Nature of Receivers

Electronic After the information signal is modulated, it is

then amplified, and then applied to an antenna
Communications Systems to be radiated and propagated into space.
The signal is then received (the little of whats
Chapter 4a: left of it) by a similar antenna.
Radio Receivers - Introduction
The weak signal is then amplified, filtered
from the unwanted signals, then demodulated
to recover the original information.

Types of Receivers Tuned Radio-Frequency Receiver

There are two general types of radio receivers: A simple, logical receiver.
Tuned Radio-Frequency (TRF) Receiver Has the advantage of being simple, and with
Superheterodyne Receiver high sensitivity.

1st RF 2nd RF AUDIO

DEMODULATOR
AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER

Ganged tuning

1
Tuned Radio-Frequency Receiver Tuned Radio-Frequency Receiver
A series of tuned amplifiers filter out the The filtered signal is then demodulated and
unwanted frequencies. fed to an audio amplifier.
ANT
Such a simple system did present some
RF Amplifier
R1
drawbacks:
Tuned circuit OUT
Selectivity at high frequencies is very impossible
T1 to maintain.
C1 C2
f
From: Q
BW

Tuned Radio-Frequency Receiver Tuned Radio-Frequency Receiver

Example: The AM broadcast band is from 500 kHz Filters have a fixed Q. If we choose the Q at the lower end, the 3 dB bandwidth at
the upper end is
to 1700 kHz. The bandwidth of an AM broadcast 1700 kHz
BW 102 kHz
signal is 30 kHz. Determine the required Q factor 16.667
for a bandpass filter at both ends of the AM band.
30 102
Answer:
At the lower end (fc = 500 kHz) At the upper end (fc = 1700 kHz)
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
500 kHz 1700 kHz
Q 16.667 Q
30 kHz 30 kHz 56.667
Which would be 3.4 times of the desired range of the intended signal bandwidth
(30 kHz).

2
Tuned Radio-Frequency Receiver Superheterodyne Receiver
Another disadvantage of the TRF is instability heterodyning process of combining two signals
due to a large number of RF amplifiers tuned to
the same center frequency (they are prone to
A great improvement over the TRF, especially
oscillations acting as resonators).
with high-frequency tuning.
Uses a fixed-frequency difference technique
to demodulate an incoming RF signal.
This fixed-frequency is called the
intermediate frequency (IF).

Superheterodyne Receiver Superheterodyne Receiver

The output frequency of the local oscillator is offset by
fr fo - fr
some value (the IF) from the RF circuits.
PRESELECTOR
RF
AMPLIFIER
MIXER
IF
AMPLIFIER
DEMODULATOR This produces a constant difference from the incoming
RF signal when fed into a mixer.
AGC

fo = fr + f

LOCAL mixer a non-linear RF device which takes in two signals

OSCILLATOR
of different frequencies with the following outputs:
Ganged tuning The frequency of the original signals
AUDIO
AMPLIFIER The frequency sum of the signals
RF SECTION The frequency difference of the signals

3
Superheterodyne Receiver Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver
The output of the mixer is a fixed frequency signal RF section
with the same modulation characteristics as the A radio receiver always has an RF section.
received signal. It is the part where the signals are still in the RF
The signal is then to the IF amplifier which is a range.
tuned amplifier set to the value of the intermediate It is a tunable circuit connected to the antenna
frequency. terminals.
It is used to select the wanted frequency and
reject some of the unwanted frequencies
Composed of an RF amplifier, the mixer, and
local oscillator.

Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver

The RF amplifier boosts the incoming signals for The combination of the mixer and local oscillator
the succeeding sections. provide superheterodyne tracking
VCC
OUT
The local oscillator is ganged tuned to the tuning
R2
T1 circuit in the RF amplifier.
ANT
C1 C3
Q1
C7 C9
Its output frequency is offset from the RF amplifiers
frequency by a fixed value.
C2 L1 R1 C4
R3 C6
The mixer takes the signals from the RF amplifier and
R4
LO and takes the frequency difference of the two.
+

C5 C8

BJT RF Amplifier

4
Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver
T3
C9 Vcc
C10
IF OUT
ANT R3

Self-excited mixer Separately-excited mixer C4

- Q1 operates as the RF amplifier, Q1 - Q1 operates as the mixer, while Q2 Mixer
oscillator, and mixer. operates as the oscillator. T2
T1 R4
T2 Vcc
Mixer
C9 C10
C1 C2 IF OUT
R4 ANT

R1 C3
C6 C7 C8
Pre-selector / C3 Q1 R2
C5 L1
Tuner T1
Q2
R1
Pre-selector / C1 C2
R2 Tuner C5
C4 R3 Oscillator C4 R3
tank circuit C8

Oscillator circuit

Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver

L1
Cc D1 Tracking is the ability of the local oscillator to
LO IN C2 IF OUT T1 T2

T1
RF IN IF OUT
produce a frequency either above or below the
RF IN C1 *D1 acts as
the mixer
selected radio frequency carrier by a fixed amount
R C
equal to the IF throughout the entire radio
LO IN frequency band.
Diode mixer Balanced diode mixer Since the resonant frequency of the LC filter in the
The output of the balanced mixer is the product of the two input frequencies
preselector must sweep the entire frequency range, and
vo (t ) sin(2 f RF t ) sin( 2 f AF t ) the local oscillator frequency must change along with it
With the trigonometric identity over a different (higher) range, there will inherently be
vo (t ) 12 cos2 f RF f AF t 12 cos2 f RF f AF t a tracking error between the two tuning circuits.
The frequency difference is the intermediate frequency (IF).

5
 Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver
The resonant frequency is inversely proportional to the Preselector
ANT
square root of the capacitance, while the local oscillator RF out
The main tuning (variable) capacitors
frequency must track it linearly. LO output (Cr and Co) changes the preselector
Because of this the tracking error is not constant across the frequency BPF center frequency and the local
T1 T2 oscillators resonant frequency across
tracking range. the tuning range. These capacitors
Tracking error is reduced by a technique called three-point Ct Cr
Co Ct
change together (ganged) to provide
tracking. The preselector and local oscillator each have a tracking.
Cs
trimmer capacitor in parallel with the primary tuning The trimmer capacitors (Ct) in
capacitor to compensate for minor tracking errors in the high Preselector parallel with the coil adjusts the
tuning of the preselector BPF and the
end of the band. The local oscillator also has a series oscillators resonant frequency at the
LO tank circuit
capacitor with the tuning coil to compensate for minor upper end of the tuning range.
tracking errors at the low end of the band.
The trimmer capacitor in series with
The tracking error is tuned to 0 Hz at three points along the the LO coil (Cs) adjusts the tracking
tracking range. at the lower end of the tuning range.

Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver

Rotor Common Example:
shaft
A The AM band is from 500 to 1700 kHz.
C C , CA Ctun
Compute for the minimum and maximum
d Stator
Rotor #1
capacitances for both the preselector and LO to
Stator #1 be able to tune across the entire AM band.
Shaft Cosc
Air dielectric variable capacitor
Answer:
Rotor Rotor #2
Upper plate (movable)
For the preselector:
d Stator #2
Lower plate
Stator Tuning range: 500 to 1700 kHz
A (static) Ganged capacitors
1 1 1 1
(overlapping area) Ctunmax Ctunmin
Ltun ( 2 f Cmin ) 2 Ltun (2 f Cmax ) 2
Fixed Variable
1 1 1 1

Miniature-type Trimmer Ltun [ 2 (500 103 Hz )]2 Ltun [ 2 (1700 103 Hz )]2
variable capacitor capacitor
1.013 10 13 8.765 10 15
How a variable capacitor works Ctunmax F Ctunmin F
Ltun Ltun

6
Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver
For the local oscillator:

Frequency range: 955 to 2155 kHz +5 Poor tracking

1 1 1 1 +4
Coscmax Coscmin
Losc (2 f rmin ) 2 Losc (2 f rmax ) 2 +3
Three-point

Tracking error (kHz)

+2 tracking
1 1 1 1

Losc [ 2 (955 103 Hz )]2 Losc [2 ( 2155 103 Hz )]2 +1
0 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
Ideal
14 15
2.777 10 5.454 10 tracking
Coscmax F Coscmin F 1
Losc Losc
2
3
The two capacitors change by different factors
For the preselector capacitor: For the local oscillator capacitor: along the tuning range (i.e. tracking error). 4
1.01310 13 2.77710 14
F F 5
Ctunmax Coscmax Losc Since the capacitors are ganged in a single
Ltun
8.76510 15
5.45410 15
Ctunmin F Coscmin F housing, the two capacitors have the same Tracking curve
Ltun Losc values, and will therefore change in the same
11.557 5.092 way. Thus there is a need for error
compensation.

Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver

Image Frequency Mathematically
Image frequency is any frequency other than the f im f LO f IF
selected radio frequency that, if allowed to enter a
receiver and mix with the LO frequency, will produce Since the LO frequency is offset from the desired RF
a cross product that is equal to the IF. by a value equal to the IF, then
Once an image frequency has been mixed down to IF, f im ( f RF f IF ) f IF
it will interfere with the actual IF and cannot be f RF 2 f IF
filtered out or suppressed.
The image frequency is a frequency which is offset 2fIF
from the LO frequency by a value equal to the IF.
fIF fIF

f
IF + IF RF LO RF
(image)

7
Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver
Image Frequency Rejection Ratio Example:
The ability of a preselector to reject the image frequency. Calculate for the minimum preselector Q for an AM receiver
It is the ratio of the gain at the desired RF to the gain at the with an IFRR of 40 dB.
image frequency. Answer:

IFRR( dB) 20 log 1 Q 2 2

f IM f RF 2 x 455 = 910
where: Range of image frequencies
f RF f IM 455 LO tuning range
Q preselector filter Q Preselector tuning range
(AM Band)

kHz
500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver

Example: Example:
Calculate for the minimum preselector Q for an AM receiver Calculate for the minimum preselector Q for an AM receiver
with an IFRR of 40 dB. with an IFRR of 40 dB.
Answer: Answer:
We use the upper end of the spectrum because that is where a
Images of lower
filter is less selective.
frequencies
f RF f IMG (2 455 kHz) f IMG f RF 1700 790

1700 kHz 910 kHz f RF f IMG 790 1700
790 kHz 1.687
Preselector tuning range Range of image frequencies
(AM Band)

kHz
500 1000 1500 2000 2500

8
Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver
Example:
IF section
Calculate for the minimum preselector Q for an AM receiver
with an IFRR of 40 dB. The output of the RF section is a signal whose
Answer: frequency is a fixed value (provided by the
difference in the tuned frequencies of the RF
From:

IFRR(dB ) 20 log 1 Q 2 2 Q
10
40
20
2
1
59.274 amplifier and the LO), called the intermediate
(1.687) 2
frequency.
One of the reasons for poor image frequency rejection
(low IFRR) in AM receivers is the fact that the image
This signal is fed to a fixed-frequency amplifier
frequencies lie within the tuning band. The IF amplifier should be steeply tuned
Should have a flat response over the signal bandwidth

Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver

Choice of IF frequencies IF Amplifier
The major factors influencing the choice of IF are: The IF amplifier is an amplifier with a tuned circuit at
Too high makes for poor selectivity (poor adjacent-frequency the input. It can either be single- or double-tuned.
rejection).
A high value for the IF increases tracking difficulties.
OUT
The IF must not fall within the tuning range of the receiver. fr
T1 1.0

IF in Q1
Frequencies used C2 L1 L2 C3
0.7 BW
Standard AM Broadcast: 438 465 kHz, (455 kHz most popular) R3 C1
AM, SSB, short-wave radio: 1.6 2.3 MHz
Standard FM Broadcast: 10.7 MHz Vcc
IF
Television: 41.25 MHz (audio) and 45.75 MHz (video)
Double-tuned IF amplifier Frequency response

9
 Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver
1.000
However, one IF amplifier is not selective enough. In
practice several IF amplifiers are connected in cascade
to increase selectivity (reduce bandwidth, increase Q).
0.707
To demod
T1 T2
C5 C9
BW for
IF in Q1 Q2 Q3
C3 C8 3-stage
L1 L2 L3 L4 IF amp
C1 C6
C6

BW for
2-stage IF amp
R1 C2 R2 C7
C4 R4
R5
R3
R5
BW for
1-stage IF amp

Vcc
fr
Three-stage IF section Effect of cascading amplifiers on filter response (bandwidth reduction).

Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver

If amplifiers use IF transformers, which are movable Demodulator / Detector / Discriminator
core variable inductors to tune the circuit.
This depends on what type of modulation is used
IF transformers are color-coded to indicate their
values. (AM, FM, e.g.)

IF transformer Internal schematic

10
Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver Parts of a Superheterodyne Receiver
Vcc
Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
Simple AGC is a system by means of which the Cc
R1 IF out
T1

overall gain of a radio receiver is varied IF in

Q1 IF in Demodulator To audio
amplifier

automatically with the changing strength of the R2

R3
C2

received signal, to keep the output substantially Rf

Ri
constant. R5

C1
The AGC circuit monitors the received signal
level and sends a signal back to the RF and IF IF amplifier
Inverting amplifier

amplifiers to adjust their gain automatically. Simple AGC employing negative voltage feedback

AM Receivers
Electronic Diode detector
The diode is by far the most common device used
Communications Systems for AM demodulation (or detection)
D
to audio
Chapter 4b: Q1
T1
amplifier
IF in R
C3 C
Radio Receivers AM circuits C2 L1 L2

R3 C1

Vcc

IF amplifier Diode peak detector

11
AM Receivers AM Receivers
The diode rectifies the incoming AM signal, ideal envelope
(modulating signal)
optimal (red)

resulting in a series of amplitude-modulated pulses. too low (violet)

too high (blue)
The pulses are then fed to an RC network that
functions as a hold circuit that maintains the
current value of the pulse until the next pulse.
In effect, the RC network traces the changes in
amplitude of the peaks (i.e. the AM envelope).
The ability of the RC network to properly trace the
Effect of RC time constant on envelope detection
signal peaks is dependent on its time constant.

AM Receivers AM Receivers
The RC network also acts as a low-pass filter. For 100% modulation, the numerator goes to
The slope of the envelope depends on both the zero, which means all the modulating signal
modulating signal frequency and the modulation frequencies are attenuated as they are
index (m). demodulated. However, in practice the
The highest modulating signal frequency than can modulation percentage never goes above 90%.
be modulated without attenuation is given as For a modulation percentage of 70.7%, the
equation simplifies to
where:
1 1 fmmax maximum modulating frequency, Hz
m2 m modulating index 1
f mmax RC time constant, sec f mmax
2RC 2RC

12
AM Receivers AM Receivers
As stated in the previous chapters, the spectrum of
an AM signal contains three main components: the 2

carrier, the upper sideband, and the lower sideband 1

(DSBFC). 0

The spectrum also contains the modulating signal, -1

but is too low in frequency (fc << fm) to be -2 fm fo fUSB fc fLSB

significant.
By using a low-pass filter, we can filter out the AM signal (time domain) Frequency domain showing the AM spectrum (frequency
components) and the effect of low-pass filtering.
high frequency RF components which leaves us
the modulating signal component.

13