Electronic controller I/O configuration
2. I/O Signals and Functions.

Electronic controllers perform two-position, PID, and other control functions.
Process Value (PV)
For PV input signals, resistance temperature element (Pt 100 ohm), direct current (4 to 20 mA),
voltage (1 to 5 V) are available. Multi-range type controllers can use multiple input signals by
switching parameters.
Remote Set Point (RSP)
Remote setpoint resets the control setpoints from a building automation system or other controllers.
For reset signals, direct current (4 to 20 mA), and voltage (1 to 5 V) are available. This function
enables a cascade control using two controllers.
Remote Switch Wiring: RSW
Remote switch wiring switches the controller condition based on a contact signal input. Typical
functions is to switch between RUN/READY or AUTO/MANUAL modes.
RUN READY
PID control Executea PID control PID operation is suspended. Outputs preset value for READY MODE.
Event output Enabled Enabled/disabled selectable
In a RUN mode, the controller performs PID control of control valves, etc. In a READY mode the
controller does not perform PID control, but outputs a fixed value. Usually, switching between RUN
and READY is done by an external contact input e.g., the status of fans or pumps. When PID control
operates with fans or pumps on, the integral action accumulates the manipulated signal (integral
windup), and this results in a large signal output and an unstable control when the control is
energized. Therefore, a fan or pump status signal should be input to switch RUN/READY.
18-2 AA-0019E
AUTO MANUAL
RUN Outputs PID operation result. Output manually entered value via keys.
READY Outputs preset value for READY MODE.
AUTO mode outputs the results of PID calculation in the RUN mode, and a preset manipulation
value in a READY mode. In the MANUAL mode, a manual output is performed through operator
keys on the surface of the controller regardless of RUN/READY mode.
Manipulated Variables (MV)
For manipulated variable, relay contacts, current (mA), motor-drive relay contacts are available, and
they are selectable depending on input signals to actuators. Figure 18.3 illustrates the wiring of a
relay contact output to drive the control motor. This type of control motor is called an electronic
type motor (or F-motor) and its operations are as follows: When the bridge circuit of the controller
becomes unbalanced, the controller sends a contact signal to the actuator motor toward either open
or closed. The control motor feedbacks the potentiometer signal that indicates the motor rotation to
the controller. When the bridge circuit is balanced, both open and closed contact signals become
open, then the control motor stops in that position.
CONDENSER
CLOSE OPEN
COIL COIL
OPEN CLOSE
POTENTIOMETER
ELECTRONIC CONTROL MOTOR ELECTRONIC CONTROLLER RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE

DEVICE
Figure 18.3 Electronic controller, motor principle and wiring

Event Input EV
Sets high and low limits for a PV to initiate high/low alarm contact outputs.
Auxiliary Output (AUX)
The auxiliary output outputs a 4-20 mA signal by selecting either PV, SP, or MV to the building
management system through remote stations.
18.3 CONTROL PANEL CIRCUIT AND OPERATIONS

Figure 18.4 is the control panel circuit drawing for the system schematic shown in Figure 18.1. The
operations of each circuit is similar to the electric control panel circuit drawing (Fig. 17.4) except circuit
.
Circuit Room Temperature Control Circuit
The room temperature signal from the temperature sensor (TE) is input to the room temperature
controller (TIC) to modulate the motorized valve MV. A 24V ac voltage for the control valve is supplied
by the control signal line. The interlock contact X1 in the control circuit breaks with the AHU off to
AA-0019E 18-3
position the control valve full-closed. The cooling/heating relay X3 switches the control operations of
the temperature controller (TIC); on a rise in temperature, the controller opens the control valve in the
cooling mode, closes the control valve in the heating mode.
FAN INTERLOCK
HUMIDIFIER
COOLING/HEATING SWITCH FROM BMS
FILTER ALARM TO BMS MY6050A
Figure 18.4 Electronic controller panel circuit
18-4 AA-0019E
19. VARIABLE AIR VOLUME AIR HANDLING UNIT CONTROL SYSTEMS
19. VARIABLE AIR VOLUME AIR HANDLING UNIT

CONTROL SYSTEMS
GENERAL
Since variable (VAV) air volume air handling systems perform individual room temperature control, and
save fan power during light load conditions, they are commonly installed in office buildings. This chapter
describes their control methods.
19.1 SYSTEM SCHEMATIC

The system schematic for a single-duct VAV-AHU with a chilled/hot water coil is shown in Figure 19.1. A
single-duct VAV system consists of an AHU and multiple VAV units.
10 SETS
COMMUNICATION
TO BMS

DISCHARGE AIR TEMPERATURE CONTROL
SYMBOL NAME SYMBOL NAME
AIR HANDLER CONTROLLER (DDC) DISCHARGE AIR DEW POINT CONTROL
VAV CONTROLLER (DDC)
DUCT INSERTION TYPE TEMPERATURE SENSOR ROOM TEMPERATURE SENSOR
AHU OFF INTERLOCK
DUCT INSERTION TYPE DEW POINT SENSOR SUPPLY FAN
FREE COOLING CONTROL
ELECTRIC TWO-WAY VALVE RETURN FAN
DISCHARGE AIR TEMPERATURE SP CONTROL
SHUT-OFF VALVE CHILLED WATER COIL
SUPPLY/RETURN FAN SPEED CONTROL
MOTOR DAMPER HOT WATER COIL
INVERTER
Figure 19.1 Single-duct variable air handler schematic
19.2 HOW TEMPERATURE CONTROL WORKS

A VAV system controls the room temperature by VAV units that are installed in individual rooms or zones
and regulate the volume of supply air. VAV units with an air velocity sensor (Fig. 19.2) are commonly
used.
A VAV unit has low (about 40%) and high (about 100%) limits for the volume of air supplied to the room,
therefore, the discharge air temperature of the VAV-AHU should be controlled so as to be able to maintain
the room temperature. The control is performed by a combination of VAV controller for each VAV unit and
AA-0019E 19-1
19. VARIABLE AIR VOLUME AIR HANDLING UNIT CONTROL SYSTEMS
a DDC for the AHU. (Fig. 19.3).

The VAV controller performs room temperature control and also sends information to the AHU-DDC, i.e.,
control conditions, air flow setpoint, and damper positions, The AHU-DDC summarizes that information
as a total control condition of the VAV system, then resets setpoints of the discharge temperature and
supply fan speed.
VELOCITY
SENSOR ROOM
VAV CONTROLLER
SUPPLY AIR FROM AHU

TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Figure 19.2 VAV unit with velocity sensor
DISCHARGE AIR TEMPERATURE SP CONTROL, VAV CONTROL STATE,

DISCHARGE AIR DEW POINT CONTROL, AIR VOLUME SP,
FAN SPEED CONTROL DAMPER POSITION INFORMATION
BMS
DEW POINT
SENSOR
TEMPERATURE
SENSOR
AIR HANDLER
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Figure 19.3 Variable air volume AHU temperature control
19-2 AA-0019E
20. TEMPERATURE/HUMIDITY CONTROL FOR VAV-AHUS
20. TEMPERATURE/HUMIDITY CONTROL FOR A

VAV-AHUS
GENERAL
VAV-AHUs perform individual temperature control for rooms, however, when there is a significant load
variance between rooms, cannot perform temperature control properly. This chapter describes the details of
temperature/humidity control.
20.1 ROOM TEMPERATURE CONTROL

A VAV unit controls the airflow supplied to the room to maintain the room temperature. The control
sequence is shown in Figure 20.1.
ZERO ENERGY BAND
VAV AIR VOLUME
HEATING COOLING
ROOM
HEATING SP COOLING SP TEMPERATURE
ROOM TEMPERATURE SP
Figure 20.1 Room temperature control sequence
20.2 DISCHARGE AIR TEMPERATURE CONTROL

The controller sequences a chilled water valve, a hot water valve and an outdoor air damper to maintain the
discharge air temperature. The control sequence is shown in Figure 20.2.
FREE COOLING FREE COOLING

AVAILABLE NOT AVAILAVLE
VALVE POSITION (%)
DAMPER/CONTROL
HOT WATER CHILLED WATER

VALVE VALVE
MINIMUM POSITION
(FREE COOLING NOT AVAILABLE)
DISCHAGE TEMPERATURE
Figure 20.2 Discharge temperature control sequence
20.3 DISCHARGE AIR DEW POINT CONTROL

The control system cools and dehumidifies the air when the discharge air dew point is high, and humidifies
the air when it is low. The control action is shown in Figure 20.3. In case of steam-jet humidifiers, the
discharge air dew point is controlled to prevent over-humidification during light load conditions. In case of
vaporization humidifiers, the room or return air relative humidity is controlled because over humidification
may not occur.
AA-0019E 20-1
CONTROL VALVE POSITION

HUMIDIFIER CHILLED WATER VALVE
VALVE (DEHUMIDIFICATION)
DISCHARGE AIR DEW POINT
Figure 20.3 Discharge air dew point control sequence
20.4 DISCHARGE AIR TEMPERATURE OPTIMUM RESET (LOAD RESET)
(1) Initial values of discharge air temperature setpoint.

The following three methods are used to determine initial values of discharge air temperature setpoint
during cool-down/warm-up periods.
1. Fixed Setpoint
A fixed setpoint determined by a building management system or a DDC parameter is used for
either cooling or heating.
2. Resetting Based on the Room Temperature
The initial value is determined based on a representative room temperature or weighted mean
room temperature. (Uses the graph in Figure 20.4 for conversion of the room temperature to the
discharge air temperature setpoint).
3. Resetting Based on Return Air Temperature
The initial value is determined based on room or return air temperature at the time when return air
circulation has completed (about 5 minutes after the AHU started). (Uses a graph shown in Figure
20.4.
The discharge air temperature setpoint is changed during cool-down/warm-up periods as follows:
In case where optimum start/stop (OSS) control is applied to the AHU system, the setpoint must
be constant because if it varies it affects the result of calculation by OSS. In case where the OSS is
not applied, the setpoint is reset to the temperature that is determined by the conversion table in
every 5 minutes based on the representative room temperature or weighted mean room
temperature. For example, in Figure 20.4, in the cooling mode, if the room temperature is 30
at AHU startup, the discharge air setpoint is 15, then, if the room temperature falls to 26 , the
discharge air temperature is reset at 22 to avoid over- cooling.
SUPPLY TEMPERATURE SP
ROOM TEMPERATURE
Figure 20.4 Room temperature-supply temperature sp conversion graph
20-2 AA-0019E
(2) Discharge Air Temperature Reset Optimization (Load Reset)

The system schematic of discharge air temperature reset optimization is shown in Figure 20.5. The
controller calculates the total control condition of the AHU group based on the control condition signal
of the zone sent from each VAV controller, then1determines the discharge air temperature setpoint as
follows;
1. Determines the control condition of the zone based on VAV airflow demand and the room
temperature deviation from setpoint. In the cooling mode, if the room temperature is at
in the figure, it is excessive (cooling), at appropriate, and at increase demand.
2. Summarizes the control conditions for all of the VAVs and determines the control condition
for the AHU system. In the cooling mode, if the all of the zones are excessive, the system
is determined as excessive. If there are more than one increase demand, as increase
demand.
3. Resets the discharge air temperature based on the control condition of the AHU group. In the
cooling mode, reset the discharge air temperature downward for increase demand
condition, and upward for excessive. Incremental of increase/decrease is 0.5 to 1 and
the execution interval is 5 minutes.
VAV CONTROL STATE
AIR VOLUME
HEATING COOLING
HEATING SP COOLING SP
ROOM TEMPERATURE
VAV CONTROL STATE
BMS
DEW POINT
SENSOR
TEMPERATURE
SENSOR
AIR HANDLER
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Figure 20.5 Discharge temperature optimum setpoint control
AA-0019E 20-3
This blank page is added for page layout purpose.
20-4 AA-0019E
21.FAN SPEED CONTROL OF VAV AHUS
21. FAN SPEED CONTROL OF VAV AHUS

GENERAL
General: VAV-AHUs conserve fan power by regulating airflow at light loads. This chapter describes logics
to control the fan speed based on demand airflow and damper position of VAVs.
21.1 SUPPLY/EXHAUST FAN SPEED CONTROL

The system schematic of the fan speed control is illustrated in Figure 21.1. The supply fan speed is
determined by the following two-step logics based on demand airflow and damper position that are sent by
VAV controllers. The exhaust fan is controlled at the same speed as the supply fan.
(1) Determining a base fan speed from the total demand airflow of all of the VAVs.
Determines airflow required for the AHU fan based on the total airflow which is the sum of
airflow demand by each VAV. Then the controller determines the base fan speed according to the
airflow-to-fan speed conversion table.
(2) If the VAV damper position is below 80%, it is determined as excessive (static pressure), If it
is 100%, as insufficient (static pressure). Then the AHU-DDC totals damper positions for the
air handling system. If the damper position of the system is insufficient , the controller
increases the fan speed, if excessive decreases the fan speed, then sends an output signal to the
variable frequency drive (VFD).
If there are no dampers full-open (100%), the controller determines that duct pressure can be reduced, then
reduces the fan speed as low as possible while satisfying the load and thus provides a large fan power
reduction. The execution interval is one minute.
FAN SPEED CONTROL

FAN SPEED
ADJUSTMENT VAV CONROLLER

EFFECTIVE BAND
AIR FLOW SP,
DEMAND FLOW POSITION INFORMATION (100%, 80%)
BMS
DEW POINT
SENSOR
TEMPERATURE
SENSOR
AIR HANDLER
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Figure 21.1 Fan speed control system
AA-0019E 21-1
21. FAN SPEED CONTROL OF VAV AHUS
21.2 WIRING BETWEEN A VAV CONTROLLER AND A VAV UNIT

The wiring of a power supply and the signal interface between a VAV controller and a VAV unit are
illustrated in Figure 21.2. The VAV controller calculates the demand airflow based on the deviation
between room temperature and its setpoint, compares the demand airflow with the current airflow that is
converted from the air velocity, then modulates the damper. The VAV control module sends an air velocity
signal and damper positions (100%, 80%) to the VAV controller and then the VAV controller sends these
information together with the demand airflow to the AHU DDC to be used for fan speed control. Usually a
VAV controller is factory installed in the VAV unit and the VAV unit is installed at the job site.
POWER POWER
AHU
CONTROL COMMUNICAITON LINE
COMMUNICAITON LINE
PANEL (DDC)
POWER POWER
VAV CONTROL DAMPER

DAMPER OPEN/CLOSE COMMAND DAMPER OPEN/CLOSE COMMAND
MODULE(PWB) MOTOR
CONTROLLER
DAMPER POSITION INFORMATION DAMPER POSITION INFORMATION
VELOSITY SIGNAL VELOSITY SIGNAL
VELOSITY SENSOR
VAV UNIT
TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE
SENSOR SP
Figure 21.2 VAV controller/VAV unit signal wiring
21-2 AA-0019E
22. CONFIGURATION OF HEAT SOURCE SYSTEMS

GENERAL
This chapter describes equipment for heat source systems, and control methods to satisfy the loads.
Note: There are several types of heat sources equipment, such as chillers, boilers, or heat pumps, but this
book particularly focuses on chillers when describing control methods.
22.1 HEAT SOURCE SYSTEMS

Heat source systems for HVAC systems include chillers and boilers producing chilled or hot water, pumps
distributing chilled and hot water to AHUs, and piping connecting them. Chillers need condenser water
pumps and cooling towers to cool the condenser water which is warmed in the cooling process. Chilled/hot
water generators that produce chilled water in summer, hot water in winter are commonly used in
mid-sized buildings. Figure 22.1 shows an example of heat source system with a chilled/hot water
generator in a closed secondary-pump system. Figure 22.2 through 22.5 are photographs of equipment
used in heat source systems.
COOLING TOWER
AIR HANDLER
CONDENSER WATER
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
SUPPLY WATER
PRESSURE CONTROL
SECONDARY TEMPERATURE
PUMP SENSOR
(CHILLED/HOT
FLOW METER
WATER PUMP)
BYPASS PIPING
SUPPLY RETUREN
HEADER HEADER
CHILLED/HOT WATER
GENERATOR
PRIMARY PUMP
(CHILLED/HOT WATER PUMP)
CONDENSER WATER PUMP
Figure 22.1 Heating/cooling source configuration
(Photo: Courtesy of SANYO Electric Co., Ltd.)

Figure 22.2 Chilled/hot water generator Figure 22.3 Cooling tower
AA-0019E 22-1
(Photo: Courtesy of EBARA Corporation) Figure 22.5 Header

Figure 22.4 Condenser water pump
22.2 COOLING LOADS AND CHILLER CONTROL SYSTEMS

Multiple chillers and secondary pumps are applied to improve reliability and reduce operating costs in a
heat source system. Figure 22.6 illustrates a profile of air handling load in a day. Since the load varies in a
day as shown in the graph, it is required to control the capacity of chillers and the number of operating
chiller and secondary pumps. Capacity control of heat source equipment measures chilled and hot water
discharge temperature and adjusts the capacity. The capacity control is typically built-in the equipment
and is rarely provided by automatic control installation. (Refer to [23. Types and Characteristics of Heat
Source Equipment])
3 CHILLERS
FLOW
HEAT
2 CHILLERS
HEAT
FLOW
1 CHILLER 1 CHILLER
TIME
Figure 22.6 Air handling load pattern in a day and the number of operating chillers
22-2 AA-0019E
23. TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SOURCE EQUIPMENT
23. TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF HEAT

SOURCE EQUIPMENT
GENERAL
Types of heat source equipment are classified by energy sources into fuel, or electric power.
23.1 TYPES OF HEAT SOURCE EQUIPMENT

Heat media for air handling systems include steam or hot water for heating, chilled water for cooling. Table
23.1 shows heat source equipment that produce heating media.
Table 23.1 Type of cooling/heating source
Fuel or power
Heat medium Heat source Principle/type Type
source
Combustion Oil, gas Once-through, fire-tube,
Steam Steam boiler
water-tube boilers
Hot water Hot water boiler Combustion Oil, gas, electric Vacuum, no-pressure
Reciprocating Chiller
Compression chiller Centrifugal Electric Turbo chiller
Chilled water
Rotary Screw chiller
Absorption chiller Absorption Oil, gas, steam
Reciprocating Air sourced heat pump
Compression heat pump Centrifugal Electric Double-bundle turbo chiller
Chilled/hot water Rotary Screw heat pump
Absorption
Hot/chilled water generator Oil, gas
Combustion
1. Steam Boilers
Steam boilers are classified into once-through, fire tube (flue and smoke tube) and water tube boilers.
Table 23.2 shows the types and characteristics of steam boilers. In office buildings, chilled/hot water
generators or hot water boilers are commonly used and steam boilers are rare. In hospitals or hotels
where large heating loads such as hot water supply exist, once-through or fire tube boilers are commonly
used. Today, modular once-through boilers with 1 to 2 ton/hour of steam capacity (with a maximum
operation pressure of less than 1.0 Mpa, and a heat transfer area of below 10 m2) are increasing.
Advantages of modular once-through boilers are good performance at partial loads and a quick response
to varying load. Small modular once-through boiler usually are equipped with built-in control
mechanism for steam pressure control and staging control. Steam generated by a boiler is de-pressured
to about 0.2 Mpa, and distributed to AHU steam coils in AHU or fan coil units for heating or
steam-to-hot water converters for hot water supply.
AA-0019E 23-1
Table 23.2 Types and characteristics of steam boilers
Types Once-through boiler Fire-tube boiler Water -ube boiler

STEAM
STEAM BRACKISH-WATER
EVAPORATION WATER STEAM REAR SMOKE DRUM
FRONT SMOKE CHAMBER
CHAMBER WATER PIPE
MAIN COMBUSTION
Principle SUPPLY WATER
CHAMBER
PUMP
WATER
HEATING FIRE TUBE FLUE
WATER DRUM
Water within a water pipe in the Cylindrical fire tubes and smoke tubes are Consists of a brackish drum at the
boiler is heated and evaporated. within the boiler vessel. Burns the fuel top and a water drum at the
Does not have a boiler vessel or within the fire tube to heat and evaporate bottom and water tubes
Structure drum. the water within the vessel. connecting them.
Burn the fuel around the water
tubes and evaporate water in the
brackish drum.
Small amount of holding water With a large amount of holding water, this A small amount of held water
provides fast startup. type of boiler covers a wide range of load provides fast startup. High-level
Suites for small capacity. changes. control such as water-level
Performance Pressure is below 1 Mpa. Suites for middle to large capacity. control is required.
Pressure is below 1 Mpa. Suites for high pressure, large
capacity applications.
Used in small to mid-sized Used to steam supply in mid-sized to large Used for steam supply or steam
buildings. buildings and DHCs. turbine turbo chillers in large
Application
DHCs.
2. Hot Water Boilers (Hot Water Generators)

Typical types of hot water boilers are vacuum boilers and normal-pressure boilers. A vacuum boiler
maintains the sealed evaporator at a depressurized condition to evaporate water and then uses the
generated steam to heat the water flowing through the heat converter installed in the evaporator. A
normal-pressure type boiler releases the boiler chamber to the atmosphere, and heats the water flowing
through the heat converter to about 80 hot water. Both types of boilers can supply hot water at any
desired temperature for heating or hot water supply. Also, since the pressure within the boiler is below
atmospheric pressure, licensed operators are not required.
3. Compression Chillers
Figure 23.1 shows the principle of compression chillers. The refrigerant gas is cooled by the condenser
water at the condenser and condenses to be mid-temperature, high-pressure refrigerant liquid. The
refrigerant liquid expands when it flows through the expansion valve and the evaporator produces chilled
water by vaporization heat. Compression chillers are classified by the type of compressor into centrifugal
(turbo), reciprocating, or screw chillers. Also, they are classified by the cooling method at the condenser
into water-cooled, or air-cooled. Table 23.2 illustrates the principle and characteristics of each type of
23-2 AA-0019E
chiller. Centrifugal and screw type chillers have almost similar capacity characteristics. In reciprocating
chillers with multiple step compressor control, which is commonly used, the chilled water temperature
varies drastically, therefore, care must be taken when precise temperature control is required for
applications such as constant temperature/humidity rooms or clean rooms. Also, when a system includes
multiple types of chiller, the startup curve depends on the type, therefore, care must be taken for control
parameters such as start/stop intervals.
HIGH TEMPERATURE/HIGH PRESSURE GAS
CONDENSER LOW TEMPERATURE/LOW PRESSURE GAS

WATER INLET
COMPRESS
REFRIGERANT
COMPRESSOR GAS
CONDENSER
WATER OUTLET CHILLED WATER
INLET
REFRIGERANT
CONDENSER EVAPORATES AND
RAPIDLY EXPAND DEPRIVES HEAT
REFRIGERANT FROM WATER
CONDENSES AND GAS
COOLS EVAPORATOR
REFRIGERANT GAS EXPANSION VALVE
LOW TEMPERATURE
/LOW PRESSURE LIQUID
MIDDLE TEMPERATURE/HIGH PRESSURE LIQUID CHILLED WATER

OUTLET
Figure 23.1 Compression chiller principle
Table 23.3 Types and general characteristics of chillers
Capacity
Capacity Capacity control Start-up
Type Name Principle control range COP
(kW)) (URT) method time
(%)
The refrigerant is compressed, 352 7040 Suction vane 30-100 3-18 5 min
condensed, and evaporated. Chilled (100-2000) control by the
Turbo chiller
water is produced by evaporating centrifugal
refrigerant. compressor
Vapor-compr Uses a reciprocating compressor. 17- 352 Based on Depends on 3-4 5 min
ession Reciprocating (2-100) compressor step the steps of
chiller control, or compressor,
un-loader control. or unloader
Uses screw type compressor. 106- 1760 By sliding vane. 20-100 3-6 5 min
Screw chiller
(30-50)
Lithium-bromide solution absorbs the 176- 7040 Controls heat 20-100 1-1.6 30 min
Absorption chiller water vapor within the vacuum (50-2000) source (gas,
Absorption Chilled/hot water vessel. steam, oil) by a
generator Chilled water is produced by control valve
evaporating water.
AA-0019E 23-3
4. Absorption Chillers
Figure 23.2 illustrates the principle of an absorption chiller. Absorption chillers use water as refrigerant,
and lithium bromide (LiBr) as absorbent, and consists of an evaporator, an absorber, a generator, and a
condenser. Functions of each component are as follows:
In the evaporator, the refrigerant water evaporates in the vessel that is kept vacuum, and the chilled
water is cooled by vaporization heat.
In the absorber, the dense lithium bromide solution absorbs water vapor that evaporated in the
evaporator and becomes the week absorbent solution.
The generator applies heat to the week absorbent solution pumped by the solution pump with heat of
either steam, gas, or oil combustion to evaporate water in the solution and make dense solution, then the
dense solution is sent to the absorber through the heat converter. Water vapor is sent to the condenser.
Condenser cools the water vapor then the condensed water is distributed to the evaporator.
Thus, the absorption chiller produces chilled water by changing the phase of the refrigerant (water). It
takes about 30 minutes after startup of the chiller for the chilled water to reach the design temperature.
WATER VAPOR
GENERATOR CONDENSER
LITHIUM BROMIDE
SOLUTION CONDENSER WATER
OUTLET
WEAK
ABSOBENT
CONDENSER WATER
WATER VAPOR
(HEAT SOURCE)
REFRIGERANT
HEAT WATER VAPOR (WATER)
STRONG ABSORBENT
EXCHANGER
REFRIGERANT
ABSORBER (WATER) EVAPORATOR
STRONG
ABSORBENT
WEAK CHILLED WATER
ABSOBENT OUTLET
CONDENSER WATER CHILLED WATER

INLET INLET
WEAK ABSOBENT REFRIGERANT

SOLUTION PUMP REFRIGERANT PUMP
(WATER)
Figure 23.2 Absorption chiller principle
5. Compression Heat Pumps

A compression heat pump produces hot water by the condensation heat of a compression chiller.
Compression heat pumps are classified into water-sourced or air-sourced. For small capacity types,
air-sourced heat pumps are commonly used. In the cooling mode, by the same cycle as compression
chillers, the heat pump produces chilled water in the evaporator and the condenser water is cooled by
outdoor air. In the heating mode, the heat pump switches the refrigerant piping to produce hot water
using the evaporator. This method is commonly used as a heat source equipment in water storage
systems. In building where cooling load exists in winter such as data centers, heat reclaim systems with a
double-bundle turbo chiller which has two condensers are used. In summer the heat reclaim system
23-4 AA-0019E
produces only chilled water as a turbo chiller, and the condensed heat is dissipated at the cooling tower.
When hot water is needed in winter, it produces hot water in the condenser.
6. Chilled/Hot Water Generators

The principle of producing chilled water is the same as the absorption chillers using city gas or kerosene
as heat sources (fuel). To produce hot water, high-temperature generators with a heat converter are
commonly used. There are two types: switching either chilled or hot water, or producing both chilled
and hot water at the same time. Compared to compression chillers, since chilled/hot water generators
need less electric power, and can produce both chilled and hot water at the same time, they are
commonly used in office buildings. Capacity control and startup time are almost the same as absorption
chillers.
23.2 COMBINATION OF HEAT SOURCE EQUIPMENT

Table 23.4 shows generally applied combination of cooling and heating source equipment. There are two
types of buildings; having an in-house plant or receiving heat medium, such as chilled water, hot water, or
steam from district cooling/heating plants.
Table 23.4 Combinations of heating/cooling source equipment
Heating/cooling source type Cooling source Heating source Typical building

Chilled/hot water generator Chilled/hot water generator Office buildings
Absorption chiller Steam boiler Buildings with large
heating/hot water load:
Closed system
In-house hotels, hospitals, factories
plant Turbo chiller Hot water boiler Factories

Steam boiler
Vapor-compression heat pump Vapor-compression heat pump Small-sized office buildings
Open system
Chilled water substation Hot water substation Mid-sized to large office

From district heating/cooling buildings
plant Chilled water substation Steam substation Mid-sized to large office
buildings
23.3 COOLING TOWERS

(1) Principle
Cooling towers cool the condenser water that is used to cool the refrigerant at a chiller condenser by
making it contact the atmosphere and evaporate, and removing the vaporization heat from the condenser
water. A range is a temperature difference of water between entering and leaving of a cooling tower
and is typically designed to be about 5 for compression chillers. An approach is the temperature
difference between outdoor wet-bulb temperature and cooling tower leaving water temperature and is
typically designed to be about 5. The cooling tower leaving temperature is typically 32, which is a
design value at peak loads with the chiller condenser water return temperature 37 and the outdoor
wet-bulb temperature 27. The lower the condenser water temperature, the better the chiller coefficient
of performance (COP), therefore, chiller operates effectively at lower temperature, 20 to 25. However,
the condenser water temperature has a low-limit which depends on the type of chiller, so it should be
AA-0019E 23-5
verified by the chiller manufacture when operating the chiller at the condenser water temperature below
the design temperature.
(2) Types and Characteristics of Cooling Towers

Table 23.5 and Figure 23.6 show the types and characteristics of cooling towers. Cooling towers are
classified by direction of airflow and condenser water flow into counter-flow and parallel flow. Also they
are classified by whether or not condenser water contacts outdoor air into open- or closed-type.
Table 23.5 Types and characteristics of cooling tower
Flow of water and air Characteristics Application

Water flow downward, air flows Installation area is small. Tall Used for small to medium
Counter flow
upward. height capacity.
Open
Water flows downward, air enters Installation area is large. Low Use for large capacity.
Parallel flow
from the side and flows upward height
Condenser water flows through the Condenser water is not Used for free-cooling in
coil. polluted by outdoor air,. winter..
Closed
Sprayed water flows downward,
air flows upward.
FAN
FAN SPRAY WATER TANK
CONDENSER
ELIMINATOR WATER INLET
WATER SPRAY ELIMINATOR
CONDENSER
WATER INLET OUTDOOR WATER WATER OUTDOOR
AIR AIR
WATER REPLENISH FILLING
FILLING WATER
CONDENSER
TANK WATER OUTLET
OUTDOOR AIR OUTDOOR AIR
OUTDOOR AIR
REPLENISH WATER
CONDENSER PARALELL FLOW COOLING TOWER
WATER OUTLET
TANK
COUNTER FLOW COOLING TOWER
FAN
ELIMINATOR
SPRAY WATER
CONDENSER
WATER INLET
CONDENSER
WATER OUTLET
OUTDOOR HEAT EXCHANGER
OUTDOOR AIR
AIR REPLENISH
SPRAY WATER WATER
PUMP
TANK
CLOSED TYPE COOLING TOWER
Figure 23.3 Cooling tower types
23-6 AA-0019E
24. CHILLED/HOT WATER PIPING AND HEAT SOURCE SYSTEMS
24. CHILLED/HOT WATER PIPING AND HEAT

SOURCE SYSTEMS
GENERAL
Heat source systems have various types of piping systems, and control method, and applications depend on
the types of piping systems. This chapter describes the types and characteristics of heat source systems for
each type of the piping systems.
24.1 PIPING OF HEAT SOURCE SYSTEMS

Table 24.1 shows typical piping systems that are applied in buildings with own heat source.
Table 24.1 Chilled/hot water piping
Type of piping system Type of pumping system Building types
Primary-only system Mid-sized buildings

Closed system
Primary-secondary system Mid-sized to large buildings
Open system (thermal storage tank) Small-to-large buildings
24.2 CLOSED PIPING SYSTEMS

Closed piping systems are systems where chilled/hot water circulates within the closed piping. To allow
the chilled/hot water to expand or contract within the piping due to changes in water temperature,
expansion tanks are installed typically at the highest location of the piping system. Closed piping systems
are classified into primary-only systems or primary-secondary systems. Primary-only systems distribute
chilled/hot water from heat source equipment to air handling units only by primary- pumps as shown in
Figure 24.1 (a). Primary-secondary systems consist of primary- and secondary-pumps as shown in Figure
24.1(b). Primary-pumps circulate chilled/hot water around the heat source equipment, and
secondary-pumps distribute chilled/hot water to the secondary system.
EXPANSION EXPANSION
TANK TANK
AIR HANDLER
AIR HANDLER
SECONDARY
SYSTEM
PRIMARY PUMP
CHILLER CHILLER PRIMARY PUMP
PRIMARY-ONLY PUMPING SYSTEM PRIMARY-SECONDARY PUMPING SYSTEM
Figure 24.1 Closed piping system
AA-0019E 24-1
24. CHILLED/HOT WATER PIPING AND HEAT SOURCE SYSTEMS
Table 24. 2 Characteristics of closed primary- only, primary-secondary pumping system
Pumping system Advantages Disadvantages

Primary-only system Simple system. Low cost Large capacity pumps operate even in
the light load conditions, resulting high
operating costs.
Primary-secondary system Pump power can be reduced by selecting High initial cost and large installation
pumps with required head for each secondary space are required compared to
circuit, secondary pump staging control, or primary-only systems.
pump speed control by VFD.
24.3 OPEN PIPING SYSTEMS

In open piping systems heat is stored in water storage tanks that are open to the atmosphere, and pumps
distribute chilled water to the air handling units. Figure 24.2 shows a water storage system and Figure 24.
shows a most commonly used static type ice storage system. Table 24.3 shows the characteristics of open
(storage) systems.
AIR HANDLER AIR HANDLER
HEAT EXCHANGER
HEAT PUMP PRIMARY PUMP
SECONDARY
PUMP BRINE PUMP CHILLER
CHILLED WATER
PUMP
CHILLED WATER CHILLED WATER TANK CHILLED WATER

(LOW TEMPERATURE) (HIGH TEMPERATURE)
Figure 24.2 Water storage tank system Figure 24.3 Static ice storage tank system
Table 24.3 Characteristics of open piping system, water storage, ice storage systems
Type Advantage Disadvantage

Characteristics of open Can use low cost nigh time electric power. Requires increased pump head for static head.
(thermal storage) Can reduce chiller capacity. Resolved oxygen erodes piping.
system compared to Heat dissipation loss occurs.
closed system.
Water storage system Heat reclaim is available. Needs investment for tanks.
High efficiency operation of chiller is available.
Ice storage system Can reduce capacitance of the tank compared to water Low coefficient of performance of chiller
storage systems. compared to water storage systems.
24-2 AA-0019E
25. PUMPS AND PIPING SYSTEMS

GENERAL
Flow and pressure of water flowing through the piping system varies depending on the resistance of the
piping system and pump characteristics. This chapter describes the resistance of the piping system and
pump characteristics for understanding controls for pressure and flow.
25.1 RESISTANCE (PRESSURE LOSS) OF PIPING

The resistance (pressure loss) in the piping system is a sum of that of piping and equipment.
Total losses = piping losses and equipment losses
Piping losses = losses in straight pipes, regulations, elbows, etc.
Equipment loss = Losses in equipment such as chillers, air handling unit coils, manual valves, control
valves, or strainers.
The piping loss is expressed in Equation 25.1 and is proportional to the square of flow through the piping
system. In a closed piping system, the head of a pump should be greater than the piping loss to circulate
water. For example, when the water flow becomes a half, the pressure loss becomes a quarter, therefore,
theoretically the quarter of the pump head can circulate water through the piping system.
L V 2
p = f (25.1)
D 2
Where:
p = resistance of piping
f=friction coefficient factor
L = pipe length
D = pipe diameter
= fluid density
V = flow velocity
CONTROL VALVE
RESISTANCE CURVE
(SQUARE VURVE)
RESISTANCE
PUMP
FLOW
Figure 25.1 Relationship between flow and resistance in water distribution system
25.2 CHANGES IN PIPING LOSS WHEN V ALVE POSITION VARIES

When a control valve closes, its pressure loss increases, and then pressure loss in the entire piping system
increases.
RESISTANCE INCREASES
AS VALVE IS REGULATED
RESISTANCE
FLOW
AA-0019E Figure 25.2 Resistance curve change when control valve is regulated 25-1
25.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF PUMPS

Characteristics of pumps are expressed by head curves, pump power curve and efficiency curves. From an
automatic control stand point, the head curve (Q-H) representing the relationship between flow and
discharge pressure, and the pump power curve representing the relationship between flow and pump power
are important. Figure 25.3 shows examples of a head curve and pump power curve. Usually these curves
are provided by the pump manufacturer. A simple method to determine the curve is as follows:
1. Start the pump with the control valve full-closed, and measure the pump discharge pressure (kPa)
and motor power (kW).
2. Then adjust the control valve for water flow of 25%, 50%, 75% and, 100%, then measure the
discharge pressure and power at each valve position.
3. Plot these values on the graph and draw a curve.
As shown in the head-to-pump power curve, when the pump runs in the full-closed position, the shaft
power is small. As the flow increases, the pump power increases. If the flow exceeds 100%, the pump
power will exceed the rated power of the pump driving motor, then the over-current relay in the motor
panel will be energized and motor will stall. Therefore, the flow should be controlled so as not to exceed
the rated flow.
HEAD CURVE (Q-H CURVE)

HEAD
CONTROL VALVE
PRESSURE METER FLOW METER POSITION SETTER
FLOW
POWER CURVE
POWER
POWER PANEL
POWER METER
FLOW
Figure 25.3 Example of pump head/power curve Figure 25.4 How to obtain head curve and power curve
25.4 OPERATING POINT OF A PUMP

When a pump with a Q-H curve runs in the piping system with a head curve (Ra), the operating point of the
pump is at a intersection of these two curves (Fig. 25.5).
CONTROL VALVE
CURVE
AIR HANDLER COIL
RESISTANCE TOTAL RESISTANCE OF

HEAD
CURVE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

WHEN FLOW IS Qa=Ha
PUMP
FLOWFigure 25.5 Operating point of pump PUMP HEAD=Ha
25-2 AA-0019E
25.5 FLOW CONTROL BY A CONTROL VALVE

When the control valve closes as shown in Figure 25.6, the head curve will move from Ra to Rb, the pump
operating point will move from A to B. As a result, flow in the piping system will decrease from Qa to Qb,
the head will rise from Ha to Hb.
CONTROL VALVE
Q-H CURVE RESISTANCE CURVE Rb

AIR HANDLER COIL
IF CONTROL VALVE IS REGULATED

HEAD
TOTAL RESISTANCE WILL BE Hb

RESISTANCE CURVE Ra
PUMP
FLOW PUMP HEAD = Hb
Figure 25.6 Flow control by control valve
25.6 FLOW CONTROL BY PUMP SPEED

When the pump speed decreases with the control valve position unchanged as shown in Figure 25.7, the
pump characteristics vary and the operating point will move from A to B, then to C, flow will decrease
from Qa to Qb then to Qc, the head decreases from Ha to Hb then to Hc. The following theoretical equations
are applicable the same as fans (efficiencies of motor, pump, and VFD are neglected).
1. flow varies with the speed. Q = f(n)
2. head varies as the square of speed. H = f(n2)
3. power varies as the cube of speed. P = f(n3)
Where:
n = pump speed
Q = flow
H = head
P = pump power
From above relationships, the pump power varies with the flow multiplied by the head. Therefore, in
flow control by the pump speed, a method that reduces both flow (Q) and head (H) provides a large
pump power savings. The Q-H curve for reduced pump speed can be determined by measuring flow and
pressure at pump speeds of 60% and 80% the same way as determining the Q-H curve of a constant
speed pump in Section 25.3.
CONTROL VALVE
AIR HANDLER COIL
AS PUMP SPEED DECREASES,

HEAD
RESISTANCE
FLOW DECREASES
CURVE
PUMP
FLOW
Figure 25.7 Flow control by pump speed control
AA-0019E 25-3
25-4 AA-0019E
26. PRESSURE CHARTS FOR PIPING SYSTEMS

GENERAL
General: Pressure charts indicate the pressure distribution in the piping system , so understanding how to
draw and use pressure charts helps the reader to find the pressure distribution of piping systems and
determine the differential pressure across control valves.
26.1 HOW TO DRAW PRESSURE CHARTS

This section describes how to draw and use a pressure chart for a closed primary-only system. The pressure
chart is drawn for the design flow of a piping system. Figure 26.1 shows a primary-only system.
(1) Determine the pressure losses of pipes and components, the pump head, the heights of air handling
units and a expansion tank from the central plant room. If the piping losses are unknown, estimate 3
to 5 mH per 100 m for piping losses.
(2) The height from the central plant (base point) is on the Y-axis and pressure (kPa) on the X-axis. The
Y-axis also represents a head, therefore if the both axis are the same scale (1m = 10 Mpa), it is
helpful to read the pressure chart.
(3) Find a point (base point) where the pressure is constant regardless of varying flow in the piping
system. In Figure 26.1, the point where the expansion tanks is piped to the return header is the base
point. The water surface of the expansion tank is 40 m above the header (), therefore, the pressure
at Point is 400 kPa. Draw a dotted line from the location at 40 m to 400 kPa ().
(4) Draw the line starting from the base point, add piping heads to or subtract piping losses from the
existing pressure. When the line returns to the base point, a pressure chart has completed.
(5) The drawn pressure chart is for the design flow. Draw dotted lines for no flow (when control valves
in all of the AHUs are full closed). Figure 26.2 shows the pressure chart of the primary-only system
in Figure 26.1.
PIPING RESISTANCE
CHILLER RESISTANCE
CHILLER RATED CAPACITY PER UNIT
Figure 26.1 Primary-only pumping system
AA-0019E 26-1
PRESSURE WITH AHU

EXPANSITON TANK
CONTROL VALVE FULL CLOSED
SAME FLOOR PRESSURE
Figure 26.2 Primary-only system pressure diagram
26.2 HOW TO READ PRESSURE CHARTS

The pressure chart indicates the followings:
1. The differential pressure across the header bypass valve was determined, so the followings data
can be obtained: differential pressure(P) for bypass valve size selection, the range of
differential pressure transmitter, and the setpoint for the differential pressure controller. The
differential pressure across the header bypass valve is pressure at Point minus pressure at
Point.
2. The close-off rating (the maximum allowable differential pressure with a valve full-closed) of the
air handling unit control valve can be determined. If all of the control valves are full closed, the
differential pressure across the control vale at the furthest air handling units is equal to the header
bypass valve. Therefore, the close-off-rating for the control valve must be greater than the
pressure at Point minus pressure at Point .
3. The pressure chart is used to check the pressure rating of pipes, headers and control valves in
high-rise buildings.
26-2 AA-0019E
27. CONTROLS FOR CLOSED HEAT SOURCE SYSTEMS
27. CONTROLS FOR CLOSED HEAT SOURCE

SYSTEMS
GENERAL
Closed-primary-only systems are generally applied to small- to mid-sized buildings. Primary-secondary
systems are applied to mid-sized to large buildings. This chapter describes controls for primary-only and
primary-secondary systems.
27.1. CONTROLS FOR PRIMARY-ONLY SYSTEMS

Figure 27.1 shows the control system and control programs for a closed primary-only system. Major
control programs for the closed primary-only system are chiller staging control and header differential
pressure control, which are usually performed by chiller controllers. (refer to [33 Chiller Controller])
Chiller Staging Control
1. Determines the necessary number of chillers to meet the load based on the load flow. When the supply
temperature is above the setpoint, adds one chiller and when the return temperature (chiller entering
temperature) is below the setpoint, drops one chiller before the chiller is stopped by the safety cutout
control built-in the chiller.
2. Header Differential Pressure Control
Maintains the water flow through the chiller to prevent the no-flow relay from activating and stabilize
the temperature control for air handling units by maintaining differential pressure across the supply
and return mains.
AIR HANDLER
CONTROL MENU
CHILLER GROUP
CAPACITY CONTROL
HEADER DIFFERENTIAL
PRESSURE CONTROL
MEASUREMENT (START/STOP, MONITORING,
SETTING, MEASUREMENT)
CHILLER
MEASUREMENT SYMBOL NAME

CHILLER CHILLER CONTROLLER
PIPE INSERTION TYPE TENPERATURE SENSOR
MEASUREMENT
FLOW METER
CHILLER DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE SENSOR
ELECTRIC TWO-WAY VALVE
MEASUREMENT
CHILLED/HOT WATER PUMP
CHILLER
CHILLED/HOT WATER COIL (AHU)
Figure 27.1 System schematic and control menus of closed primary-only pumping system
AA-0019E 27-1
27.2 CONTROLS FOR PRIMARY-SECONDARY SYSTEMS

Figure 27.2 shows control programs for closed Primary-secondary system. Major control programs for
primary-secondary systems include; chiller staging control, secondary-pump staging control, and
secondary-pump supply pressure control, those are usually performed by chiller controller (Refer to [33
Chiller Controller]). Supply pressure control has various types, (refer to [28 Secondary Pump Discharge
Water Pressure Controls])
AIR HANDLER
COMMUNICATION TO BMS COMMUNICATION TO BMS
CONTROL MENU
CHILLER CONTROL
SECONDARY PUMP GROUP
CAPACITY CONTROL
SECONDARY PUMP SUPPLY WATER
PRESSURE CONTROL
(START/STOP, MONITORING,
SETTING, MEASUREMENT)
MEASUREMENT SYMBOL NAME
CHILLER CHILLER CONTROLLER
PUMP CONTROLLER
MEASUREMENT
PIPE INSERTION TYPE TEMPERATURE SENSOR
CHILLER FLOW METER
MEASUREMENT PRESSURE SENSOR

ELECTRIC TWO-WAY VALVE
CHILLER
CHILLED/HOT WATER PRIMARY PUMP
MEASUREMENT CHILLED/HOT WATER SECONDARY PUMP

CHILLED/HOT WATER COIL (AHU)
CHILLER
INVERTER
Figure 27.2 System schematic and control menus of closed primary-secondary pumping
t
27.3 STAGING CONTROL FOR CHILLERS AND SECONDARY PUMPS

Since the load varies drastically depending on the season or time of the day, multiple chillers are installed
to adjust the number of operating chillers in response to the varying loads. The process variables to
determine the number of operating chillers should be selected to meet the purpose of the system,
cooling/heating loads, and characteristics of chillers. Table 27.1 shows the types of piping systems and
process variables to add or drop chllers. The necessary number of operating chillers is determined by the
staging control based on the load flow in primary-only systems and the load heat in primary-secondary
systems. Also, in the cooling mode, when the supply water temperature is above the setpoint, one chiller is
added, and when the return water temperature (entering temperature to the chiller) is below the setpoint,
one chiller is dropped to prevent chillers from stopping abruptly. Figure 27.3 shows a staging control
sequence of chillers and pumps.
27-2 AA-0019E
Table 27.1 Heating/cooling source types and group capacity control criteria
Heat source type Heat source equipment Process variable for sequence control
Chiller, chilled/hot water Performs sequence control based on load flow.
generator Add a chiller based on supply temperature high
Primary-only systems limit.(*1)
Drops a chiller based on return temperature (chiller
entering temperature) low limit.(*2)
Chiller, chilled/hot water Performs sequence control based on load heat.(*3)
generator Add a chiller based on the supply temperature high
Primary-secondary system limit.
Drops a chiller based on the return temperature (chiller
entering temperature).(*2)
Secondary pump Performs sequence control based on load flow.
*1: The control based on load heat causes insufficient number of operating chillers when the temperature
difference in the secondary system is small, and it causes the primary pumps operating with chillers
to be over-loaded.
*2: Chiller capacity varies due to changes in condenser water temperature or degradation of capacity
over time. Also, the temperature difference in an air handling unit coils is small with large water
flow and it is large with small water flow. From this reason, control based on either load flow or load
heat causes insufficient or excessive operation of chillers. Therefore, when the supply water
temperature is above the setpoint, the controller adds a chiller, and when return water temperature
(chiller entering water temperature) is below the setpoint, drop a chiller before the built-in controller
stops the chiller.
*3: Since the primary role of chillers is to provide heat corresponding to the load, the number of
operating chillers is determined by load heat (the amount of water flow to satisfy the load flow is
supplied by secondary pumps).
OPERATING CHILLERS
No. 1 NOMINAL No. 1,2 NOMINAL No.1,2,3 NOMINAL

CAPACITY CAPACITY CAPACITY
LOAD FLOW (HEAT)
Figure 27.3 Chiller/pump staging control
AA-0019E 27-3
27.4 CONTROL SIGNAL INTERFACE RELATED TO CHILLER START/STOP

A chiller is equipped with a built-in capacity control function and various interlocked protection circuits
(for capacity control functions of a chiller, see Table 23.3 Types and general characteristics of chillers).
Figure 27.4 illustrates signal interfaces between the chiller operation panel, motor panels, and the chiller
controller.
1. Chiller Group Start
The building management system sends a group-start command to the chiller controller. The
chiller controller routes the start command to the operation panel of the chiller with the highest
priority (base chiller). The chiller operation panel routes the start command to motor panels of the
chilled water pump and condenser water pumps. The condenser pump motor panel sends a linked
start command to the motor panels of cooling tower fans, after that fans will be turned on based on
the output signal of the thermostat. When status signals of chiller water pumps and condenser
water pumps return, the chiller will be turned on.
2. Chiller Staging Control
After receiving a group-start command, the controller adds a chiller on an increase in the load,
drops on a decrease. The next chiller will be turned on after a associated chilled water pumps and
condenser water pumps are turned on the same as the base chiller.
3. Chillers Group-Stop
The building management system issues a group-stop command to the chiller controller, then the
chiller controller routes the stop-command to the chiller operation panel based on the
predetermined chiller operation priority. The chiller operation panel stops the chiller then after a
preset time period, stops chilled water pumps and condenser water pumps.
4. Interlock Circuit
The chiller operation panel usually contains built-in circuits for an interlock with chilled water
pumps and condenser pumps, and off-timer circuits. If they are not contained, it is required to
determine these circuits are included in either electrical or in automation scope in the project.
POWER LINE
CHILLED/HOT WATER GENERATOR
SIGNAL LINE
CHILLED/HOT WATER GENERATOR PANEL
START/STOP SIGNAL
TO BMS
CHILLER CONROLLER
RUN/TROUBLE SIGNAL
CHILLED WATER PUMP
START/STOP COMMAND
CHILLED WATER PUMP
STATE SIGNAL CHILLED WATER PUMP
START/STOP COMAND
POWER PANEL

STATE SIGNAL CONDENSER WATER PUMP
REMOTE STATION
CHILLED WATER PUMP RUN/TROUBLE SIGNAL
CONDENSER WATER PUMP RUN/TROUBLE SIGNAL

INTERLOCK SIGNAL
POWER PANEL
REMOTE STATION
COOLING TOWER RUN/TROUBLE SIGNAL

COOLING TOWER
Figure 27.4 Chiller related signals
27-4 AA-0019E
28. SECONDARY PUMP DISCHARGE WATER PRESSURE CONTROL
28. SECONDARY PUMP DISCHARGE PRESSURE

CONTROL
GENERAL
Secondary-pump discharge pressure control includes various control methods on which operating
efficiency of pumps depends. Understanding of these control methods is important to select the proper
control methods.
28.1 PURPOSE OF SECONDARY PUMP DISCHARGE PRESSURE CONTROL

The purposes of secondary-pump discharge pressure control are as follows:
1. To properly control the supply pressure (or differential pressure) at air handling units.
Since fluctuation in the supply pressure is a disturbance for the temperature control of air handling
units, water should be supplied under constant pressure.
2. To avoid close-off operation of pumps
When the control valve of an air handling unit nears full-closed, the flow through the pump
decreases, and the water temperature inside the pump rises, so the control program opens the
bypass valve to maintain the amount of water flowing through the pump above the preset level.
3. To reduce pump power
When the load decreases, supply water flow decreases, and pump power can be reduced.
28.2 TYPES OF SECONDARY PUMP DISCHARGE WATER PRESSURE CONTROL

Table 28.1 shows the types and characteristics of discharge water pressure controls. Discharge water pressure
controls are classified into a bypass valve control, and a pump speed control plus bypass valve control. Bypass
valve control modulates the bypass valve to maintain constant discharge water pressure, but cannot save the
pump power because pumps runs at rated speed. The pump speed control plus bypass valve control are
subdivided into a constant supply pressure control, or a variable supply pressure control.
The constant supply pressure control cannot reduce the pump speed below a preset discharge pressure, therefore
saves less amount of power.
The variable supply pressure control maintains the end differential pressure (differential pressure across the
furthest air handling unit) that varies with load flow and provides a large amount of pump power. Variable
supply pressure control methods are subdivided into; a control based on the load flow (the
assumed-end-pressure-control), a control based on the end differential pressure (the
end-differential-pressure-control) and a control that is coordinated with the air handling unit DDCs (the
DDC-coordinated-control).
The assumed-end-pressure-control predetermines the relationship between the supply pressure and flow rate and
resets the pump discharge pressure setpoint as required for the current supply water flow.
The end-differential-pressure-control measures the pressure difference across furthest air handling unit, and
resets the pump discharge pressure so that the end pressure loss is 50 to 100 kPa.
DDC-coordinated-control receives the control condition signal from each DDC in the air handling unit and
resets the pump discharge pressure setpoint downward until at least one control valve in air handling unit
become full open so that the pressure loss across and the control valves becomes as low as possible, and
provides more pump power savings than other methods.
AA-0019E 28-1
Table 28.1 Types and characteristics of supply water pressure control
Pressure detecting
Control method Supply water pressure setting Control name
point
Bypass valve Constant pressure Constant pressure control by bypass valve.
control
Constant pressure Constant pressure control by speed control.
Variable pressure based on the Variable discharge pressure control based on load
Pump discharge load flow flow (Assumed-end-pressure control).
Pump speed
pressure Variable pressure based on the Variable discharge pressure control based on end
control (+ bypass
end pressure differential pressure (End-differential pressure
valve control)
control).
Variable pressure by Variable discharge water pressure control by
coordination with DDC coordinated DDCs (DDC-Coordinated-control).
(1) Constant Discharge Pressure Control by a Bypass Valve

Figure 28.1 shows the system schematic and pump characteristic curve of the discharge pressure
control by a pump bypass valve. This control bypasses the same amount of water as the amount of the
decrease in the load, and because the pump always runs at the rated power, does not provide power
savings. As the flow in the secondary system is regulated, the supply pressure rises, and then the bypass
valve opens to maintain the supply pressure.
RESISTANCE CURVE OF BYPASS VALVE
RESISTANCE CURVE OF LOAD
OPERATING POINT
BYPASS FLOW
HEAD
SUPPLY WATER FLOW TO LOAD
PRESSURE TRANSMITTER PUMP SUPPLY WATER FLOW

BYPASS VALVE POSITION
POWER
PRESSURE
FLOW
Figure 28.1 Pump discharge water pressure

t l
(2) Constant Discharge Pressure Control by Pump Speed

Figure 28.2 shows system schematic and pump characteristic curves of the constant discharge pressure
control by pump speed controlled by a variable frequency drive (VFD). On a decrease in the load, the
pump speed decreases to reduce the supply water flow, and thus provides pump power savings. This
28-2 AA-0019E
control measures the pressure at the immediate outlet of the pump (header pressure) to maintain
discharge pressure, but does not reduce the pump head at light loads, and does not save pump power
significantly.
OPERATING POINT
OPERATING POINT
PRESSURE TRANSMITTER PUMP OUTLET (SPPED)

PRESSURE SP
HEAD
( LOW SPEED LIMIT )
(SPEED)
( LOW SPEED LIMIT )
POWER
INVERTER
OUTPUT
BYPASS VALVE
FLOW
PRESSURE
Figure 28.2 Pump discharge water pressure control by pump speed

t l
(3) Variable Discharge Pressure Control Based on Load Flow.
(Assumed-end- pressure-control)
Figure 28.3 shows the control schematic diagram and pump characteristics curves of the
assumed-end-pressure control. This control predetermines the pump discharge pressure and load flow
and then resets the supply pressure for setpoint corresponding to the current flow. Since an existing
flow meter can be used, additional installation is not necessary and pump power can be saved by
simply adding the control program. However, since the pump discharge pressure setting must have a
margin to avoid insufficient pressure, the amount of pump power savings is less than other variable
pressure control methods.
.
OPERATING POINT
PUMP OUTPUT
PRESSURE SP (SPPED)
PRESSURE TRANSMITTER
HEAD
( LOW SPEED LIMIT )
FLOW
FLOW METER
(SPPED)
( LOW SPEED LIMIT )

POWER
INVERTER
OUTPUT
BYPASS VALVE
PRESSURE FLOW
Figure 28.3 Pump discharge water pressure variable control based on

load flow (Assumed end pressure control)
AA-0019E 28-3
(4) Variable Discharge Pressure Control Based on the End-differential Pressure

(End-Differential-Pressure-Control)
Figure 28.4 shows a system schematic and pump characteristic curves of the
end-differential-pressure-control. This control measures the differential pressure across the furthest air
handling unit and maintains the pump discharge pressure to be 50 to 100 kPa. Since this control
measures the pressure across the furthest air handling unit, it does not need a margin unlike the
assumed-end-pressure control and does not cause the insufficient pressure, therefore, can achieve large
pump power savings.
Data transmission of the differential pressure signal is required from the location of the differential
transmitter to the controller. Also when there are multiple piping ends in the system, the pump discharge
pressure setpoint must be reset corresponding to the lowest differential pressure.
DIFF. PRESSURE TRANSMITTER

OPERATING POINT
HEAD (SPPED)
COMM.LINE
SETPOINT FLOW
CHANGE
(SPPED)
POWER
INVERTER
OUTPUT
BYPASS VALVE
FLOW
PRESSURE
Figure 28.4 Discharge water pressure variable control by end differential pressure (End
differential pressure control)
(5) Variable Discharge Water Pressure Control by coordinated operation by DDCs

(DDC-Coordinated-Control)
Figure 28.5 illustrates the system schematic and pump characteristics of the
DDC-coordinated-control. DDC-coordinated-control lowers the pump discharge pressure until at
least one control valve of air handling unit in the piping system becomes full open. In addition, this
control checks the capacity of the air handling unit by the discharge air temperature of the air
handling unit. When the discharge air temperature cannot be maintained within an allowable range
with the control valve full-open, the controller increases the pump discharge pressure. Conversely
when there is no control valve full-open, and the discharge air temperature is maintained, decreases
the pump discharge pressure. The DDC coordinated control adjusts the discharge pressure in such a
way that the pressure losses in the piping system and control valve becomes as low as possible, and
thus saves the greatest amount of pump power.
28-4 AA-0019E
BMS
PROGRAM
AHU
COMMUNICATION LINE
HEAD
AHU
(SPEED)
PRESSURE
TRANSMITTER
FLOW
SETPOINT
CHANGE (SPEED)
POWER
INVERTER BYPASS
OUTPUT
VALVE
FLOW
PRESSURE
Figure 28.5 Discharge water pressure variable control by DDC (DDC coordinated control)
28.3 CAUTIONS FOR PARALLEL OPERATION OF CONSTANT SPEED PUMPS AND

VARIABLE SPEED PUMPS
Care must be taken for applying discharge water pressure control by variable pump speed (e.g.,
assumed-end-pressure-control, end-differential-pressure control, DDC-coordinated-controls) when the system is
equipped with constant speed pumps and variable speed pumps and both types of pumps are running. In that
case, the discharge pressure must be kept constant. The discharge pressure can be varied with water flow when
only variable speed pumps are running. Figure 28.6 shows a Q-H curve for the parallel operation of a constant
speed pump and a variable speed pump, in which the pressure is controlled to be constant. When the piping
resistance becomes R3 and the variable pump speed becomes lower than N3, the discharge pressure of the
variable speed pump becomes lower than that of the constant speed pump, the water does not flow through the
valve, water inside the pump generates heat and then the rubber flexible connector at the upstream from the
pump may burst.
PRESSURE SP OUTLET PRESSURE
CONSTANT SPEED PUMP CHARACTERISTIC

VARIABLE PRESSURE PUMP
CHARASTERISITC
PIPING RESISTANCE
FLEXIBLE JOINT
VARIAB LE SPEED CONSTANT SPEED

(SPEED) PUMP PUMP
1 CHILLER 2 CHILLERS
FLOW DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
CONSTANT/VARIABLE PUMPS
IN PARALLEL OPERATION
Figure 28.6 Parallel operation of constant speed pump and variable speed pump
AA-0019E 28-5
28-6 AA-0019E
29. CONTROL OF COOLING TOWERS

GENERAL
Cooling towers play important roles in operation of chillers. The coefficient of performance (COP) of
chillers varies considerably with the condenser water temperature. This chapter describes the relationship
between the condenser water temperature and the COP of chillers.
29.1 ROLES OF COOLING TOWERS

Condenser water is used to cool the high pressure, high temperature refrigerant gas to condense in
condensers in compression chillers, and condense water vapor in an absorption chillers. Figure 29.1
illustrates changes in the condition of refrigerant of a compression chiller on a Mollier chart. The removed
heat in enthalpy from condenser water is expressed by a condensation line. When the condenser water
temperature is low, the condenser pressure decreases, then the compression line becomes shorter. Since the
COP that represents chiller efficiency is the vaporized heat divided by the compressor work, as the
condenser water temperature decreases, the COP of the chiller improves. The lower the outdoor air
wet-bulb temperature, the lower the condenser water temperature leaving the cooling tower. The cooling
tower is typically designed so that 32 condenser water can be obtained with 37entering water
temperature and 27 wet-bulb temperature. Chillers can operate with the condenser water at as low as
25, although it depends on type of chiller and load conditions. The COP can be improved at 25,
compared to at 32.
LOQUID MIXTURE GAS

PRESSURE
EMITTED HEAT FROM EVAPORATOR
CONDENSATION
EXPANSION
N
IO
SS
RE
MP
CO
EVAPORATION WORK BY
COMPRESSOR
RIGREGERATION AMOUNT
ENTHALPY
Figure 29.1 Refrigerant phase changes in compression chiller
29.2 SYSTEM SCHEMATIC AND CONTROL APPLICATIONS

(1) System Schematic
Figure 29.2 shows a control schematic and control functions for a cooling tower.
AA-0019E 29-1
CONTROL MENUS
COOLING TOWER FAN

STOP CONTROL
CONDENSER WATER
THREE-WAY VALVE CONTROL
ANTI-FREEZE UP CONTROL
NON-WATER PROTECTION
CONTROL
CONDENSER WATER
QUALITY CONTROL
SYMBOL NAME
TEMP/HUMI CONTROLLER/INDICATOR
PYPE INSERTION TYPE TEMP.SENSOR
PYPE INSERTION TYPE THERMOSTAT
ELECTRIC THREE-WAY VALVE
MEASURE MEASURE LEVEL SWITCH
ELECTRIC TWO-WAY BALL VALVE
CONDENSER WATER BLOW CONTROLLER
ELECTRIC HEATER
Figure 29.2 Cooling tower schematic and control menus
(2) Control Functions

1. Cooling Tower Fan Control
Cooling tower fans are turned on or off based on the cooling tower leaving water temperature.
The temperature low limit to turn off the fan is specified so as not to disturb the chiller operation.
More than 5 dead band is required to avoid frequent start/stop.
2. Condenser Water Three-Way Valve Control

When a chiller operates in winter or mid-seasons, the condenser water temperature may be too
low at morning startup or nighttime and a decrease in the chiller condenser pressure will initiate
a low pressure alarm. Therefore, condenser water temperature control must be implemented to
maintain the temperature above the low limit. When a chiller operates only in summer, the
condenser water three-way valve control is not necessary.
THREE-WAY VALVE POSITION
THREE-WAY VALVE
FAN
CONDENSER WATER TEMP
Figure 29.3 Condenser water temperature control
3. Anti-Freeze Control
An electric heater is turned on or off based on the water temperature in the cooling tower to
prevent water from freezing-up in winter. (If the cooling tower does not operate in winter,
freeze-up prevention and heating with no-flow prevention controls are not required.)
4. Heating with No-Water Prevention Control
When the anti-freeze control turns on an electric heater, the control must be interlocked by a
level switch to avoid heating with no water.
29-2 AA-0019E
5. Condenser Water Quality Control

The blow water control valve is turned on or off based on the electric conductivity of condenser
water in the cooling tower to prevent erosion of pipes or chiller coils due to degraded water
quality.
CONTROL VALVE : OPEN
CONTROL VALVE : CLOSE
CONDUCTANCE
Figure 29.4 Condenser water quality control
(3) Free Cooling

Capacity of a cooling tower is approximately proportional to the outdoor air wet-bulb temperature.
Free-cooling is a control that obtains chilled water using the air at low wet-bulb temperature without
operating chiller in winter. Installation of free cooling is increasing as a energy saving measure using
natural energy.
To apply free-cooling, closed-type cooling towers are used to prevent contaminated water in condenser
water system from flowing into the chilled water piping, or water-to-water heat exchangers are used to
separate the piping system.
Free cooling using closed-type cooling towers requires a reliable ant-freeze control for cooling tower.
AA-0019E 29-3
This blank page is added for page layout purpose.
29-4 AA-0019E
30. HEAT EXCHANGER CONTROL
30. HEAT EXCHANGER (CONVERTER) CONTROL

GENERAL
Use of heat exchangers in heat source systems is increasing in buildings that receive chilled or hot water
from district heating/chilling plants or building equipped with an ice storage system. Usually the control
system is simple, but sometimes causes troubles. This chapter describes the control system for heat
exchanger.
30.1 TYPES AND ROLES OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

The purposes of heat exchangers in heat source systems are:
1. To separate piping circuits with different pressure to save pump power, and simplify pressure control
e.g., water-to-water exchangers that receive heat from a DHC.
2. To separate piping circuits with different water quality to avoid erosion of pipes and equipment (e.g.,
water-to-water exchangers for primary and secondary chilled water flow in a water storage system).
3. To use the different type of the heat medium to supply heat to air handling units or fan coil units (e.g.,
steam-hot water converters, brine-chilled water converters in ice storage systems).
Typical types of heat exchangers are plate-type and multi-tube type.

Plate-type heat exchangers are used for conversion of chilled water-to-chilled water, hot water-to-hot water,
or steam-to-hot water, while multi-tube type heat exchangers are used for steam-to-hot water or very hot
water-to-hot water. There is no major distinction in control systems between the type of heat exchangers,
except that steam-to-hot water converters must accommodate over-heat protection control.
30.2 WATER-TO-WATER HEAT EXCHANGER CONTROL SYSTEMS

Water-to-water heat exchangers are commonly used to separate the primary chilled water pumped from the
district chilling plant or water or ice storage tanks, from secondary chilled water. Plate-type heat
exchangers are commonly used. Figure 30.1 shows a control system for a water-to-water exchanger.
[Controls]:
1. The electric two-way valve is controlled to maintain the supply water temperature.
2. The electric two-way valve is shut off when the chilled water pump is off.
[Notes]
The primary chilled water must return with a design temperature difference, therefore when the
secondary return temperature is low resulting low primary return temperature, a cascade control is
applied to raise the heat converter leaving temperature.
CASCADE CONTROL
MEASURE
PRIMARY CHILLED
SYMBOL NAME
SECONDARY CHILLED
WATER SUPPLY WATER SUPPLY
TEMP CONTROLLER/INDICATOR
PYPE INSERTION TYPE TEMP SENSOR
PRIMARY CHILLED SECONDARY CHILLED ELECTRIC TWO-WAY VALVE

WATER RETURN WATER RETURN
RELAY
Figure 30.1 Water-to-water heat exchanger schematics
AA-0019E 30-1
30. HEAT EXCHANGER CONTROL
30.3 STEAM-TO-HOT WATER HEAT CONVERTER CONTROL SYSTEMS

Steam-to-hot water converters receive steam from DHC plant, or boilers and convert it to supply hot water
to the secondary loads (AHU, fan coil units) in buildings.
Figure 30.2 shows a steam-to-hot water control system.
[Controls]
1. The electric two-way valve is controlled to maintain the hot water temperature.
2. The electric two-way valve is shut off when the hot water pump is off.
[Notes]
1. Use single-seated valves or rotary valves with low leakage.
2. As a measure for overheat protection on loss of power, use an electric two-way valve with spring
return or shut-off capability. (Ordinary control valves maintain the existing position on loss of
power, and do not become full closed, resulting overheating of hot water.)
MEASURE
SYMBOL NAME
TEMPERATURE INDICATION
TIC CONTROLLER
OVERHEAT PROTECTION TEW PIPE INSERTION
SHUT OFF VALVE TEMPERATURE SENSOR
TW PIPE INSERTION THREMOSTAT
STEAM HOT WATER SUPPLY MV ELECTRIC TWO-WAY VALVE
R RELAY
BRV ELECTRIC SHUT OFF VALVE
HOT WATER RETURN
Figure 30.2 Steam-to-hot water converter schematic
30-2 AA-0019E
31. SELECTING CONTROL VALVES FOR HEAT SOURCE SYSTEMS
31. SELECTING CONTROL VALVES FOR HEAT

SOURCES SYSTEMS
GENERAL
If control valves are not selected properly, it may result in poor controls of pressure and temperature and
may cause troubles. This chapter describes how to select control valves properly.
31.1 SELECTING VALVES FOR HEADER DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE CONTROL IN

PRIMARY-ONLY SYSTEMS
A header differential pressure control valve maintains constant differential pressure in the secondary
system as well as water flow through the chillers.
CHILLER
CHILLER
CHILLER
CHILLER
Flow rate (l/min) 2000

Primary pump
Head (kPa) 400
Control valve selection data P (kPa) 200
Calculated CV 99
Product name Actival electric two-way valve
Product number VY5110
Selected valve
Size (A) 80
CV 125
[Notes]
1. The differential pressure (P) is the primary-pump head minus the pressure loss of chillers and
piping related to chillers. An accurate P is obtained by drawing a pressure chart, but a half of
the primary-pump head can be used as an approximate value.
2. The equation to find the Cv is as follows;

Q
CV = 0.7
P
Where:
Q = flow (l/min)
P = differential pressure (kPa)
3. Other control valve specification is as follows;
AA-0019E 31-1
Item Control valve specification Reason for selection

If height from the central plant to the expansion
Pressure rating and material JIS10K-FC200 tank)+ primary pump head is below 100m, select
JIS100k, otherwise select JIS20K.
Since the differential pressure between supply and
Close-off rating 686 kPa
return headers is 200kPa, 650kPa is enough.
For electronic, or DDC controllers, select a relay for
Control signal Motor drive relay contact driving the motor. For electric controllers, select 135
ohms resistance input.
31.2 SELECTING VALVES FOR DISCHARGE PRESSURE CONTROL IN

PRIMARY-SECONDARY SYSTEMS
The discharge pressure control valve maintains constant discharge pressure to the secondary system, and
also prevents pump close-off operation.

Secondary pump
Head (kPa) 300
Calculated CV 81
Product name Actival electric two-way valve
Selected valve
Size (A) 65
CV 95
[Notes]
1. TheP must be equal to the secondary-pump head.
2. The Cv calculation equation is the same as in Section 32.1.
Item Control valve specification Selection

If height from heating/cooling source plant to expansion tank
Pressure rating and material JIS10K-FC200 + secondary pump head (water head) is less than 100 m, select
JIS10K, otherwise select JIS20K.
Since the secondary pump head is 300 kPa, 980 kPa is
Close-off rating 980 kPa
enough.
If controller is electronic, or DDC, select motor drive relay
Control signal Motor drive relay contact
contact, if electric select 135 ohm resistance input.
31-2 AA-0019E
31.3 SELECTING A MINIMUM FLOW BYPASS VALVE IN PRIMARY-SECONDARY

PUMP SYSTEMS
When the secondary-pump is equipped with a VFD, the discharge pressure is controlled by pump speed.
The minimum flow bypass valve is installed to prevent pump close-off operation when the pump speed
reaches the lower limit.

Secondary pump
Head (kPa) 300
Calculated CV 8
Selected valve Size (A) 15
CV 13
[Notes]
1. The P is equal to the secondary-pump head.
2. For Cv calculation the same equation as Section 31.1 is used.
3. Bypass valve flow is about 10% of the pump nominal flow.
4. Other control valves specification is as follows:
Control valve
Item Selection
specification
If height from heating/cooling source plant to expansion tank
The highest operating pressure 2.0 MPa + secondary pump head (water head) is less than 200 m, it is
usable.
Operating differential pressure, Since secondary pump head is 300 kPa, 1Mpa is enough.
permitted differential pressure at 0-1.0 MPa
close-off.
Minimum flow bypass valve is modulated by two-position
Control signal Two-positioned
control.
AA-0019E
31-3
31.4 SELECTING VALVES FOR CONDENSER WATER TEMPERATURE IN A COOLING

TOWER
Valves for chiller condenser water temperature control are modulated so that the condenser water
bypasses the cooling tower to avoid too low condenser water temperature when chiller operate in winter
or during mid-seasons. Three-way valves are usually used as temperature control valves, and for a
large-sized valves, two-way valves can be used.
CHILLER
CONDENSER
WATER PUMP

Condenser water pump
Head (kPa) 300
Calculated CV 313
Product number V5065A
Selected valve Size (A) 150
CV 360
[Notes]
1. 20kPa of P is used for Cv calculation. (a too high P results in too small control valve
size, and decreased condenser water.)
2. For Cv calculation, the same equation as in Section 31.1, is used.
Item Control valve specification Selection

Pressure rating and JIS10K-FC200 Pressure is less than 10 K.
material
Actuator MY9403 Since close-off-rating is 69 kPa, select MY9403.
Differential pressure across three-way valve is the water head
Close-off rating 69 kPa from cooling tower water surface to splay head, therefore 69
kPa is enough.
If the controller is electronic or DDC, select motor drive relay
Control signal Motor drive relay contact
contact, if electric ,select 135 ohm resistance input.
31-4
AA-0019E
32. SELECTING PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS AND FLOW METERS
32. SELECTING PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS AND

FLOW METERS
GENERAL
Accurate measurement of pressure and flow is important for controls of heat source systems. This chapter
describes how to determine the range of pressure transmitters and the size of flow meters.
32.1 SELECTING PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS

Select a pressure transmitters for discharge pressure control in the piping system shown in Figure 32.1.
[Calculation of pressure at Point ]
Height of the expansion tank from the central plant plus the secondary pump head.
60 m + 30 m = 90 m = 900 kPa
[Range of pressure transmitter]
Select a pressure transmitter with a range 1.5 times of the measurement range to avoid a range-over.
900 kPa x 1.5 = 1.5 MPa
[Selected product number]
Figure 32.2 is the pressure chart for the primary-secondary system in Figure 32.1.
Since the static head of the expansion tank is 60 m from the central plant, the pressure at a header () is
600 kPa.
Since the primary-pump head is 20 m (200 kPa), the pressure rises to 200 kPa, however it is canceled
because the total of the pressure loss of chiller and primary piping is 200 kPa, then the pressure at the
header () is equal to that at Point . The secondary-pump pressure (300 kPa) is added to the existing
pressure, then the pressure at Point where the pressure transmitter is installed is 900 kPa. Since the
pressure loss between 5 and 6, 6 and 7, 7 and 2 are 100 kPa, the pressure chart with the static head added
is as shown in the figure. Since the secondary-pump head equals the piping resistance in the secondary
piping, the pressure returns to the starting point (). Drawing the pressure chart shows that the pressure
at the header () is 900 kPa.
RANGE SELECTION
CHILLER
CHILLER
AA-0019E 32-1
Primary pump head 20 m

Secondary pump head 30 m
Resistance of chiller plus primary piping 200 kPa
Heights from central plant room to expansion tank 60 m
Heights from central plant room to the end of piing 50 m
Piping resistance from Point 5 to Point 6 100 kPa
Piping resistance from Point 7 to Point 2 100 kPa
Resistance of terminal air handlers, valves 100 kPa
Figure 32.1 Secondary pump supply water control transmitter selection

HEAD
PRESSURE
Figure 32.2 Pressure chart of the secondary piping system
32.2 SELECTING ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METERS
(1) Selecting diameter

1. The maximum flow through the flow meter occurs when all of the four pumps are running.
1500 (l/min) x 4 units x 60/100 = 3600 (m3/h)

2. Add 20% margin for the measurement range of the flow meter. (If there is no margin, the flow
meter may exceeds the range and cannot measure the flow.)
360 (m3/h) x 1.2 = 450 (m3/h)

3. Calculate the size of flow meter based on the Law of Continuity and convert the unit to that of
the flow (Q) (m/h)
q (m3/s) = A x V
3 D 2
Q (m /h) = x V x 3600
4
Since V = 3 (m/s), Q = 450 (m3/h),
32-2 AA-0019E
D = 0.230 m
4. Two sizes are obtained; 200 A and 250 A in the neighborhood of 230mm size. Select 200A.
Note that with 200A size, the flow velocity is faster than 3 m/s at the maximum flow.
5. Select the flow meter with a flow velocity of 3 to 5 m/s at the design flow. Too fast flow velocity
may result in selecting an electromagnetic flow meter with a considerably smaller diameter compared
to the mounting pipe size, and it may cause the following troubles.
A) Too high flow velocity through the electromagnetic flow meter accelerates erosion of linings.
B) Increased pressure loss.
C) Smaller flow meter causes less mechanical strength for the given pipe size.
D) Reducers with considerably different sizes at both ends are required up- and downstream from the
flow meter.
Flow rate (l/min) per pump 1500

Chilled water secondary pump
Number of pumps 4
Calculated flow velocity :V(m/s) 3-5
3
Flow meter selection data Rated flow rate(m /h) 360
Maximum flow rate : Q(m3/h) 450
Size (A) 200
Selected flow meter
Maximum flow velocity (m/s) 4
(2) Selecting output signals

1. Analog signal (4-20 mA)
Select analog signals when the flow signal is input to a chiller controller or pump controller, or
when the flow is displayed in a building management system or indicating devices.
2. Pulse signal (open collector output).
Select pulse signals when the flow signal is input to a Joule calculator.
AA-0019E 32-3
32-4 AA-0019E
33. CHILLER CONTROLLERS

GENERAL
Chiller controllers accommodate control functions required for the chiller system such as chiller staging
control or pressure control. This chapter describes necessity and details of control functions.
33.1 TYPES OF CHILLER CONTROLLERS

Chiller controllers are classified by the types of piping systems into for primary-only system and
primary-secondary systems. For primary-only systems, the controller also accommodates the header
differential pressure control. Figure 33.1 shows the appearance of the chiller controller. Figure 31.2 shows
an example of an operator display.
Table 33.1 Chiller controller types
Name/product
Primary application Equipment and application Optional functions
number
Primary-only pumping system Header differential pressure
Chiller controller Chiller group capacity
control
(WY2001Q) control
Primary-secondary pumping system
I/O MODULE CONTROL MODULE
OPERATOR INTERFACE
Figure 33.1 Chiller controller
Unit14 Unit Control

PMX Control
Grp Cmnd D/N C/H Ctrl Mode Waiting
Mode Mode 10 Min
Name Stus Sequential DisableNext
Opr Inc Dec
NO1 Unit 1 0
NO2 Unit 2 0
NO3 Unit 3 20
NO4 Unit 4 0
Figure 33.2 Example of operator display
AA-0019E 33-1
33.2 FUNCTIONS OF CHILLER CONTROLLERS
(1) Determining the number of operating chillers for primary-only systems

The controller compares the load flow to the rated flow of chiller to determine the number of operating
chillers, and adds or drops chillers as shown in Figure 32.3.
The reason why the number of chillers is determined based on the load flow is that a pump operates
when the associated chiller runs, and if the capacity of primary pumps is less than the load flow, the
primary pump may stall due to over load. When the temperature difference in the secondary circuit is
less than the design temperature and the number of chillers is determined based on load heat, the load
flow becomes greater than the capacity of pumps, and the pump motor becomes over loaded.
NUMBER OF
OPERATING CHILLERS
CHILLER
2
CHILLER
1
CHILLER
LOAD FLOW
CHILLER
PRIMARY-ONLY PUMPING SYSTEM STAGING CONTROL CHILLER GROUP CAPACITY CONTROL (FLOW BASED)
Figure 33.3 Primary-only system staging control
(2) Determining the number of operating chillers in primary-secondary systems.

The controller compares the load heat to the rated capacity (heat output) of chillers to determine the
number of operating chillers as shown in Figure 33.4. The reason why the number of operating chillers is
determines based on load heat is that basically chillers must satisfy load heat and the secondary pumps
supply the amount of water required to the load flow so primary-pumps will not become overloaded.
NUMBER OF
OPERATING CHILLERS
3
CHILLER
2
CHILLER
1
CHILLER
LOAD HEAT
CHILLER
PRIMARY-SECONDARY PUMPING SYSTEM CHILLER GROUP CAPACITY CONTROL (HEAT BASED )

( CHILLER RATED CAPACITY IS 2GJ/h )
Figure 33.4 Primary-secondary system staging control
33-2 AA-0019E
(3) Adjusting the number of operating chillers based on the supply water temperature
If the supply water temperature of the chiller is above the setpoint for a set time period, the controller
adds one chiller.
ADD SP SUPPLY WATER TEMP SUPPLY WATER TEMP

ADD SP
HEATING ADD DEMAND COOLING ADD DEMAND
(4) Adjusting the number of operating chillers based on the return temperature (forced stop)
If the return water temperature is below the setpoint (in the cooling mode), and for a set time period the
chiller is stopped by a built-in thermostat and the controller judges it as a trouble. The controller drops a
chiller before the built-in thermostat is activated.
RETURN WATER TEMP RETURN WATER TEMP

DROP SP DROP SP
HEATING DROP DEMAND COOLING DROP DEMAND
(5) Minimum on/off timer

The minimum on/off timer is a function that suspends the staging control until the capacity of the chiller
is established or diminished after the chiller starts or stops respectively to avoid frequent start/stop.
1. Effect wait timer when a chiller starts
When a chiller is turned on, the controller does not perform staging control until the chiller
establishes its capacity. Start/stop of the chiller is prohibited during the minimum on/off timer.
Next start/stop by the staging control is after the minimum on/off time expires.
FOR A SET TIME PERIOD AFTER

No.1 CHILLER CHILLER START, GROUP CAPACITY
CONTROL IS PROHIBITED
No.1 CHILLER START UP PERIOD
No.2 CHILLER
2. Effect wait timer when a chiller stops

When the chiller stops, the controller does not perform the staging control until the chiller
completes remaining operation or the other chiller that keeps operating establishes its capacity.
The staging control resumes after the minimum on/off time expires
AA-0019E 33-3
FOR A SET TIME PERIOD AFTER

CHILLER STOP, GROUP CAPACITY
CONTROL IS PROHIBITED
STOP CHILLER
No.1 CHILLER START UP PERIOD
No.2 CHILLER
(6) Restart-Prevention
1. Restart prevention when a chiller starts
The controller excludes the chiller started by the staging control from chillers to be restarted for a
set time period to protect the chiller. During the restart-prevention periods, the chiller cannot be
restarted, therefore, when addition of the chiller is requested, the controller starts an alternative
chiller with the next higher priority. The purpose of restart-prevention is to prevent overheat due to
the startup current in drive motor of compression chiller.
FOR SET TIME PERIOD AFTER CHILLER STOP, RESTART OF CHILLER

IS PROHIBITED. THIS DECISION IS DONE FOR EACH CHILLER.
START CHILLER RESTART CHILLER

RESTART PROHIBIT
No.1 CHILLER START CHILLER

RESTART PROHIBIT RESTART CHILLER
No.2 CHILLER
2. Restart-prevention when a chiller stops

The controller excludes stopped by staging control from chillers to be restarted for a set time
period to protect the chiller. During the restart prevention periods, since the chiller cannot be
started, when addition of a chiller is requested, the controller starts an alternative chiller with next
higher priority. The purpose of restart prevention is that the absorption chiller needs a diluting
operation to prevent re-crystallization.
STOP CHILLER STOP CHILLER RESTART CHILLER
RESTART PROHIBIT
No.1 CHILLER RESTART PROHIBIT
No.2 CHILLER
(7) Backup Operation at Trouble

When a chiller stops due to a trouble, the controller immediately starts a backup chiller. The backup
operation is performed even during the minimum on/off timer.
.
33-4 AA-0019E
WHEN CHILLER STOPS DUE TO FAILURE, EVEN DURING.

START CHILLER START-UP PERIOD, START THE ALTRENATIVE CHILLER IMMEDIEATELY
No.1 CHILLER
START-UP RESTART PROHIBIT
START-UP
No.2 CHILLER
No.3 CHILLER
START ALTERNATIVE CHILLER
(8) Operation Order Changeover

Typical methods of switching operation order include: sequential, rotation, and programmed. Figure
33.5 shows the sequential and rotation. Figure 33.6 the programmed.
.
1.Sequential
Chillers are operated on a fixed order in response to the varying loads. The first started chiller first
stops.
2.Rotation
Switches operating chillers so that the chiller started first stops first to average the runtime of
chillers.
3.Programmed
Chillers can operate in max. 12 sets of pattern each of which has max. four types of chillers with
different capacities. A term level means a rank of patterns. In the following example, on an
increase in the load, the controller adds a chiller of level 1 to 7. On a decreases in the load, drops a
chiller of level 7 to 1.
LOAD PATTERN
CAPACITY FOR 3 CHILLERS
TIME
( SEQUENTIAL) ( ROTATE)
START ORDER START ORDER
STOP ODER STOP ORDER
Figure 33.5 Operation order changeover function
AA-0019E 33-5
Chiller No. 1 No. 2 No. 3
CAPACITY
Level (352kW) (704kW) (1408kW)
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Level 4
Level 5
Level 6 LOAD
Level 7
PROGRAMMABLE START/STOP ORDER
Figure 33.6 Start/stop sequence by program control
(9) Moving window data averaging

Since the instantaneous values of the flow and the heat that are used in the staging control vary
drastically, the controller uses mean values in a moving window.
(10) Startup Load Operation

On a group-start of chillers, the controller determines the number of operating chillers based on a preset
startup-load, and maintains that number of operating chillers during the startup operation period. Since
the chiller does not establish its capacity during the startup periods, adding chillers based on supply
water temperature is not performed. However, even during startup period, dropping chillers based on
return temperature is performed. After the start-up period, the controller resumes the ordinary staging
control.
(11) Start/Stop Delay

When multiple chillers are turned on at the same time, a timer is set to start the next chiller (30 seconds
in default). When the chiller is turned off, a timer is set to start the next chiller. Because chiller consume
a large amount of power (especially compression chillers such as turbo chillers), if they are turn on
simultaneously, it may affect electric distribution system, such as a voltage drop.
(12) Various Changeover Functions

[Cooling/heating changeover]
Switches preset parameters between cooling or heating modes including; chiller capacities, operation
order, maximum number of operating chillers, supply water temperature setpoint, supply water
temperature setpoint for addition of chillers, and startup loads.
[Day/night changeover]
Switches preset max. number of operating chiller, startup loads.
[Auto/manual changeover]
Enables or prohibits staging control.
Auto mode:
The controller automatically determines the number of chillers and starts or stops the chillers. In the
Auto mode, chillers can be turned off manually, however, if the resulting number of operating
chillers is excessive, the controller turns off chillers in the next control interval.
Manual mode:
The controller does not perform staging control. Only manual operation is available. Manual mode is
used when the chiller control must not perform automatically such as during maintenance periods.
33-6 AA-0019E
(13) Header Differential Pressure Control

[Bypass valve control (PI control)]
The bypass valve is controlled to maintain a constant header differential pressure. (Fig. 33.9)
VALVE POSITION
DEFF PRESSURE
SP
Figure 33.7 Bypass valve control (PI)
[Opening the bypass valve when a chiller is added]

The bypass valve opens before chillers is added by staging control to keep a flow path to prevent the
operating chillers from stopping due to a no-water relay. (Fig. 33.8).
ADD REQUEST
ADD PREDICTION
No.2 START
No.1 CHILLLER
ADD PREDICT
No.2 CHILLLER
BYPASS VALVE
BYPASS VALVE
POSITION
Figure 33.8 Bypass valve open FULL OPEN
at addition
AA-0019E 33-7
33-8 AA-0019E
34. PUMP CONTROLLERS

GENERAL
Pump controllers accommodate control functions, i.e., discharge water pressure control and pump staging
control. This chapter describes necessity and details of these control functions.
34.1 TYPES OF PUMP CONTROLLERS

Pump controllers are classified into controls for constant speed, and variable speed pumps as shown in
Table 34.1. Bypass valve control for variable speed pumps include on/off and PID control. The appearance
of the controller and operation display are the same as the chiller controller.
Table 34.1 Pump control types
Name/product
Primary application Equipment and application Optional functions
number
Constant speed pump + bypass Discharge water pressure control (bypass
Pump valve valve control)
controller Pump staging control Variable speed control + bypass Discharge water pressure control
(WY2001P) valve (Variable water control + bypass valve
control)
34.2 PUMP CONTROLLER FUNCTIONS

Pump controllers furnish bypass valve control, variable flow control by VFD as well as pump staging
control.
(1) Determining the Number of Operating Pumps
Compares the load flow to the rated flow of pumps to determine the number of operating pumps, and
turns on/off the pumps as shown in Figure 34.1.
NUMBER OF
PUMPS
4 CHILLERS
3 CHILLERS
2 CHILLERS
1 CHILLER
FLOW
PUMP CAPACITY CONTROL (FLOW BASED)
PUMP SYSTEM
Figure 34.1 Pump staging control
(2) Backup Operation on a Trouble

When a pump stops during staging control, the controller turns on the backup pump immediately even
during the minimum on/off time period, as shown in Figure 34.2.
AA-0019E 34-1
START PUMP
No.1 PUMP PUMP FAILURE STOP

STARTUP PERIOD
STARTUP PERIOD
No.2 PUMP
No.3 PUMP
ALTERNATIVE PUMP
Figure 34.2 Backup pump start
(3) Operation Order Changeover

Operation order changeover function includes, sequence, rotation, and programmed the same way as
the chiller controller.
(4) Moving Window Average
Uses a moving average of flow for sequence control the same way as the chiller controller.
(5) Startup Load
When starting pumps, the controller determines the number of active pumps based on preset startup
loads, turns on pumps, then maintains that number of pumps to run during the startup periods. After
the startup period, the controller moves to the staging control.
(6) Start/Stop Delay
When starting multiple pumps at the same time, a timer (30 seconds in default) is set before starting
the next chiller. When a chiller is shut off, a timer is activated in the same way.
(7) Various Changeover Functions
[Cooling/heating changeover]
Switches the maximum number of operating pumps and startup loads between cooling and heating
modes.
[Day/night changeover]
Switches the maximum number of pumps and startup loads.
[Auto/manual changeover]
Auto/manual switching enables or prohibits the staging control.
Auto mode:
The controller automatically determines and turns on or off the necessary number of pumps.
During the Auto mode pumps can be turned on/off manually, however, if the resulting the
number of active pumps is excessive, the controller shuts off a pump at the next control interval.
Manual mode:
The controller does not determine the number of operating pumps. Only manual operation is
allowed. To prohibit automatic operation, it must be switched to the manual mode (e.g., during the
maintenance periods).
(8) Secondary Pump Discharge Water Pressure Control
Secondary pump discharge water pressure control includes the following methods.
Select an appropriate method according to the types of the system and control methods.
1. Bypass valve only control (PI control)
The bypass valve is controlled to maintain the pump discharge pressure. (Fig. 34.3)
2. VFD (PI) control plus bypass valve (PI) control (When one of the pumps is equipped with a
VFD.) The pump speed and bypass valve are controlled to maintain the pump discharge
pressure.(Fig. 34.4)
34-2 AA-0019E
3. VFD (PI) control-plus-bypass-valve (on/off)-control (When all pumps are equipped with VFDs.)
The pump speed is controlled to maintain the pump discharge pressure. The bypass valve opens to
maintain the minimum flow when the load flow is below the low limit. (Fig. 34.5)
OUTPUT
VALVE POSITION
BYPASS VALVE
INVERTER
INVERTER OUTPUT
LOW LIMIT
SP OUTPUT PRESSURE
OUTPUT PRESSURE
PRESSURE SP
Figure 34.3 Bypass valve control (PI)
Figure 34.4 VFD control (PI)+ bypass valve control (PI)
OUTPUT
LOAD FLOW
FLOW SP
OUTPUT PRESSURE
PRESSURE SP
BYPASS VALVE CONTROL

INVERTER CONTROL
Figure 34.5 VFD control (PI)+ bypass valve control (ON/OFF)
(9) Resetting Pressure Based on Load Flow (Assumed-End-Pressure-Control)

Resets the setpoint for discharge pressure downward based on the load flow to reduce the pump power
during light load conditions. (Fig. 34.6) This function is used together with VFD
control-plus-bypass-valve-control. (When all pumps are equipped with VFDs.)
PRESSURE SP
LOAD FLOW
Figure 34.6 Pressure setting tuning
AA-0019E 34-3
34-4 AA-0019E
35. AN OVERVIEW OF BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
35. AN OVERVIEW OF BUILDING MANAGEMENT

SYSTEMS
GENERAL
Traditionally the objective of a building management system (BMS) has been primarily to monitor
operating conditions of building equipment (e.g., air handling units, ventilation fans, heat sources) from a
central fire command center or a monitoring room in a building. Today, as the number of management
points has increased, it has become impossible to manage building equipment without a BMS. Also, the
BMS is becoming more important from environment and energy management viewpoint.
The range of functionality of BMSs is expanding and improving from the following reasons;
By positively adopting IT technologies (e.g., personal computers, the Internet), the BMS has
increased the point capacity and furnished more advanced functionality with an improved
cost/performance ratio.
Today it is common knowledge that BMS functions to collect, store, analyze building data are
essential to solve energy saving issues. Therefore. the BMS is used as an energy management
system as well as a monitoring system. A BMS with energy management features is referred to as
a building and energy management system (BEMS).
To manage the building from a single window for efficient operation, individual systems (e.g.,
HVAC, electric, lighting, fire alarm) have become integrated through a communication network.
The standardization of building management system is accelerated in areas such as hardware
configuration, functionality, or communication protocols.
AA-0019E 35-1
35. AN OVERVIEW OF BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
35-2 AA-0019E
36. SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

GENERAL
The IT revolution centered by Windows and the Internet have affected the configuration of BMS. The
BMS performs in coordinated operations, by connecting controllers each of which furnishes unique
functions, such as air handling unit control, or heat source control, and a PC for monitoring. Also the
configuration of the BMS is flexible to meet any size of the building.
The configuration of BMS has changed along with to the development of computer and communication
technologies. The configuration of the todays BMS has the following features with the difference between
manufacturers.
Distributed systems
Information/communication technologies
BACnet
36.1 DISTRIBUTED SYSTEM

Controllers each of which serves individual equipment are connected to a network that covers the entire
building, and as a whole, they configure a system that performs coordinated functions. These systems are
called a distributed system and provide following features;
1. A controller serving each equipment operates independently from other controllers, therefore control
of building equipment keeps operating even during periodic maintenance or system troubles.
2. When building equipment is added, just addition of a controller serving that equipment to the BMS is
needed without changing the other part of the system.
3. Provides easy design and operation of the building by a hierarchical approach in an ascending order,
individual equipment-level, group-level (e.g., heat sources or floors); and the building-level.
The levels of the system are as follows;
The integrated management-level incorporates devices that perform monitoring or data management of
the entire system.
The system management level: The system is divided into subsystems (e.g., air handling units, heat
sources, or floors) and this allows easy design and minimizes wiring length or effects of troubles.
The individual control-level incorporates DDCs performing individual control of equipment (e.g., air
handling unit or chiller).
36.2 INFORMATION/COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

Personal computers and the Internet have expanded to personal use and their cost/performance ratio has
drastically improved. The BMS has introduced these technologies as much as possible and now the BMS
can be referred to as one of areas of the computer and network applications. Examples of these
technologies are as follows;
- Windows PCs are used for a monitoring terminals.
- Network is based on TCP/IP that is used in the Internet.
These technologies provide the following features.
- Use of a Windows PC for a monitoring terminal allows the operator to use the same skill as in
day-to-day operations, and provides reduced operator training time and fewer mistakes.
- Since those technologies are commonly used in offices and home, they are less expensive and the
progress in functional capability is fast.
- Since TCP/IP removes communication barriers between a BMS and office LANs, new applications
can be developed such as accessing to a BMS from office PCs
AA-0019E 36-1
36.3 BACnet
36.3.1 History of BACnet
In the past, building owners strongly desired to manage, monitor, and control various building equipment
(e.g., HVAC, electric, fire alarm, lighting, elevator) from a single monitoring terminal. The system
integration was achieved through a interfaces that venders agreed and developed, however, it did not
satisfy building owners need in both costs and functionality. Therefore, it was proposed to develop a
single communication protocol. The American Society of Heating and Refrigerating and
Air-conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE) established a standard committee participated by end users,
manufacturers, universities, governmental organizations to develop a common protocol. BACnet, A Data
Communication Protocol for Building Automation and Control Network was developed as a
ANSI/ASHRAE standard 135 in 1995, and was standardized as ISO 16484-5 in 2003, and was revised as
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard in 2004. For IP network, it was standardized as BACnet/IP.
36.3.2 Configuration of BACnet

BACnet defines the following components; a device that exchanges information, an object that
contains a combination of functions and properties, a service that is provided by a device to an object,
and thus realizes the software-based information exchange that is independent of hardware.
SERVICE
TCP/IP BACnet
HVAC ELECTRIC LIGHTING FIRE ALARM SECURITY
OBJECT
PROPERTY
IF ROOM TEMP
Figure 36.1 BACnet system configuration
(1) Device
B-OWS (BACnet Operator Workstation)
A B_OWS allows the building operator to monitor, issue start/stop commands, and reset
parameters of building equipment. Also it monitors operating statuses of devices in the network
and controls the device status of entry to and detachment from the system.
B-BC (BACnet Building Controller)
A B_BC individually monitors, and transmits operating status of building equipment to the
network.
36-2 A-0019E
(2) Object and Property

An object is a unit that combines functions and information as a pair. A property defines property of
the object.
e.g., A temperature sensor is represented by an Analog Input object (AI) that periodically updates
measurement from the temperature sensor and generates an alarms if the measurement exceeded the
preset high or low limits.
Information is defined as Table 36.1.
Table 36.1 Example of property
AI Object Information Note

Object _ name 1F office room temperature
Present _ Value 26.5
High _ Limit 27.0 Optional
Low _ Limit 25.0 Optional
Units C
(3) Service
Services are operations to objects. Examples of services are as follow;
1. Alarm monitoring
When an alarm occurs, a B-BC transmits an Unconfirmed Event Notification service to a Binary
Input Object.
2. Start/stop
To transmit a start/stop command, the B-OWS transmits a Write Property Service to a Binary
Output Object in a B-BC. To confirm a status changes caused by a start/stop command, the B-BC
transmits an Unconfirmed COV Notification service.
3. Reading a measured value.
The B-OWS sends a Read Property Multiple Service to the Analog Input Object in the B-BC.
Table 36.2 and 36.3 list standard BACnet objects defined by ANSI/ASHRAE 135-2004.
AA-0019E 36-3
Table 36.2 BACnet

standard objects Table 36.3 BACnet standard services
1 Accumulator ALARM AND EVENT SERVICE REMOTE DEVICE MANAGEMENT

SERVICE
2 Analog Input 1 Chang of Value Reporting 1 Device Communication Control
3 Analog Output 2 Intrinsic Reporting 2 Confirmed Private Transfer
4 Analog Value 3 Algorithm Change Reporting 3 Unconfirmed Private Transfer
5 Averaging 4 Alarm and Event Occurrence and 4 Reinitialize Device

Notification
6 Binary Input 5 Acknowledge Alarm 5 Confirmed Text Message
7 Binary Output 6 Confirmed COV Notification 6 Unconfirmed Text Message
8 Binary Value 7 Unconfirmed COV Notification 7 Time Synchronization
9 Calendar 8 Confirmed Event Notification 8 UTC Time Synchronization
10 Command 9 Unconfirmed Event Notification 9 Who-Has and I-Have
11 Device 10 Get Alarm Summary 10 Who-Is and I-Am
12 Event Enrollment 11 Get Enrollment Summary VERTUAL TERMINAL SERVICE
13 File 12 Get Event Information 1 VT-Open
14 Group 13 Life Safety Operation 2 VT-Close
15 Life Safety Point 14 Subscribe COV 3 VT-Data
16 Life Safety Zone 15 Subscribe COV Property NETWORK SECURITY
17 Loop FILE ACCESS SERVICE 1 Request Key
18 Multi-state Input 1 Atomic Read File 2 Authenticate
19 Multi-state Output 2 Atomic Write File
20 Multi-state Value OBJECT ACCESS SERVICE
21 Notification Class 1 Add List Element
22 Program 2 Remove List Element
23 Pulse Converter 3 Create Object
24 Schedule 4 Delete Object
25 Trend Log 5 Read Property
6 Read Property Conditional
7 Read Property Multiple
8 Read Range
9 Write Property
10 Write Property Multiple
36-4 A-0019E
36.4 PRODUCT EXAMPLE OF BMS

This section explains the system configuration of a savic-net FX as an example of the latest BEMS product.
Figure 36.2 shows the system configuration of a savic-net FX. Figure 36.3 shows the concept of the system
configuration.
GRAPHIC PANEL
MONITORING PC
ANNUCIATOR
AHU/GENERAL I/O
CHILLER/
POWER
PUMP
DISTRIBUTION
AHU/
GENERAL I/O
LIGHTING
MALTIPLE UNIT AHU
Figure 36.2 savic-net FX system configuration
MONITORING PC
SYSTEM DATA
TOTAL
MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT
MANAGEMENT
SERVER SERVER
VETICAL DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM SYSTEM CORE SYSTEM CORE

MANAGEMENT SERVER SERVER
INDIVIDUAL
MANAGEMENT
ELECTRIC / HVAC / SANITARY / ELEVATOR / PARKING / SECURITY / FIRE-ALARM
HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION
Figure 36.3 System hierarchy
AA-0019E 36-5
(1) System configuration devices

The following devices are connected to an IP network.
(a) System Management Server (SMS)
An SMS manages information related to all of the system points. Upon a request by the
monitoring PC, the SMS transmits graphic data on HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol). The
graphic data is written in XML-based SVG (Scalar Vector Graphics).
(b) Data Storage Server (DSS)
A DSS stores and manages historical data to be used for daily/monthly/yearly reports, or energy
management.
(c) System Core Server (SCS)
An SCS manages web-service information to or from DDCs.
(d) Monitoring PC
A monitoring PC allows the building operator for a web-based access from a web browser and
graphically displays the system information. Also it reports real time events such as alarms
using HTTP.
(e) Controller
A controller controls building equipment such as air handling unit. Costs and functions can be
optimized by selecting the type and numbers of point to meet the equipment.
Devices in the system transmit and receive web-service information on HTTP, Thus, the system
configuration of the savic-net FX can be referred to as the Internet-based.
(2) Networks
The system uses Ethernet the same way as a LAN in offices. LAN cables (100 BASE-TX) or optical
fiber cables (100BASE-FX) are used for wiring. The protocol is TCP/IP. Upon a request from the
monitoring PC, each device transmits data using web services. Therefore, the monitoring PC needs
just a web browser for operation. Also the system supports BACnet/IP to interface with other
systems on the Internet.
(3) Functional distribution

Each device has the following distributed functions.
Integrated management
The SMS and DSS control the entire system information. The monitoring PC monitors, issues
start/stop commands to all system points, and resets control parameters
Management and control of each system
The SCS serving each group (e.g., equipment or floor) controls and collects data related to each
group so that troubles in other system does not affect its group.
Individual control
A DDC controls each equipment.
Reference:
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 135-2004 BACnet A Data Communication Protocol for Building
Automation and Control Networks.
Windows, Internet Explorer are trademarks of Microsoft Corporation.
BACnet is a trademarks of ASHRAE.
savic-net, Infilex are trademark of Yamatake Corporation.
36-6 A-0019E
37. SYSTEM FUNCTIONS

GENERAL
This chapter describes functions to control, monitor and process the system points. The functions
performed by a DDC such as feedback controls are not discussed in this chapter.
37.1 SYSTEM FUNCTIONS

In a BMS, each device plays its own role, while system-wide functions are performed as coordinated
operations by those devices. Table 37.1 lists functions of each level; integrated-level, system-level, and
individual-level.
AA-0019E 37-1
Table 37.1 System functions
Start/stop and status monitoring Starts/stops building equipment and monitors status of building equipment from the
monitoring terminal.
Integrated Control parameter reset Reset control parameters from the monitoring terminal.
management level Energy data management Collects, stores, edits energy data and generates related reports.
Alarm/status change data Collects, stores, edits alarm/status data and makes reports.
management
Power demand control Anticipates power consumption during the demand interval, compares it to a limit
and then adds or sheds registered loads. Thus reduces the contract power and
prevents penalty charges or increased contract power.
Time schedule Automatically turns equipment on or off based on predetermined date, day of the
week, or time of the day.
Power failure control Upon detecting power-failure, suppresses alarms that indicate start/stop commands
System
and actual status do not match due to power-failure.
management control
When the generator starts, the system moves to the generator power supply mode.
level
Starts equipment registered in the generator load table, while suspends ordinary
controls. Manual commands are effective during the generator power supply mode.
When power recovers, issues restart commands to start/stop points. The command
is determined so as to restore equipment to the state which should be at the time of
power recovery.
Temperature/humidity control Performs PID controls of temperature and humidity.
Outdoor air cooling Compares outdoor air and return air enthalpy. If outdoor air is effective for cooling,
modulates the damper to positively bring in outdoor air to reduce the cooling load.
Duty cycling Calculates the stop time of building equipment such as AHUs in a control interval,
while maintaining indoor comfort to reduce heat source energy and electric power.
Start/stop command output Issues start/stop commands to building equipment. Manage command priorities
processing depending on commanders including; manual command, time schedule,
Individual control power-failure, other control programs. Compares start/stop command and status
level input, and if they dont match after a predetermined period, generates an alarm as a
start/stop command failure.
Alarm/status change detection Detects alarm/status changes and send them to the central.
High/low limit of When a measured value exceeds the predetermined high/low limits, generate an
measurements. alarm. The types of high/low limits include: absolute limit specified by an
absolute value, and deviation limit specified by the deviation from the setpoint.
Runtime/cycle count Accumulate runtime/cycle count of the building equipment and utilize them for
maintenance purpose.
37-2 AA-0019E
37.2 FUNCTIONS OF MONITORING PC

Monitoring and issuing commands are performed from the display of the monitoring PC. This allows the
operator to collect accurate, and the large amount of information; provides simple, clear operation, and
effective management; reduces monitoring work load; and improves the entire management works.
(1) Graphic Display Functions

The system displays information of control points in the building on a graphic screen (Figure 37.1).
Presentation of points such as color changes or animation (e.g., fan rotation) of symbols improves
visibility.
Figure 37.1 Graphic display example
(2) Hierarchical Structure of Screens

Display screens are configured in hierarchy. The operator can move from a basic screen to a more
detailed screen to obtain desired information. (Fig. 37.2)
TOP SCREEN
MENU MENU
SELECTION SELECTION
LIST LIST
INDIVIDUAL INDIVIDUAL INDIVIDUAL INDIVIDUAL

SCREEN SCREEN SCREEN SCREEN
DETAIL DETAIL DETAIL DETAIL

SCREEN SCREEN SCREEN SCREEN
Figure 37.2 Display hierarchy
AA-0019E 37-3
37.3 MONITORING AND OPERATING EQUIPMENT

The operator monitors and operates equipment from the screen. The following example describes examples
of day-to-day operations on savic-net FX screens.
Since display operation is Windows-based, it does not require particular skills and thus eliminates false
operations.
1. Start/Stop Operation of Equipment
Fig.37.3 describes steps to turn on an AHU fan.
2. Changing time schedule; Figure 37.4 describes steps to change the scheduled start/stop time on
Monday.
37-4 AA-0019E
SELECT AHU FAN ON

GARAPHIC SELECT [MONDAY] ON
SCHEDULE SCREEN
ENTER START/STOP
SELECT AHU FAN
PROPERTY [ON] TIME
PRESS [ENTER] AND
CHANGE COLOR OF OPERATING TIME ON
FAN ON GRAPHIC
MONDAY IS DISPLAYED
Figure 37.3 Start/stop operation Figure 37.4 Schedule change operation
AA-0019E 37-5
37.4 DATA MANAGEMENT

The objective of data management by a BMS includes energy management, and
fault-detection/diagnosis. The result of fault-detection and diagnosis usually uses energy data and
contributes to energy savings, therefore, these two functions are closely related.
37.4.1 Energy management

In general energy management is achieved by a PDCA cycle.
(1) Plan (P)
1. Setting goals
The building owner defines a goal for energy management in the building, then the goal is
broken down to goals for individual equipment or department. It is effective to develop a
primary energy flowchart (Fig. 37.5) to develop a plan.
2. Develop measures to achieve goals
3. Design management graphs
Major measurement points and totalized points are specified in the design phase. Also make
sure that the accuracy and range of measurement or totalizing sensors meet the level to
analysis of energy consumption.
Measured or totalized data can be filtered. Filtering conditions are as follows:
Time period: day of the week, time of the day, core-time/after-hours, weekday/holiday
Control condition: cooling/heating/free-cooling, optimum start control.
Electric power meters are installed for each group of energy conservation:
Use of electric power: lighting/outlet, OA devices, etc.
Equipment:: Air handling, heat source, generator, heat storage, elevators, etc.
Develop a graph design list (Table 37.4.1) to specify including, purpose of analysis, criteria for
evaluation of data, measurement conditions calculation conditions: graphic representation,
data contained in the graph, and related graphs. This list is important to check specified points
and properties, i.e., sensors, the number of points, criteria for filtering, calculation of data,
evaluation.
37-6 AA-0019E
LIGHTING/ OFFICE MIDDLE HOT KICHEN

ELEVETOR
OUTLET MACHINE WATER WATER
ELECTRIC
AXILIARY PAC/ PAC/

EQUIPMENT INDOOR INDOOR
UNIT UNIT
VAV
CHILLED SUPPLY/
EXHAUST
WATER FAN
PUMP
ABSORPTION FCU
AHU
CHILLER HOT WATER
GAS PUMP
BOILER
HEATING/
COOLING SOURCE TRANSFER ROOM
KICHEN
HOT WATER/
BOILER
OUT DOOR AIR COOLING

NATURAL ENERGY
Figure 37.5 Primary energy flow
AA-0019E 37-7
Table 37.2 Graph design sheet
37-8 AA-0019E
(2) Do (D)
Take actions for one year.
(3) Check (C)

Evaluate results using the following techniques.
1. Benchmark analysis: Compare the energy consumption in the building in a base unit (e.g., per floor
square) with the average data in other buildings.
2. Primary energy conversion: When energy data is represented in different units, convert it to a single unit.
3. Convert energy consumption to the amount of carbon-dioxide emission
4. Eliminate the effects by outdoor air temperature to determine whether or not the actions for energy
conservation were effective.
5. If the result does not meet the goal, analyze possible causes.
(4) Action (A)

Review the plan based on found causes, then revise the plan.
Fig. 37.6 is a graph that represents the received energy from a district heating and cooling plant (DHC).
The amount of the chilled heat and the outdoor temperature during the past two years gives information on
whether the amount of chilled heat was increased and the effects by the outdoor temperature compared to
the previous year.
;.
CHILLED WATER
TOTALIZED HEAT (PREV YEAR)
CHILLED WATER
TOTALIZED HEAT (THIS YEAR)
OUTDOOR AIR TEMP (PREV YEAR)
OUTDOOR AIR TEMP (THIS YEAR)
MONTH
Figure 37.6 Substation chilled water heat graph
37.4.2 Fault-detection and diagnosis

Data management of BMS is used to verify whether or not energy consumption is minimized to meet
varying loads, also the effect of changes in equipment over time is minimized. The following are
examples of data management:
[Example 1] Optimizing the set point for chilled water secondary-pump staging control (Fig.37.7).
In this example, a bypass valve differential pressure control and staging control based on the load flow
were applied to a chilled water secondary-pump system. By comparing the thresholds to add/drop
chillers and to the load flow, the graph shows that during night time two pumps ran, also the header
differential pressure exceeded the threshold to add the second chiller. It can be assumed that the actual
flow of the secondary-pump was more than the design flow that was used to determine the threshold to
AA-0019E 37-9
add a chiller and the maximum flow of the bypass valve. Summarized, it can be said that resetting the set
point to add a chiller upward would satisfy the load flow and one pump would be enough during
nighttime.
SO FOR 3 PUMPS
HEADER DIFF PRESSURE
CHILLED WATER FLOW

CONTROLLER

TRANSMITTER
SP FOR TWO PUMPS
HEADER DIFF PRESSURE (kPa)

HEADER DIFF PRESSURE SP (kPa)
BYPASS VALVE
CHILLED WATER FLOW (l/min)
DIFF PRESSURE
Figure 37.7 Chilled water secondary pump staging control addition setpoint
[Example 2] Mixing losses in interior and perimeter zones (Fig. 37.8)
In this graph, the chilled water valve of the interior AHU and the hot water valve of the perimeter AHU
were always open. This indicates that a mixing loss may have occured in which the cooling energy
becomes heating load, and the heating energy becomes cooling load. To prevent the mixing loss, it is
effective to lower the heating set point in perimeter than the cooling set point in interior.
INTERIOR AHU CHILLED WATER VALVE (%)

PRERIMETER AHU CHILLED WATER VALVE (%)
ZERO ENERGY BAND

VALVE POSITION
HEATING COOLING
ROOM TEMP
HEATING SP COOLING SP
TIME
Figure 37.8 Interior/perimeter mixing loss
[Example 3] Investigating causes of too high room temperature (Fig. 37.8)
An occupant complaint for too high room temperature arouse in the system that contains an air handling
unit (AC1) with discharge temperature control and the heat exchanger in the secondary system of the heat
storage. A graph of related data to investigate the cause is shown in Figure 37.9. The discharge air
temperature of AC1 was always above the 15 set point. Chilled water entering temperature was always
37-10 AA-0019E
above 0 rated temperature. The temperature leaving the heat exchanger was always above the 9 rated
temperature. Temperature difference of the AC1 cooling coil and the temperature leaving the heat
exchanger were appropriate, therefore it can be assumed the high temperature at the heat converter primary
system was the primary cause of the occupants complaint. Capacity of the heat storage and chillers must
be investigated.
ROOM TEMPERATURE
ROOM TEMPERATURE SP
AHU
HEAT EXCHANGER
AC1DISCHAGE TEMPERATURE SP
TEMPERATURE
CHILLER
AC1CHILLED WATER INLET TEMPERATURE SP
HEX SECONDARY CHILLED WATER OUTLET TEMPERATURE SP
AC1 SUPPLY HEX SECONDARY CHILLED WATER

TEMPERATURE INLET TEMPERATURE
AC1 CHILLED WATER HEX SECONDARY CHILLED WATER
INLET TEMPERATURE OUTLET TEMPERATURE
AC1 CHILLED WATER
OUTLET TEMPERATURE
TIME
Figure 37.9 Temperature complaint cause
AA-0019E
37-11
37-12 AA-0019E
38. DESIGNING BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
38. DESIGNING BUILDING MANAGEMENT

SYSTEMS
GENERAL
BMSs are customized products that are designed and configured for individual buildings, and the size of a
system is becoming larger, and the system with tens of thousand points are not rare. Therefore,
understanding steps of system design is important from a productivity and quality viewpoint.
A BMSs is designed in the following steps:
Step-1: Network design
Select devices that configure the system and a network to connect those devices..
Step-2: Inputs/output (I/O) point design
Select all of the inputs and output points of the system. Specify the relationships between functions that
uses I/Os to monitor, control, and manage the system
Step-3: Graphic design
Define graphic in the monitoring PC including routes between graphics and related I/O points.
Each of above steps does not complete itself, return to precedent steps if necessary.
38.1 DESIGNING NETWORKS

Designing networks is to place devices that configure the BEMS at necessary location in the building and
connect these devices. Since the types of networking and devices depend on manufactures, this section
describes steps to design the IP network using a savic-net FX as an example.
(1) Drawing System Configuration Diagram
A system configuration diagram defines the number and connections of system configuration devices.
(Fig. 38.1)
MONITRING PC
Figure 38.1 System configuration
AA-0019E 38-1
(2) Determine Installation Locations and Specify Panels to Mount Devices.

1. A monitoring PC is installed in the central monitoring room.
2. System control panels contain management-level devices and are installed in the central
monitoring room.
3. Remote control panels contain DDCs that control individual equipment and are installed in the
mechanical room for the equipment.
REMOTE CONTROL
PANEL
SYSTEM CONTROL MONITORING PC
PANEL
( UTP CABLE CATEGOPRY-5 )
Figure 38.2 Panel installation
(3) Drawing Network Connection Diagrams (Fig. 38.3)

Define connection of devices.
1. Category-5 (un-shielded twist pair cable for 100 BASE-TX) is used for IP communication. Do not
lay cables near power lines to avoid noise. If the cable is longer than 70 m, use an optical fiber
cable. (100 BASE-FX)
2. Use a switching hub to switch between central and remote lines.
SWITCHING HUB SWITCHING HUB SWITCHING HUB
REMOTE CONTROL PANEL REMOTE CONTROL PANEL REMOTE CONTROL PANEL
SWITCHING HUB SWITCHING HUB SWITCHING HUB
REMOTE CONTROL PANEL REMOTE CONTROL PANEL REMOTE CONTROL PANEL
SWITCHING HUB
MONITORING
PC
SYSTEM CONTROL PANEL

Figure 38.3 Network wiring
38-2 AA-0019E
(4) Power Supply Plan

1. Devices in the system control panel must be powered by a UPS to avoid power loss.
2. Power backup for devices in the system control panel must be the same way as power backup for
equipment served by the device.
Important equipment such as power reception/distribution systems must be without power loss.
(5) Network Settings

Settings parameters for network such as IP addresses must be determined according to rules by the
manufacture or building.
38.2 DESIGNING INPUTS/OUTPUT POINTS

BMS information is defined as points so that it can be handled by control or energy management programs.
This section describes how to select and define I/O points.
(1) Selecting I/O Points

1. I/O points controlled by DDCs
Variables used in DDCs (e.g., controlled, manipulated variables, important control parameters)
are basically selected to be central points.
Define I/O points for DDC-controlled equipment.
2. Equipment that is not controlled by a DDC (e.g., exhaust fans).
Select I/Os according to necessity of the equipment.
3. Measurement points
Select inputs used for energy management or tenant billing.
4. Other sub-system interfaces
Large systems interface with other systems (e.g., electric system, fire alarm). Specify the
information from/to other sub systems as a point, if necessary.
(2) Allocating I/Os

Allocate I/Os to a DDC within the point capacity.
AA-0019E 38-3
Table 38.1 Input/output summary form
Input/output type Application
Input output range

Controller address
Graphic number
Display symbol
Remote panel
Point name
Optimum start/stop
Deviation alarm
High/low alarm
Status unmatch
No.
Power demand
Power failuyre
Time schedule
Free cooling
Measurment
Switch over
Totalization
Alarm level
Star/stop
Alarm
Status
Reset
OFF/
1 AC1 AHU 1 1 1 1 CP-1 10.001 5.001 100 2
ON
NML/
2 AC1 Filter 1 CP-1 10.002 5.002 11 2
ALM
AC1 Room
3 1 CP-1 10.003 C 0.0- 50.0 5.003 4
temperature
AC1 Room
4 temperature set 1 CP-1 10.004 C 0.0- 50.0 5.004
point
AC1 Room 0-
5 1 CP-1 10.005 %RH 5.005 4
humidity 100
AC1 Discharge
6 1 CP-1 10.006 C 0.0- 50.0 5.006 10 4
dew point
AC1 Discharge
7 1 CP-1 10.007 C 0.0- 50.0 5.007
dew point setpoint
OFF/
8 AC1 Free cooling 1 CP-1 10.008 5.008
ON
OPEN/
9 4F East locked 1 1 CP-2 30.001 5.009 1
CLOSE
OPEN/
10 4F West locked 1 1 CP-2 30.002 5.010 1
CLOSE
OPEN/
11 4F East lighting 1 1 CP-2 40.001 5.011
CLOSE
OFF/
12 4F West lighting 1 1 CP-2 40.002 5.012
ON
4F North exhaust OFF/

13 1 1 CP-1 10.009 5.013 101 3
fan ON
4F South exhaust OFF/

14 1 1 CP-1 10.010 5.014 102 3
fan ON
0-
15 4F Power CP-1 10.011 kWh 5.015
999999
38-4 AA-0019E
38.3 DESIGNING GRAPHICS

Monitoring is usually performed on graphics, therefore designing easy-to-operate graphics are important.
Also, designing graphics is one of the most time consuming works in configuring a system, therefore it
must be done efficiently.
Cautions for drawing each type of graphics are described as follow:
(1) Develop a Standard for Designing Graphics
As the capability of graphic software has advanced, almost any graphic can be made. Without a
design standard, it will result in graphics without consistency and visibility, and low efficiency for
drawing. Following are a example of a design standard.
1. Dynamic symbols
A dynamic symbol changes its color or shape according to start/stop or alarm status. Color or
shapes of dynamic symbols must be standardized.
2. Example of color: Chilled water is blue, hot water is purple red, and steam is dark red.
(2) Type of Graphics as follows;

The following are typical types of graphics. Select appropriate graphics to meet the purposes.
1. System schematics
Graphics that focus on system schematics (e.g., air handling units, heat sources, electric
distribution) and usually are displayed for the building operation personnel to monitor the
building equipment. In graphics for the heat source, important components such as headers,
must be included as well as heat source equipment such as chillers or pumps.
2. Floor plans
Expresses floors to identify the physical locations of equipment or sensors.
3. Vertical layouts
Expresses a building vertically to allow the building operation personnel to know the status of
important equipment such as AHUs in all floors at a glance. This graphic is convenient to see
running status of AHUs during after-work hours.
(3) Penetration Between Screens

Specifies routes to move between screens and quickly get information on related graphics. This
section explains penetrates between graphics using Figure 38.5 as an example.
1. In the floor plan, select a symbol to go to AHU.
2. Then the AHU system is displayed. Check whether or not there is abnormality of measured value (e.g.,
temperature, and relative humidity). If there is an abnormality, select a symbol to go to the related
heat source equipment.
3. The system displays the schematic for the heat source equipment. Check the condition of the heat source
equipment.
4. After checked, return to the precedent graphic by pointing the symbol.
AA-0019E 38-5
HVAC SYSTEM
(a) HVAC SYSTEM
AHU
(1) FLOOR PLAN SELECT
(b) HEATING/COOLING SYSTEM
(2) HVAC SYSTEM

SELECT
(c) POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
HEATING/COOLING
SYSTEM
FLOOR PLAN 4F
(d) FLOOR PLAN
LOWER
FLOORS HVAC LIGHTING
(3) HEATING/COOLING SYSTEM
(e) BUILDING VERTICAL

Figure 38.5 Screen penetration
Figure 38.4 Graphic types
38-6 AA-0019E
AA-0019E 38-7
Specifications are subject to change without notice.
Building Systems Company
http://www.azbil.com/
Rev. 2.0 Mar. 2013 AA-0019E

Fundamentals of Automatic Control For Building Systems

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Fundamentals of Automatic Control For Building Systems

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Fundamentals of

Automatic Control for

English translation by:

The original Japanese edition:

01. CHARACTERISTICS OF AIR ................................................................................................... 1-1

02. PID CONTROL 2-1

03. PSYCHROMETRIC CHART 3-1

04. SENSORS 4-1

05. CONTROL VALVES AND DAMPERS 5-1

06. STRUCTURE OF AIR HANDLING UNITS (AHUS) 6-1

08. ROOM TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEMS 8-1

09. TYPES OF AIR HANDLING SYSTEMS 9-1

10. ONE-COIL AND TWO-COIL AIR HANDLING UNITS 10-1

11. SYSTEM SCHEMATICS 11-1

12. TEMPERATURE CONTROL 12-1

14. OUTDOOR AIR CONTROL 14-1

15. CONTROLS RELATED TO START/STOP OF AIR HANDLING UNIT 15-1

16. CONFIGURAITON AND CONTROL PROGRAMS

17. ELECTRIC CONTROL SYSTEMS 17-1

18. ELECTRONIC CONTROL SYSTEMS 18-1

20. TEMPERATURE/HUMIDITY CONTROL FOR A VAV-AHU 20-1

21. FAN SPEED CONTROL OF VAV-AHUS 21-1

22. CONFIGURATION OF HEAT SOURCE SYSTEMS 22-1

23. TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF HEAT SOURCE EQUIPMENT 23-1

24. CHILLED/HOT WATER PINPING AND HEAT SOURCE SYSTEMS 24-1

25. PUMPS AND PIPING SYSTEMS 25-1

26. PRESSURE CHARTS FOR PIPING SYSTEMS 26-1

27. CONTROLS FOR CLOSED HEAT SOURCE SYSTEMS 27-1

29. CONTROL OF COOLING TOWERS 29-1

30. HEAT EXCHAGER (CONVERTER) CONTROL 30-1

31. SELECTING CONTROL VALVES FOR HEAT SOURCE SYSTEMS 31-1

32.SELECTING PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS AND FLOW METERS 32-1

33. CHILLER CONTROLLERS 33-1

34. PUMP CONTROLLERS 34-1

36. SYSTEM CONFIGURATION 36-1

37. SYSTEM FUNCTIONS 37-1

38. DESIGNING BUILDING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 38-1

01. CHARCTERISTICS OF AIR

01.1 INDOOR AIR QUALITY (IAQ) MANAGEMENT

Table 01.1 Indoor air quality management requirements

RETURN DUCT SUPPLY DUCT

CONDENSER COOLING COIL

AIR HANDLING UNIT

Figure 01.1 Air handling system overview

01.2 FLOW OF AIR AND WATER IN HVAC SYSTEMS

02. PID CONTROL

02.1 AUTOMATIC CONTROLS

Figure 02.1 Room temperature control

02.2 FEEDBACK CONTROL

SETPOINT ERROR (DEVIATION) MANIPULATION CONTROLLED

Figure 02.2 Room temperature control block diagram

Table 02.1 Terms of feedback control

02.3 STEP RESPONSES IN FIRST-ORDER-LAG SYSTEMS

02.3.1 First-Order-Lag Systems

K(J/C) = heat transmission coefficient through the wall

Figure 02.3 First order lag system

02.3.2 OPEN-LOOP STEP RESPONSES IN A FIRST-ORDER-LAG SYSTEM

1) Open-Loop Step Responses in First-Order-Lag Systems

since x K , x(T ) / x 0.632

2) Responses in various first-order-lag systems

02.4 PID CONTROL

02.4.1 PID control

ERROR MANIPULATED VARIABLE